Solar Thermal

Solar Thermal
Solar energy: 1/5
Goals of the module:

"Solar energy"
This module is a general bird’s eye view of the issues concerning the rise of greenhouse
gases concentration and the consequent global change. Here are several ways to exploit the
sun as a renewable energy resource.
Energy problem and renewable sources
Historical, political and economic analyses lead us towards two considerations: on one hand
when the development assures higher living standards on the other hand it contribute
significantly toward a continuous decay of the environment caused mainly by the exploitation
of the sources which cannot be renewed at the pace they are consumed.
Energy, bases and motor, on which community and technology depends, is necessary for all
the activities relating to human life; it is needed for movements, to make comfortable its
houses and cities and run industries where food and goods are produced.
From eight hundred onward needs of thermal and environmental comfort has been demanded
by political and social mass. The rapid increase of population, results of urbanization,
multiple economical and transport activities, increased industrialisation, have increased the
energy demand.
This enormous energy demand increases environmental problems with effects that are
modifying the dynamic equilibrium of natural cycles (oxygen, carbon, nitrogen), causing
perceptible changes in climate at both local and global level, on sea level and on atmospheric
circulation. Continuing generating energy through combustion of fossil fuels (90%), with
continuos decreasing capacity, means activating processes releasing ever increasing amounts
of carbon dioxide gas (CO2), methane (CH4), nitric oxide (N2O) causing low global
warming through greenhouse effect and acid rain, adverse effects against the health of
ecosystem.
Without radical changes in the near future we can expect the following scenarios:
• increasing Planet’s temperature: between 1,4° and 5,8°C within 2100;

• increased precipitation in the northern hemisphere and decrease of rain in the tropical
and sub- tropical regions;
• frequent and more intense extreme climatic events such like floods, hurricanes,
dryness.
• Increased danger of desertification;
• decrease of glaciers;
• increased sea level up to 0,88 meters within 2010.
First energy crisis of 1973 highlighted that energy sources not only could be considered
inexhaustible but, they are not distributed uniformly both geographically and politically, on
the planet.
The awareness of the need of facing environmental problems and at the same time to
guarantee a fairer social and economical development, has led several countries to undersign
political agreements at international level.
The last one, Kyoto protocol, binds the signatory countries to reduce as a whole by the year
2012, the percentage of main gas emissions, able to change the green house effect of the
planet (natural effect whose intensification and effect of gasses, as explained above,
determines overall increase of the global average temperature) to 5.2% in comparison with
the levels of 1990.
Diffusion of technologies allowing energy production through the use of renewable sources
and wide spread diffusion of techniques allowing energy saving, can contribute to improve
the environment without giving up the development comforts.
Solar energy: 1/5

Solar Thermal
Copyright ENEA e-LEARN 2005
Solar Thermal
Solar energy: 2/5
Solar Thermal in Europe
For many years, the electric energy need has been satisfied through large size production
plants, exploiting fossil fuels as primary source and the electric energy has been transported
using grids at different voltage levels. The future energy system will be based on centralised
power generation and its widespread territorial distribution. A method to reduce the negative
consequences of this centralized way of producing energy could be represented by
“distributed generation”.
The concept of distributed generation will provide us an opportunity to produce and efficient
use of energy both thermal and electrical, near the end-users with numerous advantages such
like reduced grid losses, low economic investment, environmental benefits and, above all,
ever increasing use of renewable energy sources.
Renewable energy sources
Renewable energy sources, different from fossil and nuclear fuels (surely to be depleted
over certain time period) could possibly be considered as virtually inexhaustible.
They include all form of energy generated with principle source of energy as the sun
energy on the earth:
• solar thermal energy;

• photovoltaic energy;
• hydro power;
• wind power;
• biomass energy;
• tidal and wave energy;
• geothermal (energy which is dissipated on the coasts by tides);
• energy from biomass wastes.
Solar energy: 2/5
Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Solar energy: 3/5
Sun and solar radiation
The Sun is a star of G class, among thousands of billion of stars composing our galaxy and
originated through gravitational collapse of gasses (above all hydrogen and helium) and
interstellar dusts.
The sun with a diameter of 1.390.000 km, is about 150.000.000 kilometres away from Earth.
Its internal temperature is about 20 millions degrees Kelvin and it decreases up to 5.760 °K
on the surface. It irradiates into space a power of about 3,84 * 1023 kW. This enormous
amount of energy spreads in space in all the directions.
The solar constant is the average amount of solar energy available on a sun-following unit
surafce area just outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1366
W/m2. The solar constant is not quite constant and it includes all types of solar radiation, not
just the visible light.
The radiation emitted by the sun travel through the space about 150 millions Km before
reaching the earth atmosphere. It further crosses about 15 Km of air and finally reaches on the
earth in the form of light and heat. However, human beings do not avail all the energy
irradiated from the Sun, in fact, it is partly reflected or refracted though the atmosphere.
Direct, diffused and reflected radiation
The radiation that reaches the earth surface can be distinguished as direct, diffused and
reflected. A device that collect and convert solar radiation into useable energy, will receive
not only the direct radiation with a determined angle of incidence, but also diffused one
coming from several angles and a third component being reflected from the ground, water
vapours and others.
The most important component is the direct one, that is incident directly; determined from
angle of inclination of the incident radiation: smaller the angle the radiation makes with a
horizontal surface, more is the air they have to pass through, more absorption and low power
intensity on the surface. Practically, the optimal position of the radiation absorbing surface is
when the angle of inclination is equal to the latitude of the place; orientation to South offers
maximum hours of exposition to the sun.
In addition, the change of location changes the ratio between diffuse and total radiation. An
increase of inclination of the absorbing surface decreases the diffuse component and
increases the reflected one. It is because of the above-mentioned fact that the inclination that
allow maximum collection of energy, varies from place to place.
Obviously, distance of sun from the earth, affects the intensity of incident radiation: intensity
of incident solar radiation on the most external layer of the atmosphere during the year does
not have a constant value because the earth, in its revolutionary motion around the Sun,
makes an elliptical trajectory, i.e. at a variable distance from Sun.
Taking into account the filter action as a function of terrestrial atmosphere and distance from
the Sun, evaluation of the inclination of the Earth’s axis is important, as well
Let’s consider, for instance, the winter solstice, that is the day of the year when Earth is
nearest to the Sun (vice versa during the summer solstice). It is different from the common
experience: the winter, in our hemisphere, is the coldest season. The above-mentioned can be
explained in terms of the inclination of the sun-rays due to the different position of Earth
during course of the year based upon the inclination of axis.
It is to be noted that only 51% of the total solar radiation incident on the outer surface of the
atmosphere, reaches the Earth surface. This amount is the global radiation. However, the
effective radiation transformed into energy amounts to nearly 47% (as about 4% of the
radiation is reflected off due to the groundwater).
Earth, absorb and convert the energy received from the sun into heat and, consequently, emit
this energy in the infrared region as long wave radiation.
Solar energy: 3/5

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Solar energy: 4/5
Conversion of solar energy
In order to make direct use of energy available from the sun, it is necessary to convert it
through a series of processes. Most common available technologies are:
• Biological conversion
• Photovoltaic conversion
• Thermal conversion
Biological conversion
The biological conversion of solar

energy occurs through process of
photosynthesis. Such reaction is
fundamental for life, because it allows
conversion of solar energy directly into
the chemical energy. Glucose obtained is
the fuel for the synthesis of high energy
content molecules, necessary for
metabolic processes of all living beings.
Thanks to this mechanism, nowadays,
we find underground fossil fuels; coal
from underground forests, oil and natural
gas from the decomposition of living
organisms.
The stored vegetal energy is demonstrated through the growth of plants, used as wood and
supply of various chemicals.
Photovoltaic conversion
The conversion of sunlight both direct and diffused to
electricity through the use of some materials (called
semiconductors) such like silicon and germanium.
Photovoltaic cell, a device able to convert light energy
directly into electrical energy is made of two thin layers of
semiconductor materials of different types, which, when
exposed to sunlight light, produce movement of electrons –
an continuos electric current. Photovoltaic cells, having no
moving components or circulating fluids, do not involve
material consumption and offer a high reliability.
Theoretically, their efficiency is about 24%, however, for commonly used cells, this value is
never more than 12-14%.
Thermal conversion
Thermal conversion of solar energy is based upon two

common processes Depending on the physical intrinsic
features, the first one is based on the ability of an opaque
surface to increase its temperature when exposed to the sun
rays whereas the second one is based on the “green-house
effect” a process that occurs inside the panel. A devices
able to absorb and subsequently convert solar energy into
heat at high efficiency is defined as “solar collector”.
Efforts are made to maximise the amount of solar energy
absorbed and minimise the heat loss from the collector.
Applications of solar thermal energy will be discussed in
the next modules. For additional information on solar
photovoltaic please refer course available on line.
Solar energy: 4/5

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Solar energy: 5/5
From sun to renewable sources
All the energy sources available on the planet have a common origin: solar irradiation.
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) made available through the transformation of organic
materials which without sun radiation (main resource for the process of photosynthesis)
would have never existed.
Hydro electrical energy that makes use of the waterfalls, could not be possible without the
evaporating cycle of water, which, in turn, fulfil its energy requirements through solar
energy. Without Sun, no wind and, thus, no wind energy.
So to conclude, all forms of energy, except the geothermal (one related to the tides) and
nuclear energy, directly or indirectly have their origin from star warming our planet.
All forms of energy are renewable in nature; difference lies how fast they are able to
regenerate. The fossil ones need million of years (in a short lapse of some hundreds, we are
consuming those sources whom composition required geological time). The other ones, more
appropriately defined as renewable (solar thermal, photovoltaic, hydroelectric, wind power,
biomass, etc.) being directly dependent upon the solar energy, when compared to the fossil
fuel, are abundant in nature.
Renewable energies available on earth (mainly due to solar radiation; 173.000 Terawatt-year)
is about 12.000 times more than the actual energy consumption worldwide. Nearly half of the
solar energy available is converted into heat on the earth surface and in the oceans, and
remaining lost in space as infrared radiation. Most of the remaining flux (on seas and oceans)
is being used for hydrological cycle thus generating Hydro power. Radiation that reaches the
earth surface can be collected in the form of solar thermal and photovoltaic energy.
Energy balance of solar radiation on the Earth
Summary of the module:

"Solar energy"
• Energy problem and renewable sources
• Solar Thermal in Europe
• Sun and solar radiation
• Conversion of solar energy
• From sun to renewable sources
Solar energy: 5/5

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Solar energy: test
It is the moment of the learning test concerning:
"Solar Energy"
Solar energy: test

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Solar thermal technology: 1/6

"Solar thermal technology"
This module is about Solar Thermal system as technology and Solar Cooling. This last one
is a new technology for rooms cooling which turns solar radiation into thermal energy.
Components of the solar thermal system and the running of the plants are also described, as
well as the main typologies of solar collectors, with an analysis of their structure and
running.
Solar thermal: an underestimated resource
Conceptually, solar thermal is the easiest technology for converting solar radiation into
thermal energy.
Exploitation of solar energy for thermal uses, for domestic hot water production or for
heating of buildings, aims at collecting the sunlight and its subsequent conversion into heat.
Talking about the thermal applications of solar energy as a way “to reinvent the wheel”
somehow, can be right. However, this huge resource has not been yet fully exploited. This is
especially true in Italy where the climate, essential for optimum use of this potential resource,
is excellent (a fact demonstrated scientifically). Generally, the amount of solar energy we are
able to collect in thermal form, is very small. In view of the fact that most of us, in practice,
especially in the summer season, make use of the plastic tanks to heat water to take bath or
other useful purposes, the above quantity could be increased by manyfold. However, though
new technologies are in course of development, there is a gap between the number of
available technical solutions, (thanks to the research) and the number of plants effectively
built.
A lot of solutions are still at the experimental stage, because, although the method looks so
easy, solar systems require great accuracy for both production and installation and
maintenance. (fare link of reference to successive model).
Solar thermal system devices
There are two types of solar thermal system devices depending on the temperature that can
be obtained by the heat transfer fluid (fare link or active glossario). The break point is the
100 °C temperature.
• low temperature devices work at temperature much lower than 100 °C.
• high temperature devices work higher than this temperature.
Low temperature systems are among the most common ones and they use water or air.
They are used for heating and for producing domestic hot water. On the other hand, high
temperature devices use particular capture systems, which are able to increase the
irradiation level in the absorber. They are made in order to generate electric power (by
means of turbines supplied through the steam produced by the plant) and they are often
used in industries for generating steam to use in mechanical work.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
How a solar thermal system is made up
A solar thermal system for generating domestic hot water consists essentially of a primary
circuit, made up of a piping system (inside the collector) exposed to the radiation absorbing
solar energy in the thermal form, and of a secondary circuit, where heat is transferred through
an heat exchanger placed in the storage system (boiler).
Usually, a solar thermal system, as listed below, is composed of four main componets, i.e.
• panel or solar collector

• storage tank
• regulation system (not always)
• piping system and a circulating pump (absent, in the case of natural circulation plant)
The “device” for energy conversion is the solar panel that absorb and subsequently convert
the solar energy into heat. The energy from the collector is transferred to the heat transfer
fluid (water) contained in the storage reservoir.
Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Solar system typologies: solar systems with natural and forced circulation systems
A primary distinction among the several technologies for converting energy can be made
depending on the kind of circulation of the fluid (primary circuit).
The primary circuit, in fact, can be a natural circulation system, and in this case the solar
collector has to be placed in a lower level than the storage system, or a forced circulation
system, i.e. mechanically driven.
In natural circulation solar system, circulation of the heat transfer fluid make use of the law
of physics, according to which hot water due to decrease of its density rises up and hence a
natural convection motion. For effective natural circulation, the storage tank should be placed
at higher position than the collector in such a way that because of the temperature difference
in both branches of circuit, fluid movements takes place easily.
Solar panels are connected to a serpentine contained in the storage tank. The heat absorbed by
the heat transfer fluid circulating in the panels warms the water in storage tank, which will be
utilized by users. The circuit between panels and reservoir is a close circuit. The fluid
contained in the circuit circulates as its is pushed upwards beacuse of the heat it contained,
enter in a tank positioned above the solar panels and finally transfer its heat to the water
contained in the storage.
In order to avoid the freezing of the circulating fluid (that can damage the plant) a mixture of
water and glycol, or another anti-frozen, is used (in the close circuit). In such type of plant,
because of natural circulation there is no need of a pumps or control room thus saving lot of
money related to maintenance and instrumental expenses.
The difference between a closed circuit system and an open circuit system is based on the
way the heat is transferred to the storage reservoir. In an open circuit system, the heat transfer
fluid that flows in the collector is the water meant for direct use (which reaches directly to the
network). This system is useful when there is no freezing problem.
In close circuit systems, a heat exchanger enables heat transfer of the convector fluid
outgoing from collectors (de-icer liquid) to the water in a storage tank. This system is used
where a de-icer mixture is necessary for facing low temperatures.
In a forced circulation system, where water storage tank is positioned at lower position than
the solar panel, hot fluid in solar panel is unable to provide sufficient energy to create
convective motion to the heat exchanger, which the storage tank contains, and for circulating
the hot fluid, an electric pump controlled by a solar room and some sensors, are used.
In this type of system, the solar panels are connected to a serpentine coil enclosed in a storage
tank (close circuit). The fluid contained in the circuit warms up thus making the control
sensor to work; the sensor send signal to a solar electric exchange power unit controlling an
electrical pump. The pump is activated and it pushes the warm fluid inside the coil that will
heat the water for its subsequent use.
The forced circulation system offers the advantages of a very flexible system, in fact, the
boiler can be inserted anywhere in the house, whereas the solar panels can be anchored in a
flat terrace or a pitch, and in other places exposed to South (such as gazebos, car parking
covering); furthermore, it offers the advantage of being suitable for small and big applications
(users) such as hotels, sporting centres, camping, and swimming pools.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal

Typologies of solar collectors
Solar collectors or solar panels can be of two types: Flat and concentrating.
Flat collectors are the simplest and most suitable solar device for for supplying heat at low
temperature (essentially for sanitary applications). They consist of a metal plate, processed in
such a way to guarantee the maximum absorption of incident radiation to heat the fluif
flowing through the collector (water, air, organic fluids or Freon).
The energy collected by the panel (both direct and partly diffused) and subsequently
contained in the circulating fluid is stored in the storage tank (boiler).
The flat plate collector in its easiest configuration consists of the following components:
• a transparent cover consisting of one o more sheet of glass or plastic placed above the
absorbing plate to minimize both thermal convective and the radiative losses between
absoring plate and the atmosphere.
• an absorbing plate consisting of a series of pipes (with convector fluid circulation)
that absorb the solar raditaion.
• a reflecting layer, forexample of Aluminium, to maximize the energy collection.
• Thermal insulation at the back to minimise the heat losses caused due to conduction
from the bottom of the absorber plate.
All these components are enclosed by an envelope – metallic frame, aapropriate measure to
protect the system from dust and humidity and water leakge etc..
Concentrating Collectors use optical systems (rotating

paraboloids) to increase solar radiation intensity on the
absorber to achieve higher temperature than the heat
transfer fluid thus enabling the system to use mechanical
energy either directly or through conversion into electrical
energy (solar thermodynamic system). These systems
(without use of diffused energy) require sun tracking
devices and use of advanced technologies for the
concentring optical system with subsequent increased
overall total cost.
In order to guarantee the maximum absorption of the incident energy, a good collector must
satisfy the following conditions, i.e.
• glas or plastic cover must be ttransparent at wave-length between 0,4 and 2,5 mm
• absorber plate exposed to the solar radiation must absorbs a great deal ofincident
radiation (but inevitably it warms up to temperature t<100°C thus emitting thermal
radiation in the wavelength that corresponds to the infrared;
• in order to reduce the heat loss caused due to convective motion of the air contained
in the solar collector, the distance between the transparent cover and the absorber
palte must be approx. 2,5, 4 cm. In fact, the cover mainly because of the greenhouse
effect, contain a part of the energy thus giving back to the plate about the 50% of the
energy which otherwiset would be irradiated totally towards the atmosphere.
• the absorber plate consist of a metallic plate made of selective coating λ(i.e. with low
emission of radiation for wavelength >3mm) from surface exposed to the solar
radiation. This could be achived using selective coating with optimal characteristics
for the absorption of solar radiation.
Following types of collectors are available in the market:
• usually with an absorber surface of about 1,5 – 2,0 mq.

• Plastic solar collectors: they consist of only plastic pipes to unroll in the place
where they are used, they don’t need even a tank; they are the cheapest ones and
they are the most diffused in the market, above all for holidays uses (holidays
houses, swimming pools, camping, bathing establishments)
• Vacuum solar collectors; they usually consist of an absorber surface (made of
copper pipe) inserted in vacuum tubes made from tempered glass; in these pipes a
fluid is inserted (generally ether) that through evaporation/condensation cycle,
releases heat to a convector fluid licking up the evaporator surface; generally each
element has a surface of 0,1 mq.
• Storage solar collectors. the particular aspect of this type is that it has not a true
solar panel, but the storage surface itself works as solar collector since it warms
directly the contained water.
• Air collectors are similar to the glazed collectors except the fact that in solar air
heater, the heat transfer fluid is the air flwing between glass and absorber or
between absorber and panel bottom.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Advantages and potentialities of solar thermal energy
Economical and environmental considerations are the important factors for the wide spread
utilisation of a solar plant. Certain advantage such as Less environment pollution and energy
saving are the certain advantages a community can generraly benefit while using solar
energy.
Economic advantages
In order to justify both the installation of a solar thermal system and its economic advantage,
it is necessary to determine, above all, the payback period of the investment.
The number of years necessary to recover the investment are calculated dividing the expense
by the maximum yearly saving obtained through the production of hot water using solar
energy.
The saving from a solar thermal plant, in addition, to enviromental benefits depends mainly
on the cost of alternate energy used for water heating and varies according to the kind of
energy used (electric, methane, diesel, carbon, others) national energy policies and the prices
trend.
On average, cost of a single family solar water heater to produce hot water is around 1.500 –
2.600 Euro. The sais cost could be ammortized over a period of 3-5 year whereas the life of
the plant may indicate 15-20 years with annual maintenance cost of the order of 2% of initial
cost of the plant. It is to be remembered that a boiler (electric or methane) nver repays as
there is always a bill to pay. Needless to say that more a solar plant is used more economic it
will be. On the other hand if the hot water requirement is too small perhaps it would be better
to use eithr an electric or gas run boiler.
Advantages for environment
Concerning the environmental advantage, the substitution of an electric water heater with a
solar system allows to avoid the emission of about 2,5 tons of carbon dioxide in a year.
The substitution of a gas water heater with a solar system allows to avoid the emission of
about 2,0 tons of dioxide in a year.
Potentialities
Costs and performance of a solar thermal system vary according to the type of the collector
installed. (The type of solar thermal collectors varies substantially in terms of their overall
performance and cost). collector Furthermore, since solar energy is an aleatory source on
Earth surface, solar thermal collector, realistically should be considered integrative with
respect to the conventional technologies. They must be considered capable to provide directly
only a part of the energy requiremnt by the users, energy otherwise generated by the
conventional boiler. The percentage of thermal energy produced by a solar thermal collector
per year is defined as the recovery factor of thermal energy need.
In Rome, a system with optimum ratio for costs/ energy produced, this factor doesn’t exceed
65%. This is a common limit for most of the technologies based on renewable sources, often
characterized by aleatory or periodic availability.
For this reason, with the increase of overall dimensions of the plant, recovery factor of the
thermal load increases but the ratio between cost of energy and the energy produced remains
to be linear up to 55%÷60%. Exceeding this value, costs increase linearly with the size of the
plant, while the power generated, hence, capacity of the solar system, increases but at a lesser
rate, leading to higher cost for surface unit of collector. For this reason, a solar thermal
collector for DHW, suitably dimesioned, is planned to satisfy about 60÷65% of thermal
needs.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
When, where and how opting for solar thermal system is advisable
The sun, we can say, reaches everywhere. It does not mean that exploiting all its benefits is
easy. Questions about where and when installing panels for exploiting hot rays, are ceratinly
a metter of thorough consideration. That they work better in latitudes near the equator is an
intuitive fact. More, in particular, considering horizontal panels placed in two geographical
extremities, such as, for example, a North European country and one of the deserted African
area, it can be observed that the ratio is 1 to 4. Just to say, if in Sweden available energy is
2kWh/day, in ali they have about 8. The performance of the solar thermal system depends, in
addition, on the temperature to be attained and its use in different seasons.
Concerning the first point, it must be observed that more the temperature of the heated fluid
more are the heat losses to the surrounding. The efficiency of the collector tend sto decrease
and – or to vanish. More the temperature of the fluid, the system will be able to make the
speed of loss equal to the absorbing one. Every collector, then, has its “limit of maximum
temperature”, at which it is able to collect thermal energy.
Instead so far the seasonal use is concerned, the distinction is made between the users who
needs the hot water throughout the year and other who instead make use of the solar thermal
system only in sumer. In the later case, it is advisable to choose simple and thus more
economic solar thermal system.
In a season with plenty of sunshine, glazed collectors, in fact, are not necessary. In view of
the fact that for about half the time solar collectors work at low temperature than the ambient
temperature, experineced shows that simply the plastic collectors can serve the prupose.
The opportunity of using solar panels can be decided according to several situations leading
to adoption of different solutions. Every household or a building can have definite advantages
with possible substitution of existing water heating system powered by electricity or gas with
that of a solar water heater. Considering the simplicity, lower costs and highly efficient
(mainly in summer season with maximum availability of solar radiation) solar collectors will
certainly be a potential option, especially, during summer hilidays in the isolated areas.

"Solar energy"
• Solar thermal: an underestimated resource
• How a solar thermal system is made up
• Solar system typologies: solar systems with natural and forced circulation systems
• Typologies of solar collectors
• Advantages and potentialities of solar thermal energy
• When, where and how opting for solar thermal system is advisable

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Solar thermal technology: test
"Solar thermal technology"
Solar thermal technology: test

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Applications of solar thermal energy: 1/6

"Applications of solar thermal energy"
This module shows the main application areas for solar thermal energy, including the
advantages and the best ways for a proper installation.
Heating and ventilation
Use of solar thermal energy for buildings is becoming more and more common with
numerous applications. Beside its simple application to produce sanitary hot water, largely
practised over the last many years, both air systems for preheating of air in big rooms and
combination of solar systems with heat pump systems for low temperature heating of the
buildings, are other important applications. Such types of plants use floor or a radiant heating
system. Development of solar cooling technologies both for cooling (through absorption
refrigeration machine) and treatment and dehumidification of the ventilation air (through a
desiccant system) is the most innovative aspect. In conclusion, use of solar thermal energy
find a variety of applications in different energetic systems with respect to the building, and
its use is spreading even during the periods characterised by high solar insolation radiation,
consequently with improved economic aspects.
Sanitary water heating
With use of solar collectors of the types as mentioned above, it is possible to produce hot
water. Such types of systems are more appropriate for a single-family and, especially, at the
community level appears to be a viable application. They can replace electric energy, natural
gas; in the first two cases, solar energy can help and allow considerable savings, while for
natural gas amortization of the investment is a little bit longer.
Domestic hot water

The amount of electric energy used to meet household hot
water requirements could be reduced by possible use of a
solar water heater system. A variety of solar collectors
available in the market can be used to provide most of the
water heating needs. From economic point of view it is
advisable to install a solar water heating unit common for
the whole residential block with number of flats. In fact,
higher is the number of the users, more cheaper will be
the subdivision of the thermal load in several tank. Solar collector installed on a roof
So far residential applications are concerned it is easy to choose a suitable configuration

among the below listed possible options:
• water heater with uncovered collectors;

• water heater with storage tank;
• custom built solar water heater;
• factory made solar water heater.
Common buildings and industries
Having a shower or bath?
Certainly, it is not the case with offices without proper and favourable climatic conditions for
the exploitation of solar collector. However, the same could be an potential application in
case of hotels, especially during summer. Holidays and excellent weather conditions certainly
favour to take bath thus offering such applications the maximum benefits possible.
Bathhouses, camping, hotels, gyms, sport facilities and old houses have maximum potential
for the use of solar panels. Naturally, the size of these plants is different from the ones for the
family uses. In common buildings, average need (approx. 50 litres per person each day) is
less than the ones of a single house.
But there are cases, such as, luxury hotels, where the use of hot water is four times higher
than the average, or sport facilities that consume 25-30 l per person each day. Showers and
washbasins are not the only elements to be considered. In fact, energy being an important
factor of industrial growth could easily be furnished by solar collector. Also, solar water
heating technology could be used to heat water for cleaning, cooking and washing, in
launderettes and restaurants.
The problem is that, usually, they are in the ground floor of a more complex building.
Nevertheless, there are other cases such like tanneries or cheese factories which are more
suitable for the use of solar panels which don’t have any space limit. To make leathers and
cheese, in fact, thousands of hectolitres of hot waters are needed. There is no doubt that,
especially, during summertime, the saving due to the thermal solar energy is very important.
Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Types of plants for the production of hot water depending on its use
A large amount of sanitary water heating in the urban areas, is mainly produced by electric
water heaters and gas boilers. The production of sanitary hot water through electric energy
when compared to the production through gas boilers, is certainly an expensive process both
in terms of economy and environment
The introduction of a thermal solar collector to replace part of the heat produced, has many
benefits. The below listed possible options, i.e. the integration of an active solar collector
with an already existing sanitary water heating systems could offer both the energy economic
and environmental benefits.
Three possible solutions:
1. replacement of an electric water heater with an integrated gas/solar system (involve

many small sized domestic and public users which so far have not confronted the
problem and, consequently, could be incentivated financially for the replacement of
the electric water heater).
2. integration of pre-existing gas system with a solar plant (foresee minimum
integration cost). In fact, the users who satisfy their hot water demand using gas,
could easily save up to 60% of the gas consumed annually through use of a solar
thermal system)
3. integration of electric system with a solar plant ( it concerns situations where the
heating system cannot be electric (for instance, nomad settlement or first aid
shelter).
For other solutions, an energy and environmental balance (in terms of avoided CO2
emissions) will be made. Energy analysis: calculation of the pro capita energy requirement.
On average, each day 50 l/per capita of sanitary hot water at 45°C is used, in Italy. Assuming
an inlet water temperature of 15°C (from the water supply system), the pro capita thermal
energy (Q) required to satisfy the above-mentioned hot water demand can be calculated using
the expression; Q = G.Cs.(Tu -Ta)= 50.1.30 = 1,500 kcal/day,
where:
• G = amount of water to be heated (litre)
• Cs = specific heat of water (kcal/litre-°C)
• Tu = Outlet temperature of water (°C)
• Ta = inlet temperature of the water from the water supply system (°C).

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Production of hot water with electric boiler
In this case, use of thermal energy to produce hot water undergoes a double transformation.
During first phase, it is necessary to produce electric energy (generally in thermoelectric
stations, rarely in hydroelectric ones). The generated electric energy, then supplied to the
users, again has to be converted into thermal energy.
On average, a family of 4 persons thus uses about 7 kWh/day of electric energy for the
production of hot water. But it is to be noted that to produce each electric kWh, nearly 2,45
kWh of primary energy is used in an electric power station, in Italy.
Considering this double conversion of primary energy into electric energy and from electric
energy into thermal one, it is evident that, for the production of the above-mentioned hot
water, 4,5kWh (3,870 kcal) of primary energy, is necessary.
In this way only 35% of the used primary energy is effectively used by the user.
Production of hot water through gas boiler
Obviously, a gas boiler has higher direct energy yield. It is mainly because of the reason that
it avoids the energy consuming conversion from thermal energy into electric energy (in the
power station). For this reason the global yield is around 85%.
The heat generation and subsequent water heating occurs through the direct combustion of
methane. To generate 1,500kcal/day/person, approx. 1,765 kcal (2,05 kWh) of primary
energy is needed, each day.
Comparing the energy consumption among the aforementioned cases
The following picture shows the result of the comparison among the energy required for the
production of sanitary hot water through an electric water heater, through a gas boiler,
through a gas boiler/thermal solar collector system and a electric water heater/thermal solar
collector system.
The system with gas boiler integrated with solar collector has 0,5 kWh pro capita energy
consumption, with about 90% reduction in the energy consumption when compared to the
electric water heater one (4,5 kWh).
In comparing the system based on the integration of the solar collector with a gas boiler and
the very boiler, the consumption decreases from 2,05 kWh with boiler alone to nearly 0,5
kWh for the integrated system. A hot water system integrated with solar collector has a
energy consumption of 1,13 kWh (4,5 kWh for the electric water heater).

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Rooms heating
Sometimes it can be useful and convenient supporting a conventional heating system with
solar panels.
As the efficiency of a solar panel decreases

with increase in temperature of the heat
transfer fluid, it could contribute in the case
of thermosyphon heating. An higher
efficiency will be possible if solar panels will
be used to supply heat with floor heating
system (where low temperatures are needed)
or through possible heating of inlet air to the
buildings both with the use of solar air heaters
and solar water heater with radiator
exchanger.
Functional scheme of a plant for the
generation of medical hot water and heating
Contrary to what occurs with radiators exploiting convective air moment, radiant tubes work
thanks to the thermal exchange due to solar radiation occuring among surfaces with different
temperature. The heat diffusion through radiant terminals provide important advantages and
efficiently combine itself with the low temperature heat generation.
In the residential buildings there is generally a wide choice concerning the radiant surface
among floor, roof and walls. If the thermal solar system , besides providing hot medical
water, has to integrate the heating system of a house, this last one has to be equipped with a
low temperature heating system , built through radiant surfaces: tubes under the floor, in the
walls or with a roof thermostrips where the water flows at 30-35° C. the tubes where the
thermocarrier fluid flows are built with plastic material or copper and have several sizes (
diameters between 15-20 mm for the tubes, about 3 mm for capillary tubes). Their placing
can be made through a fastening on panels for plaster or metal false ceiling, or through the
laying on the surface of intrados of the floor.
Concerning the choice of the size of the
components, in order to get a faster feedback of the
plant and a higher uniformity of emission, close
capillary tubes (about 1 cm of wheel base) are
preferred. Considering a temperature change of 6-
8° between there and back, average heating fluid
temperature is about 33°. With these conditions ,
the yield is about 70 W/m2. For the cooling,
instead, the average temperature is 19° C. In this
case , the thermal power that the system takes away
from the environment is up to 40 W/m2.
The limits on temperature and power one are defined by the possibility of surface
condensation of the radiant surface.
Generally, it is impossible to heat 100% a house only with solar panels: a supporting boiler is
always necessary, but the presence of the solar system allow less gas and gas oil
consumption.
The solar tank (A) has a mushroom shaped internal tank, containing water aimed for sanitary
purposes. The water where the mushroom shaped tank is plunged flows inside the tubes of
the floor heating (B) thus heating the rooms.
Also, it is possible to think of a combination between collector air system (solar wall) and
radiant floors, for example, through an air-water exchanger.
Radiant floor

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Central heating
In cases where heating is already foreseen with conventional systems, use of solar panels
installed along with centralised thermal production unit, proved to be very affective. Solar
panels can meet up to 15-20% of total requirements of heat for a year.
Pools
Irrespective of their both location (outdoor or indoor) and season (summer of winter),
swimming pool heating is an important and wide spread application of solar collectors. This
is mainly because of the reason that such an application coincide with period of maximum
solar energy availability. Having no need of a storage system, low thermal load requirement
and easy to install/dismantle low cost solar panels made of plastic or rubber materials, are
other salient features of the application.
Anyway, the main reason for the wide spread diffusion of this application is the low water
temperature that could easily be obtained using cheap and less complex polypropylene solar
collectors.
For affective and efficient utilisation of solar heating

system it is important that swimming pool be positioned
appropriately. Moreover, due consideration be given to
avoid rapid cooling due to surface evaporation The
performance of a swimming pool located outside can be
affected significantly (rapid cooling of the pool due to
surface evaporation) if due attention is not being paid to the
wind exposure. Water conditions in an indoor pools
remains stable provided the temperature is around 28°,
ventilation on the surface of the water is 0,2 m/s and
humidity in the air is less than 70%.
Once these parameters are satisfied, solar technology with lower operational cost compared to
the conventional system and possible amortisation period of less than tow years, can work
successfully. In the swimming pools, collectors are placed not very far from the pool, with an
extension equal to half the length of the pool.
Agriculture
Solar drying of agricultural products (using hot air from solar air heater) is an easy to use and
economic application of solar energy. This is, especially, true in the countries where process
of slow drying with natural air, depending upon the weather conditions, may last for a
number of days. Also, a considerable amount of conventional energy could be saved by
possible application of solar thermal collectors in the greenhouses, generally, characterised
by high energy consumption.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Cooling: solar cooling
It is an application with more complex technologically compared to the previous ones, where
heat generated by collectors able to achieve high efficiency at high temperature, is used by a
heat absorption pump to generate cool air.
It is an application “linked” to the best solar radiation, as it is used almost only in summer. At
the same time, using reversible machines, system is able for the space heating in the winter,
as well.
Thermal energy absorption engines for air cooling and conditioning are currently object of
renewed scientific and industrial attention. This is true especially after a period of strong
interest and attention focused on compression machines, generally, characterised by high
energy efficiency. Over the last couple of years, in fact, an energy policy boosting the
exploitation of waste heat available for cogeneration and solar cooling, has got attention of
the scientific community both in Italy and other countries. An incentive for the use of natural
gas as primary energy source has been foreseen, in Italy.
Both circumstances favour use of refrigerating engines with thermal energy absorption.
Particularly, in the case of direct flame engines for summer conditioning, it is possible to
reduce the seasonal imbalance in gas consumption. Another reason for this new attention is
its potential to address the environmental problems: absorption engines can work with fluids
without any negative consequences for the environment, and some of them, particularly, have
almost zero emission of the greenhouse gases.
Generally, they can work using methane, with limited polluting emissions compared to other
fuels or with waste heat or solar energy thus helping to achieve the most important objective
to safeguard our environment.
The results obtained from the research conducted on the absorption refrigerating engines over
the last few years have helped to fill the gap between the efficiency of an absorption cycle
and a compression cycle thus providing the same effect ( quantity of taken away heat). The
choice of the refrigerating-absorbing substances coupling is quite wide. Amongst possible
options, ammonia-salts, methylamine- salts, alcohols- salts, ammonia- organic solvents,
sulphur dioxides- organic solvents, halogenated hidrocarbons- organic solvents, etc., are the
most used coupling. In fact, : lithium bromide-water and water-ammonia have selected for
close examination
External conditions having significant affect on the performances of the engine, especially,
for the evaluation of seasonal yield of a refrigerating engine, needs to be evaluated seriously.
This aspect is really important for small sized engines which, for economic reasons, don’t
have adjustment system.

"Biomass"
• Heating and ventilation
• Types of plants for the production of hot water depending on its use
• Production of hot water with electric boiler
• Rooms heating
• Central heating
• Cooling: solar cooling

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Applications of solar thermal energy: test
"Applications of solar thermal energy"
Applications of solar thermal energy: test

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Construction of a solar thermal plant: 1/20

"Construction of a solar thermal plant"
The module shows the steps concerning the solar thermal plant installation, from the
planning and the analysis of environmental data and energy demand to the solar collectors
installation and plants maintenance. Criteria for the plant design are considered, with
particular attention to analysis method and f-Chart software. Advantages and potentials
concerning thermal solar system use and its obligations and regulations are pointed out
Preliminary phases
After acquiring through knowledge about the know-how and possible uses of solar systems,
we will try to concentrate on their installation and associated relevant phases. The
construction of a thermal solar plant must foresee the following phases which are
fundamental for the proper design planning:
• preliminary collection of climatic, geographical and building data;

• analysis and quantification of the energy requirements of the user;
• sizing of the components of the plant.
Elements to know at the moment of the planning of the plant
The right place
For the energy yield, the place where a collector is installed (on the roof or in the garden) is
not very important. On the contrary, orientation and the inclination of the collector has a
direct effect. The standard inclination is 30° at the Southern Europe latitude..
Higher angles increases the energy that the panel is able to receive on its surface during
winter months compared to the summer ones.
It is also important that the panels are not shadowed by chimneys, trees or surrounding
buildings. Problems arising due to unfavourable climatic conditions, no doubt, could be
resolved with suitable increase in the collector surface area but certainly not without
additional economic investment.
To make sure that the offer of the installer is complete. A complete offer includes, besides the
supply and the assembly of the very solar plant, also electrician works (electric connection)
or other works (tinsmith, house painter, bricklayer). Ask for information concerning reference
plants (previous experience of the installer).
Ask for warrant
With a guarantee concerning the performances of the panels, the installer attests the solar
plant ++ rispetta lo stato della tecnica and that the works will be made in conformity with the
requirements of the existing technical set of rules.
Compare the offers
Compare the several offers. A bigger solar collector no doubt cover higher fraction of energy
requirement from solar energy but the fact remains that they are also more expensive. When
comparing, it is important to consider aspects as the guaranteed performance and collateral
works.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Initial collection of climatic, geographical and building data
A series of fundamental data for a proper plant project has to be defined:
• data about the solar radiation available on the oriented and inclined surfaces;
• climatic and meteorological data;
• data about the communal urbanistic set of rules: building standards, density;
• data concerning the user;
• data concerning the building where the plant has to be built, architectural, dimensions,
and structural characteristics;
• data about the pre-existent heating system for sanitary hot water;
• taking into consideration the shadows due to surrounding buildings or vegetation
during all seasons;
• analysis of short time local policies for the management of the area close to the
building, as other buildings could later be built , causing problems to the collector
(shadows) or having other negative impacts on the system.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Analysis and quantification of the users energy requirements
First of all it is necessary to be aware of the exact consumption of hot water by residents and
have an idea about the wastes, to formulate a hypothesis of energy saving.
The number of people living in a building could be an indication for the hot water
requirements. Generally, the pro capita daily consumption is between 30 and 50 l of hot water
(45°).
Gas bill is another element for checking the consumption. If it is not possible to get a reliable
data from the bill, it is important to find out the habits of the residents concerning the use of
hot water, use times, hours characterised by high consumption, in order to define a trend of
daily and seasonal consumption. If the figures diverge from the foreseen consumption, it is
necessary to understand the possible reasons for the wastes.
The thermal need for hot water generation is not constant during the year and it depends on
the number of the people in the building and on their habits. For a proper planning of the
plant, it is important to know the quantity of hot water used each day and the trend of
consumption in the several periods of the year (load program).
A close analysis of the hot water wastes can be decisive for the reduction of consumption and
consequently, for the reduction of plant costs. After the estimation of the consumption, next
important phase is the system sizing. There are three planning hypothesises:
• to gauge the system on the basis of the coldest month;

• to gauge the system on the basis of the intermediate month;
• to gauge the system on the basis of the hottest month.
The three cases are schematised in the diagrams (exposition simplicity, thermal load has been
considered to be constant)
Diagram showing the planning hypothesises
• In the first hypothesis, total coverage of building thermal requirements are guaranteed
from solar plant only. However, it is, however, to be noted that to cover the thermal
load fully, the solar system has to oversized for almost all seasons and part of the
energy generated will be wasted, especially, during the summer.
• In the second solution better ratio between the use factor of the solar system and the
installation cost needs to be considered.
• In the third hypothesis, system is sized on the basis of the month with the highest
levels of solar radiation. There is a scarce coverage of the hot water requirements, and
so the total coverage of the thermal requirements through the solar plant is possible
only for a month each year and for the rest an additional systems is to be provided.
Making reference to a month for calculating the area and the sizing of the additional system, a
greater amount of thermal energy will be generated during hottest months, while in the
coldest ones, additional system will be needed to cover the deficit; in this case , the thermal
energy collected using solar collectors will pre-heat the water before its entry into the boiler
of the additional system.
The integration factor is the fraction of thermal energy that the additional system must
provide to the system. In the plants for sanitary hot water generation, integration percentage
ranges from 40 to 70%.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Planning
The planning phases of the absorbing device, once general scheme of the plant is finalised,
can be represented by the following points:
• energy sizing;
• selection of the type of collector;
• determination of the size of the absorbing surface;
• check on the orientation and inclination of the collector;
• supporting structure;
• hydraulic connection;
• requirements of the components of the collector device;
• graphic printout ;
• project’s verification.
The first four points are going to be dealt in detail while the other five points will be
explained in the following module concerning installation.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Dimensioning of a solar water heater
sizing of the plants and thermal loads they have to cover, is the main topic of this paragraph.
In particular , cases of the sanitary hot water production and water for room heating will be
considered. The goal is to define the area of the solar collector needed to cover the load. The
method of calculation and F-Chart software (which is one of the more spread and validated
method for both check and project calculation) will be mentioned.
Loads determination
In the case of sanitary hot water, it is necessary to have information on its possible uses:
home, hospitals, hotels, barracks, etc. The following table shows reference load for most of
the interesting cases.
Concerning thermal load for rooms heating, a first estimate (it doesn’t consider the
contributions of solar radiation, people, lights, working interruptions, contributions
decreasing the effective load), is given by the following formula:
E = Cg · V · DD · 24 · 3600 (Joule)
where:
• E = heating load
• Cg = global volume dispersion coefficient
• V = heated gross volume
• DD = degrees days (°C)
and:
Cg = Cd + Cv
Cd, depending on the heat loss from walls as well as windows, is given by the formula:
Qc
Cd =
V (Tin − T prog )
Where Qc is the building thermal load (W). Inside and outside temperature of the project are
given by Tin and Tprog. Cv depends on the air changes and it’s given by
Cv = 0,34 · n
where n stands for the number of time changes. In America CgV replaces UA (W/°C).
DD, the degree days are given by the formula:
(
DD = ∑i 20 − Tai )
+
The summation is for the whole heating period,
Tai
is the average value of the room temperature of I-DAY and + shows that only the terms with
positive-positive
20 − Tai
are considered.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Sizing criteria
Sizing the plant and, especially, the collectors, on the basis of the most unfavourable
conditions will lead to an inconceivable overdimensioining of the system, as a systematic
underutilization of the collector area will occur, especially, in winter with minmum solar
energy available. In addition, cost of a basic component of a solar water heating system, i.e.
collector still being too high, from economic point of view, to choose a solar water heating
system compared to an conventional plant, is quite different In fact, in the solar plant, sun
usually doesn’t provide the totality of the energy needed and so the rest needs to be provided
by a standard auxiliary source.
It is therfore evident that the sizing of a solar plant is not only a technical matter rather both
economic and technical matter.
From a technical point of view, it is important to know what fraction of annual thermal load a
solar plant is able to meet . The share of useful energy collected depends on several
parameters, first of all the efficiency of a solar collector which in turn depends on the overall
characteristics of the collector used, temperature of its use, orientation and inclination of the
collector (this last is fundamental to optimize the performance), solar radiation, outside
temperature and wind speed.
A rational planning of a solar plant needs an accurate estimate of the useful energy the plant
can provide, and this calculation can be made through several methods, among which F-
CHART is the most used.
Loads for production

L/DAY MJ/DAY KWh/DAY L/DAY NOTE
HOUSE 50 6,9 1,92 -
PER
HOSPITAL 60 8,29 2,30
BEDPLACES
REST HOUSES 40 5,52 1,53 -
SCHOOLS 5 0,69 0,192 -
BARRACKS 30 4,14 1,15 -
INDUSTRIES 20 2,76 0,767 -
OFFICES 5 0,69 0,192 -
CAMPINGS 30 4,14 1,15 PER PERSON
LUXURY 160 22,1 6,14 PER ROOM
HOTELS
CHEAP HOTELS 100 13,82 3,84 PER ROOM
GYMS 35 4,84 1,34 PER USER
PER WASHED
LAUNDERETTES 6 0,83 0,23
KG
RESTAURANTS 10 1,38 0,38 PER MEAL
BARS 2 0,27 0,076PER ORDER

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
F-chart method
F-CHART method is a semi-empirical method, which is able to provide good results with
limited calculation time, simulating all the components of the plant (collectors, storage tank,
heat exchanger) with dynamic models which solve equations concerning mass and energy
conservation for each component (for a general estimate)
F-CHART method, which is often used because it provides good results for certain types of
solar systems, has been developed at Wisconsin –Madison University (USA) by Klein,
Beckmann and Duffie. It has been obtained on the basis of the results deriving from several
behaviour simulations of some reference plants.
Thanks to this method , it is possible to calculate the f fraction of the monthly thermal
requirements of hot water, supplied by a solar plant with two tanks, a preheating tank and a
service one where the auxiliary energy is the input and for which there are no losses. The
fraction, f, of the monthly thermal requirements supplied by the solar source is defined as:
L−E
f =
L
Where
• L = monthly thermal load

• E = monthly auxiliary energy
• F = fraction is the function of two parameters:
o X = loss parameter (it directly depends on the several system loss factors such like
Fr= heat removal factor, Uc= collector loss coefficient and Fsc= de Winter factor,
considering the reduction of the useful energy collected through the heat exchanger;
o Y = solar parameter (it directly depends on the monthly average energy per day on the
collector , on the effective product (++) and on Fr and Fsc factors.
The relation is the following one:
F = 1,029 Y - 0,065 X - 0,245 Y2 + 0,0018 X2 + 0,0215 Y3
such correlation is valid for the

0 < X ≤ 18 0 < Y ≤ 3 0<f≤1
interval:
and it has been obtained fitting several calculation results provided by a simple simulation
model derived by the TRNSYS codex. The following graph , named F-Chart shows ISO
Fcurves trend.
The monthly F solar fraction foe every month of the year known, annual F fraction is given
by:
F=
∑ fLi i
∑L i
Where
• Fi = solar fraction of a given month

• Li = thermal requirements of a given month
F-CHART is not directly applicable to natural circulation system as it has been developed for
forced circulation systems, with fixed and known capacity inside the collectors and for
which, the high capacity figures inside the tank allow to think that this last one has a uniform
temperature.
On the contrary, in the natural circulation systems, working at low capacities, important
stratification occurs inside the tank with significant improvement of the system performance.
A calculation procedure has been suggested by Malkin and others (reported in [2]) where, to
find the F-CHART for natural circulation systems, effect of stratification is considered
toward the decrease of coefficient loss (Uc) of the collector, which implies a reduction in
parameter X and increase of parameter Y (which depends on Uc through Fr) and instead of
variable flows in a natural circulation plant, an “equivalent average” flow is considered.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Selecting a collector
Choice of collector In the case of natural circulation systems is partially linked to the type of
storage used, as the two components are generally sold together. This makes the work of the
installer designer easier, as he can consider collector- tank as one device.
For almost all the systems, it is possible to vary the number of the collectors feeding a given
storage. The same is true in the case of systems with open circuit and integrated storage
where the storage volume and absorbing surface are inserted in just one element.
In the case of a forced circulation system, collectors can be divided into two types:
• flat plate collectors;

• vacuum systems.
The first ones are generally used to supply sanitary hot water up to 60° C. The main
advantages of this system are low cost, availability in several shapes and sizes, adaptability to
several antifreeze systems, and keep working even if one of the transparent cover break up.
Vacuum sealed collectors instead, can work best when the temperature differences between
collector and external environment are high or when the solar radiation is low. The main
advantages of vacuum sealed systems are: high efficiency in applications where high
systems (because they are less affected by air temperature), the modules can be freely rotated
to fit the inclination of the surface, etc.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Dimensions, number, orientation and inclination of the collectors
Use of big sized collectors reduces the installation costs.
The number of the collectors necessary is given by the ratio between the total absorber area
and the gross area of the single collector provided in the builder’s specifications.
In order to size a collector, for an ideal orientation of 30° inclination facing South, as an
example, following references figures are used, in Italy:
Geographic areas Reference Figures

North 1,2 m2/ person
Centre 0,9 m2/person
South 0,7 m2/person
The optimal inclination (annual average maximum absorption) is equivalent to the latitude
minus a dozen of degrees. Higher inclinations improve winter performances and are
especially recommended for winter heating. Lower inclinations improve summer
performances.
Collector’s arrangement
Collectors have to be installed in a way so as to best exploit the available space and limit the
size of the connection circuit. For the construction of a medium - large sized plants, it is
necessary to install and connect a number of collectors together. These ones could be parallel
or series connected.
Series collectors Parallel collectors
It is important:
• Not to connect more than four collectors together;
• Temperature difference between inlet and outlet fluid not to exceed 10-15° C;
• From the hydraulic point of view, plant has to be balanced in every section, without
load losses in the single sections.
Mixed solution

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Installation
If some fundamental conditions are checked and followed, a collector can be installed
indifferently, on a flat roof, on an inclined roof, on a facade, on a balcony, in a square or in a
garden. The surface where collector is to be installed has to bear its weight which,
considering the load, could exceeds even 100kg. During all day and year long, the plant must
not to be shadowed by plants, buildings or mountains and it has to have a good exposure to
South (SE or SW exposure involves a 20%of energy loss compared to 40% if the exposure is
E or W). At the moment of ordering the material, type of the plant has to be specified,
because, according to the boiler, hydraulic circuit of connection between the solar collectors
and the conventional system for sanitary water heating changes.
It is better to ask for an installation kit including, besides the solar collectors, the support for
each collector, fit for the installation surface type, and the devices necessary for the water
connection between the boiler and the collectors, and the user’s manual.
During the course of the installation, in order to avoid that the temperature inside the system
exceeds the operative limits of the materials, it is necessary to avoid exposure of the glazed
collector to the solar raditaion for a longer period until the collectoris filled with water. For
this reason, during installation, it is important to cover the glass surface with opaque
materials (cardboard, fabric, plastic, etc.).
The procedures for collector assemblance and some of its components vary according to the
kind of surface where the systems are installed. In particular, collector’s supports and the
water connection to the pre-existing plant are different if the installation is on a level surface
or on an inclined one.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Installation on a flat surface
For the installation of a collector on a flat surface, it is necessary to use supports fixed to the
supporting surface through 8-12 cm common screw anchors placed just next to the holes of
the supports.
The procedure is the following one:
• define the support positions so that the orientation of the absorbing surface is due
South;
• provide supports at a minimum distance of 120-150 cm both horizontaly and
vertically.
• check the horizontalness, as the non horizontalness of the collector provokes a non
uniform distribution of the weights and a partial collection of the very collector, with
consequent loss of yield;
• check the both the bases of the supports uniformously lay on the surface below, for a
good load distribution;
• trace the anchoring holes on the supporting surface just next to the ones existing on
the supports;
• insert the screw anchors in the holes and seal the border with silicon to avoid water
penetrations and humidity;
• place the supports and fix them to the anchoring points;
• install the collector on the supports laying it in centred position.
Installation on an inclined roof
Installation on an inclined tiled roof can occur through supports anchored to the attic or
another fixed structure under the tiles.
Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Installation on the ground
The installation on the ground is recommended when:
• surface of the roof is not wide enough to house the collector;

• type of the roof makes the collector installation difficult;
• structure of the building is not strong enough to house a collector;
The support structure for the installation of collector on the ground has to:
• bear the strain of weights concerning both the collector’s and hydraulic devices in full
running;
• hold orientated and inclined collectors;
• allow the cleaning of ground for the maintenance and avoid the snow accumulation;
• foresees a protection from lightnings;
• fixed steadily to the ground.
Façade installation
In view of limited space availability and orientation some installations are made on the
façades of a building, using supports similar to the ones for installation on horizontal
surfaces.
The starting phase of this kind of installation foresees precise tracing of the position of wall
anchors of the supports in such a way that the collector is horizontally installed.
Here are the phases of the installation:
• define, on the façade, positions of support. They must be at least 120-150 cm form
each other so that length of the connecting piping system to the home water network
is the shortest. Available space allows an easy installation of the collector. Shadow
from the plants, cornices, roofings don’t reach the absorber of the collector;
• place one of the supports on the façade, checking with a level that the side put on the
vertical wall is in a trasversal way too;
• keep it in such position, trace on the wall the holes for the stops (2 at least)
corresponding to the ones of the supporting side;;
• anchor the support to the façade through two wall anchors commonly used for the
installation of the electric bath heater and check the solidity of the anchoring;
• through a level and a stick, determine the position of the second support , being
careful to the horizontality of the plane ( in the contrary case, the collector causes a
partial filling, with consequent loss of efficiency);
• place the collector in a centre position on the supports and anchor it to them with the
steel cables;
• connect the collector to the waterworks.
Solar panels integrated on a building façade

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Floor installation
In this kind of installation, coils are directly inserted in the structures of the building
(floor).The radiant floor panels are planned for temperatures between 25-35 °C. This
temperature range is compatible with field at maximum efficiency of the solar collector. The
coil is in plastic or copper or RETICOLATO polyethylene. The load foresees the sizing of the
system for a 24 hours endurance and the annual solar integration is about 40-50%.
Floor radiant panels plant scheme

Floor radiant panels plant section

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Ceiling installation
Ceiling is the surface characterised by minimum structural obstacles, especially, if compared

to the floor one. Being not subjected to loads, no particular protection is needed against
shocks and stress, maintenance is easy and risk of breakings and fluid losses are very low, as
well. The view factor sup. radient/ambient and sup. radient/user is maximum and it is not
influenced by the arrangement of the fittings. In this way, it is possible to get more uniform
temperature distribution and average radiant temperature of the walls, more suitable to be a
comfort one.
The thermal comfort is higher when the heat comes from the top (as it occurs in nature with
the sun). Ceiling installation with improved hygienic conditions thus reducing the convective
thermal exchange and connected problems (e.g. dust movement) to be minimum. Compared
to the floor heating, there are no problems concerning blood circultaion in the lower limbs.
As the surface of the ceiling is usually wide, ceiling installation offers further advantages.
In fact, more is the available surface, less is the thermal change between surrounding and the
fluid. In order to avoid both the water surface condensation and increase the overall
efficiency to be maximum, the above cited concept is important, especialy, in summer
season.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Advantages and potentials of solar thermal: economic and environmental advantages
The main reason for using a solar plant comes from both economic and environmental
considerations. In fact, less environmental pollution and energy saving that could be obtained
using solar energy, are guranteed overall advantages.
A solar thermal plant allows to save approx. 40-70% energy required to generate sanitary hot
water.
Economic advantages
To figure out the economic advantage of a thermal solar system, it is important to define the
recovery period of overall investment which will allow to evaluate the validity of the
installation. The number of years needed to recover the total investment, in first
approximation, is calculated by dividing the expenses supported for the maximum annual
achievable saving through the production of hot sanitary water with the solar energy.
Besides, the overall saving due to the use of a thermal solar plant apart being dependent on
the above-mentioned considerations and environmental issues, is associated directly with the
cost of energy replaced and it varies in accordance with the kind of energy used (electric
energy, methane, coal, gas oil ) the government’s energy policies and the evolution of the
fuels prices.
In reference to Italian energy market, sanitary hot water requirement at 45-50 °C, is assumed
to be 50 l/days per person. Thus during a year, each person will be using about 18,000 l of
sanitary hot water. Now depending on the temperature of the water available, it has been
setimated that nearly 700 kWh of energy will be needed annually to fulfil sanitry hot water
requirement of each person. Considering an average efficiency of the commercial boilers
available locally, each person every year uses about 60 m3 of methane to meet its sanitary hot
water need. Currently the cost of methane is about 0,80€/mc (fixed costs included).
At this point, it has to be considered that a properly sized thermal solar plant can satisfy a
75% share of the complex energy consumption. So, if the annual cost for the fuel is about 50
€ per person (the cost of 60m3), it is possible to save up to 40 € per person while using a solar
thermal plant.
An electric boiler with about 110 € per person annual cost while producing the same quantity
of sanitary hot water, is certainly more expensive. In this case, saving from a possible use of a
solar plant could be of the order of 90€ per person each year.
The cost of a thermal solar plant depends on several aspects. Besides the kind of energy used
and the cost of the components (collectors, load, tubes and fittings) it is necessary to consider
manpower and costs relevant to the support structures of anchorage to the building. Last
variable depends on the placement of the components and on the kind of the works necessary
to make the plant fit for the given case. Approximately, cost of a thermal solar plant can be
evaluated to be more or less 600 €/m2 (surface of the collector).
Data in the following table allows to evaluate the overall expenses necessary to build a plant:
it will be sufficient to multiply the m2 cost for the number of people and absorbing
surface/person. Economic saving and the avoided emissions using a thermal solar plant
instead of electric and methane water heater are considered as well.
Indicative
average cost for
For the installation of a solar plant generating hot water
installed plant
(€/m2)
Collector
Geographical Collectors
aperture M2/ Small plants
areas inclination
person
North 50° 1,2
Glass flat
Centre 45° 0,75 620
collectors
South 35° 0,55
Solar thermal system for the average family ( 4 members)

Electric water heater Methane water heater
(KWh/year) (m3/year)
Consumption 2.550 226
Cost of solar thermal plant_
(Central Italy - after tax 1.306 1.306
deduction)
Savings (€/year) supposing a
410 136
partial
Recovery time (years, costs
3 10
excluded)
Emissions (T Co2/year) 1,8 0,69
Consumption fulfillment*(percentage) 75%
Environmental advantages
In reference to the environmental advantages, replacement of an electric water heater with a

solar system allows to avoid approximately 2,5 tons of carbon dioxide each year whereas
substitution of a gas water heater with a solar water heater will help to reduce annual
emission of nearly 2,0 tons of carbon dioxide.
Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Advantages of self construction
Using an easy and proper technology, self construction/fabrication of the needed device
especially, in the field of solar thermal system, could be cheaper and more interesting. In
some regions of North Italy , since the end of the 80s, some associations teach the self
fabrication of the solar plants to the citizens, guaranteeing material supply, logistic
arrangement and the technical assistance. Thanks to this unique initiatives, self fabricated
solar plants have got significant success. Compared to the turnkey industrial production, self-
construction have several advantages. In particular, such advantages deal with social, cultural,
economic and environmental aspects compared to the only disadvantage of a possible
reduction in efficiency, which is usually due to not followed building advices provided by the
experts.
From the cultural point of view, getting ready for a self constrcution solar system entails
widening of the technical, scientific and social knowledge. Here, besides issues concerning
solar systems other important aspects dealing with energy and its policies and consequences
are involved, as well. Most important is the fact that beside learning of the techniques
necessary for the construction of solar plants the same is available to a broad number of users
which can be involved in the construction phases for formative and re-educating goals.
Concerning economic aspect , the self built plant is cheaper than the pre-assembled one. For
those built in Northern Europe, the difference between self building and industrial production
is 30% and, in case of Italy, there is a 60% saving.
Besides, self building needs less energy than the industrial production, especially for the
materials that can be reused or be used without wastes (the packaging costs are avoided).
From this point of view, choice of materials is focused to safeguard the environmental aspect
rather than the economic one. On the market, there is a wide availability of materials
workable without complex or expensive apparatus, particularly, fit for the solar panels
construction.
In conclusion, a well built plant can be compared to an industrial product. From the
maintenance point of view, the first one is particularly cheap as the same can be looked after
by the person who has built the system whereas for an industrial product, a skilled labour is
needed.
Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Potentials
Costs and, above all, the performances of a solar thermal plants changes according to the kind
of collector installed. The types of solar thermal collectors varies a lot in terms of costs and
performances.
Solar energy being an uncertain source, solar thermal collectors should be considered as
integrative tools to the standard technologies: directly they can generate only a part of the
energy necessary for the users, energy that otherwise should be generated by a standard
boiler.
The percentage of thermal energy generated in a year by a solar thermal collector is the factor
of the covering of the annual thermal needs.
In Rome, for instance, the ratio between optimized system cost/generated energy ratio,
doesn’t exceed 60%. This limit is common to many renewable energy based technologies,
generally, characterized by uncertain or periodic availability.
It is mainly because of this reason that on one hand when increase in plant size results into
corresponding increase in the thermal load coverage factor at the same time the ratio between
energy cost and energy generated is linear up to 55% - 60%. Once this value is exceeded, cost
keeps growing linearly as a function of plant’s size whereas the energy produced and hence
the potential of the solar plant increases very slowly, with corresponding higher cost for the
surface area of the collector. It is for this reason that a solar thermal collector of appropriate
dimensions meant for the generation of sanitary hot water is planned to satify approximately
55-60% of the thermal needs.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
When, where and how it is good to choose a thermal solar system
Sun, we can say, is everywhere. But this doesn’t means that it is easy to use its potentials for
energy goals. So, both where and when to assemble solar panels for efficient and effective
exploitation of solar energy potentials, is a good issue. Naturally, solar panels works better in
latitudes closer to the equator. If we consider horizontal panel, one installed in Northern
Europe and the other in the African desert belt, ratio appears to be 1 to 4.
The performance of a solar thermal plant will depend on both the useful temperature required
and the use during the seasons.
Concerning first point, higher is the temperature of the heated fluid, more will be the
convective heat losses to the surrounding environment. The collector output will decrease (or
also canceling out) if the temperature of the fluid will make the rate of heat loss equal to the
absorption one. So, each collector has “maximum temperature limit” at whch is able to
collect thermal energy.
Instead so far seasonal use is concerned, there is a difference between a user that need the
solar thermal plant all year long, and the ones who would like to use the system only during
summertime. The last ones can afford to cheap and simpler panels. During spring and
summer, glazed collectors are not necessary rather plastic ones will be sufficient because with
working temperature of nearly the room temperature (for half of the time ) problems of
thermal losses are significantly reduced.
The choice to use a solar collector can be influenced by several situations leading to different
solutions. Every house or office can benefit by leaving hot water out of the gas or power
circuit. In the isolated houses, especially if inhabited during summer, solar collectors should
be standard ones, especially, if the simplicity and cheapness due to a use concentrated in the
season of best working of the panel are considered.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Laws and rules concerning building
Installation of a solar plant on an already existing building foresees, within the laws
concerning building, a series of administrative acts. Italian law, for example, foresees three
different types of acts:
• Work permit - Administrative act (written advise) by the local authority following a
written application (complete with technical records on the works and on the
preliminary project).
• Authorization to work - Administrative act of local authority allowing the works to
be undertaken based upon the previous technical and normative checks (differing
from the permit, which has to be in writing, the authorization is automatically granted
if the Mayor doesn’t give his opinion within 60-90 days from the application).
• Declaration of the beginning of the work - Paper by the local authority reporting the
work, place where the work will be done, fulfilment of communal building
regulations, laws in force concerning historic-artistic and environmental obligations.
For a solar thermal plant installation, in majority of cases, declaration of the
beginning of the work will be sufficient.
Historic - artistic and environmental obligations
The technology of solar thermal system can safeguard environment and reduce the presence
of polluting substances causing negative impacts on the Earth ecosystem .This huge
possibility, together with the care for harmony, ethic considerations and visual impacts can
help to improve the quality life of a human being in every aspect. It is for this reason that the
preservation of the historical and environmental heritage came inot force. It is in fact the
same reason that has led to solar thermal system. The main goal of the two aspects is the
health of the human being.
So, before proceeding with the installation, it is important to know the laws protecting
historical-artistic and environmental heritage. It is also important to evaluate the place where
the plant will be installed, as the local governments could thwart the installation of solar
collectors, especially in protected areas or historic city centres.
Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Maintenance
For proper functioning of the plant, it is important to check the working system and its
components, periodically. In particular, it is important to check:
• Hydraulic losses;
• Damages to the collector due to external agents;
• State of the absorbing surface;
• State of the working of the electric and electronic check devices for the level of
limestone deposit;
• Working of the safety devices ( i.e. jolly valves) for the level of heat transfer fluid in
the primary circuit.
To assure continuity of the post-sale assistance service, it is useful to persuade the user to
sign an assurance contract which is free for the first months, as in the case of gas boiler
installation. The writing of a plant booklet including the general characteristics , the results of
the visual check, the preliminary operating tests and the check of performances is extremely
useful for the installer and the user.

"Biomass"
• Preliminary phases
• Initial collection of climatic, geographical and building data
• Analysis and quantification of the users energy requirements
• Planning
• Dimensioning of a solar water heater
• Sizing criteria
• F-chart method
• Selecting a collector
• Dimensions, number, orientation and inclination of the collectors
• Installation
• Installation on a flat surface
• Installation on the ground
• Floor installation
• Ceiling installation
• Advantages and potentials of solar thermal: economic and environmental advantages
• Advantages of self construction
• Potentials
• When, where and how it is good to choose a thermal solar system
• Laws and rules concerning building
• Maintenance

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Construction of a solar thermal plant: test
"Construction of a solar thermal plant"
Construction of a solar thermal plant: test

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Next thermal solar system: 1/3

"Next thermal solar system"
The module shows the technology of thermodynamic solar system and the three main
typologies of plants. Enea “Archimede Project” is also mentioned.
Thermodynamic solar system
A different kind of solar thermal system is the one of the high temperature devices where the
heat transfer fluid can attain temperature more than 100° C. These devices are called
thermodynamic solar systems. The solar thermodynamic systems uses instruments able to
raise the level of radiation on the absorber. There main objective is to generate electricity and
are used especially in the industries for steam generation to be used later to do the mechanical
work. To increase the intensity of solar radiation incident on the energy absorbing surface,
solar collectors, in question, works under concentration.
Such type of collectors using optical system (rotating parabolic) made available the heat
absorbing fluid at high temperature thus allowing the mechanical energy obtained to be used
either directly or converted into electric energy (solar thermodynamic). These systems
working without using diffused energy, need devices following the sun (i.e. sun tracking
system) and use of sophisticated technologies for optical concentration system with
subsequent increase in the overall cost.
A thermodynamic solar system allows generation of dynamic energy and electricity through a
standard thermodynamic cycle supplied by the heat coming from the concentration of the
solar radiation. To obtain temperature higher than the one generally achieved with a common
solar collector, it is necessary to concentrate the direct solar radiation on the receiver with
subsequent transfer of the energy collected into high temperature heat.
The generated heat can be used in several industrial processes or in the generation of power.
The power generation is the main goal of the concentration solar plants. In this case, solar
heat is used in standard thermodynamic cycles as the ones with steam turbines, gas turbines
or Stirling engines.
In the high solar radiation regions (average direct annual power higher than 300 W/m2), the
exploitation of the solar source allows to get, for a year, from a collection surface m2, e
thermal energy equivalent to the one coming from one oil barrel combustion with net
reduction in the emission of 500kg of CO2 in the atmosphere (ENEA-REA 2005 source).
To solve the problem of the variability of the solar source, heat can be accumulated during
the day thus making the system more flexible and meeting the needs of the productive
processes. Different technologies are used for the concentration of the solar radiation in a
solar concentrator plant but following phases of the process could be found in all of them:
• Collection and concentration of solar radiation;

• Conversion of solar radiation into thermal energy;
• Transport and eventual storage of thermal energy;
• Use of thermal energy.

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Main types of plants
Taking into consideration the geometry and placing of the concentrator with respect to the
receiver, three main types of plants could be defined:
• Parabolic Trough;
• Power Tower;
• Parabolic Dish.
Representation of the three type
Parabolic trough collector
Concentration of the solar radiation in a parabolic trough collector is obtained through

parabolic concave cylindrical surfaces called parabolic troughs. The heat transfer fluid
passing through a tube fixed at the focal length of the PTC gets heated up to 500° C. The
successive thermoelectric cycle is merely a water-steam thermal cycle similar to the one in a
standard thermoelectric plant and it includes a steam turbine coupled with an electric
generator, a condenser and preheating system of the water supply. This technology, named
DCS (Distributed Collector System) is quite matured for the generation of electricity on a
large scale.
Scheme of a parabolic trough collector
Parabolic trough collector
Power tower system
In such type of plants, concentration is obtained through the reflection of solar light by
several plain glasses orientated in a way to make the rays converge just at one point, where
thermal receiver is fixed, supported by a high central tower. The primary fluid circulating
through the receiver, depending on the concentration ratio of the plant, can be heated at
temperatures of more than 1000° C. The primary fluid transfer its heat, through an exchanger,
to a secondary fluid that feed the final thermoelectric cycle, composed of an usual turbine-
alternator group, exchangers, etc. which are characteristic of a thermal station. This
technology is named CRS (Central Receiver System) and has demonstrated for 10 MWe
sized plants, a proven total efficiency of approx. 8 - 12%, from the solar radiation absorption
to the electricity fed to the grid between
Scheme of a power tower system

Experimental Solar Two plant (US)
Parabolic Dish Collector
Such type of plants is based on systems composed of independent parabolic concentrators,

where the converter is placed on focus of the dish. They have interesting characteristics, such
as high efficiency, modularity, excellent yields at low powers (generally between 10 and 25
kW) and so, the possibility of their use for construction of local or regional systems based on
the distributed generation. Below given pictures are some examples of this type of plants:
Parabolic dishes

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
ENEA program for the generation of solar heat at high temperature
ENEA has started a triennial research program for the construction of an industrial scale
demonstration plants for the generation of electric energy from solar energy through the
production and storage of heat at medium temperature (550° C). The research program is
focused primarily on the more innovative aspects of the technology (collector, receiver,
storage) and foresees experimental circuits ( installed at different centres of ENEA centres)
and a demonstration plant of 0,5 Km2.
Solar thermal concentrator using parabolic trough collectors appears to be the most promising
technology in the very near future. In order to increase efficiency of the system, reduce costs,
widen the possibilities for the application of the energy generated (with guaranteed electric
generation even during the night or partially cloudy days), important planning innovations
have been introduced to the solutions already available in the market.
These innovations have dealt with both the devices for the absorption of the solar radiation,
concentrators and receiver tubes as well as the design aspects of the thermoelectric
conversion part. ENEA project has been inspired by SEGS technology, the technology with
successful working experience of the plants (e.g. hybrid solar-gas plants in America) and
combine both the technologies, i.e. parabolic trough collectors and power tower systems,
after appropriate improvements on the design aspects.
Demonstrative prototype industrial plant : "Archimede project"
Archimede project, result of collaboration between ENEA and ENEL, is the first application
of possible integration between a gas combined cycle and thermodynamic solar plant, based
on the ENEA technology, worldwide. Priolo Gargallo ENEL station (Siracusa) will be the
site of the experimentation. Archimede will use the technology of ENEA, able to generate
power even during the night or with clouds.

• Thermodynamic solar system
• Main types of plants
• ENEA program for the generation of solar heat at high temperature

Solar Thermal
Solar Thermal
Next thermal solar system: test
Next thermal solar system: test

Solar Thermal

Solar Thermal - Progetto Formazione

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Solar energy: 1/5

Goals of the module:

Energy problem and renewable sources

• increasing Planet’s temperature: between 1,4° and 5,8°C within 2100;

Solar energy: 1/5

Solar energy: 2/5

Solar Thermal in Europe

Renewable energy sources

• solar thermal energy;

Solar energy: 3/5

Sun and solar radiation

Direct, diffused and reflected radiation

Solar energy: 3/5

Solar energy: 4/5

Conversion of solar energy

The biological conversion of solar

Thermal conversion of solar energy is based upon two

Solar energy: 4/5

Solar energy: 5/5

From sun to renewable sources

Summary of the module:

Solar energy: 5/5

Solar energy: test

It is the moment of the learning test concerning:

Solar energy: test

Solar thermal technology: 1/6

Goals of the module:

Solar thermal: an underestimated resource

Solar thermal system devices

Solar thermal technology: 1/6

Solar thermal technology: 2/6

How a solar thermal system is made up

• panel or solar collector

Solar thermal technology: 3/6

Solar thermal technology: 3/6

Solar thermal technology: 4/6

Concentrating Collectors use optical systems (rotating

Following types of collectors are available in the market:

• usually with an absorber surface of about 1,5 – 2,0 mq.

Solar thermal technology: 4/6

Solar thermal technology: 5/6

Advantages and potentialities of solar thermal energy

Advantages for environment

Solar thermal technology: 5/6

Solar thermal technology: 6/6

Summary of the module:

Solar thermal technology: 6/6

Solar thermal technology: test

It is the moment of the learning test concerning:

"Solar thermal technology"

Solar thermal technology: test

Applications of solar thermal energy: 1/6

Goals of the module:

Heating and ventilation

Sanitary water heating

Domestic hot water

So far residential applications are concerned it is easy to choose a suitable configuration

• water heater with uncovered collectors;

Common buildings and industries

Having a shower or bath?

Applications of solar thermal energy: 2/6

Three possible solutions: