13.

8 Climatic Geomorphology
M Gutiérrez and F Gutiérrez, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

13.8.1 Introduction 115

13.8.2 The Dawning of Climatic Geomorphology 117
13.8.3 The Establishment of Climatic Geomorphology 118
13.8.4 The Development of Climatic Geomorphology 119
13.8.5 Climatic Geomorphology: Processes and Morphoclimatic Zonation 120
13.8.6 The Zonal Concept in Climatic Geomorphology 123
13.8.7 The Main Morphoclimatic Zones 125
References 129

Abstract

Climatic geomorphology is the branch of the discipline that investigates the influence of present-day and past climate on
morphogenetic processes and landforms, including their spatial and temporal distribution and the control of climatic
parameters on the rates at which processes operate and landforms change. Geomorphologists have tended to divide the
world into morphoclimatic zones, regions where their climatic conditions determine the development of distinctive
landform assemblages. Interest in climatic geomorphology will most likely be enhanced in the following years due to
global warming and the need to forecast the effects of the predicted climatic changes on geomorphic systems.

13.8.1 Introduction modern landforms in tune with the present-day climate

(Figures 1 and 2). This fact led Büdel (1963, 1968, 1977,
Climatic geomorphology is the branch of the discipline that 1980) to coin the term climatogenic geomorphology, the
investigates the influence of present-day and past climate on main task of which is to establish a relative chronology for the
morphogenetic processes and landforms, including their spa- different, ‘relief generations’, and to infer past climates from
tial and temporal distribution and the control of climatic them. This concept has a direct link with historical geo-
parameters on the rates at which processes operate and land- morphology: the reconstruction of landscape evolution
forms change. This approach to geomorphology started during through geological time. It also reveals that relict landforms
the period of European colonial expansion and exploration at may constitute valuable tools for reconstructing past climatic
the end of the nineteenth century, when peculiar landforms variability and its influence on Earth surface processes (i.e.,
endemic of certain climatic environments like deserts, polar Baulig, 1940; Jahn, 1954; Tricart, 1957) (Figures 1 and 2). The
regions, or the humid tropics were encountered (Goudie, potential of landforms to serve as paleoclimatic records de-
2004; Gutiérrez, 2005). pends on numerous factors, including: (1) Degree of certainty
Büdel (1968), one of the main promoters of Climatic
Geomorphology, proposed that climate and climatic variance
are the main factors that control surface processes, having
priority over structural components on landform develop-
ment. Büdel (1968) argued that the resistance to weathering
and erosion of some widespread lithologies like granitoids,
limestone, or sandstone depend largely on climatic factors,
which, in turn, have a significant influence on the resulting
landforms. During this period, when there was a general
tendency to produce regional classifications, several authors
divided the world into morphoclimatic zones having dis-
tinctive processes and landform assemblages (Tricart and
Cailleux, 1965; Büdel, 1977).
Landscapes are generally a mosaic consisting of relict
landforms developed under past climatic conditions and

Gutiérrez, M., Gutiérrez, F., 2013. Climatic geomorphology. In: Shroder, J. Figure 1 Wadi al Hariq in the Interior Homocline of central Saudi
(Editor in Chief), James, L.A., Harden, C.P., Clague, J.J. (Eds.), Treatise on Arabia. This valley, encroached by barchan dunes, provides evidence
Geomorphology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 13, Geomorphology of of more humid conditions in this sector of the Arabian Peninsula in
Human Disturbances, Climate Change, and Natural Hazards, pp. 115–131. the recent past.

Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 13 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00346-8 115

116 Climatic Geomorphology
Figure 2 Relict block-stream composed on angular quartzite
boulders. Tremedal Paleozoic Massif, Iberian Range, NE Spain.
of the landform–climate relationships. Landforms that de-
velop under a wide range of environmental conditions or
meet the principle of equifinality have limited utility as
paleoclimatic markers. (2) The preservation potential of cli-
mate-controlled landforms. This factor determines the tem-
poral window that may be investigated; short with ephemeral
features and longer using landforms with a large persistence
time. (3) The time span required for a landform to form or
adjust in response to a climate change. Obviously, the re-
sponse time depends on the sensitivity of the geomorphic
system and the intensity (magnitude, velocity, and duration)
of the climate change. (4) The dating possibilities and the
accuracy of the obtained chronologies. Generally, depositional
landforms are more favorable. (5) The existence of isolated
landforms versus morphogenetic sequences controlled by cli-
matic factors. The latter may allow us to infer longer paleo-
climatic histories and information on successive climatic
fluctuations (i.e., lacustrine, marine or fluvial terraces, and
talus flatiron sequences; Figure 4).
Some authors challenged the morphoclimatic zonations
proposed by previous authors, pointing out some drawbacks
(Goudie, 2004): (1) Previous studies were based on poor
knowledge about rates of geomorphic processes; (2) Some
climatic parameters used for morphoclimatic regionalization,
like mean annual air temperature, are inadequate; (3) The
proposed limits of the morphoclimatic regions are quite arti-
ficial; (4) Some landforms that were considered diagnostic of
specific climates turned out to be relict features developed
under a range of climates. Additionally, some authors have
questioned the existence of a tropical morphoclimatic zone
(Stoddart, 1969a, 1969b; Douglas, 1978; Ollier, 1983; Gupta,
1993; Twidale and Lageat, 1994; Twidale, 2003, 2004). The
latter author supports his criticism on the work about the
Nahanni tower karst (Mackenzie Mountains, northern Can-
ada) published by Brook and Ford (1978), who stated that
these landforms cannot be considered as exclusive of humid
tropical climates, as they also occur in a cold environment.
However, there are notable differences between the tower karst
developed in humid tropical areas like Guilin in China
(Sweeting, 1972) and the fracture-controlled maze of cor-
ridors of the Nahanni karst. The former consists of relatively
isolated and steep-sided carbonate towers protruding from a
Figure 3 Conspicuous trimlime truncating scree slopes downstream
of Gulkana Glacier, Alaska Range. The rapid retreat of this glacier,
monitored over more than four decades by the USGS, is the result
of historical changes to warmer or drier conditions and not to the
complex dynamics of a surging glacier.
Figure 4 Talus flatiron sequence in the Ebro Tertiary Basin (NE
Spain) generated by climate-controlled accumulation and incision
cycles in the slopes (Gutiérrez-Elorza et al., 2010). The flatiron
located furthest away from the scarp (Sz) records the oldest
preserved aggradation period.
nearly flat and alluviated corrosion surface (Day and Tang,
2004). Conversely, the karst landscape of Nahanni corres-
ponds to limestone massifs dissected by a network of fracture-
controlled corridors developed by dissolution and frost shat-
tering, which locally surround isolated towers (Ford, 2004).
In spite of the objections proposed by some authors to the
discipline of climatic geomorphology, a number of publi-
cations demonstrate that geomorphological investigation
from a climatic perspective continues to receive major atten-
tion (Thomas, 1994, 1997; Gutiérrez, 2005; French, 2007).
Moreover, the debate on the complex interactions between
climate, erosion, tectonics, and isostasy is introducing stimu-
lating ideas on the role played by mountain uplift on climate
and vice versa. The formation of mountains may affect climate
at local, regional, and global scales. The main local effects
include temperature decrease by elevation rise, orographic
precipitation, rain-shadow effect on the lee side, and changes
in the winds (Ollier, 2004). The building of large topographic
barriers like the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas may
modify the atmospheric circulation significantly enough to
alter the global climate (Li, 1991; Yang et al., 2004). Some
authors contend that accelerated rates of tectonic uplift in late
Cenozoic times were instrumental in the initiation of the Ice

Ages, that is, global tectonics controlled climate (i.e., Ruddi-
man, 1997). Molnar and England (1990) rejected this idea
and proposed that evidence of late Cenozoic uplift could, in
large part, be a consequence of climate change. These authors
maintained that climate-induced increased rates of differential
erosion and the consequent isostatic rebound can result in a
significant uplift of the mountains peaks, although not ne-
cessarily implying an increase in mean elevation. This hy-
pothesis is supported by observed vertical uplift rates that
cannot be accounted for by tectonic convergence and crustal
thickening in areas like the Central Alps (Champagnac et al.,
2009).
The relationship between climate and geomorphic systems
is receiving renewed attention due to human-induced global
warming and the predicted rapid changes in temperature and
precipitation (IPCC, 2007). Some of the main challenges for
the geomorphologists are: (1) Monitoring the response of
geomorphic systems to the changing climate, especially sensi-
tive geoindicators and geomorphological hotspots (Goudie,
2006) (Figure 3); (2) Isolating the contribution of climate to
the observed geomorphic changes from other factors like
human activity; (3) Forecasting how the proposed climatic
changes will affect geomorphic processes and landforms at
different scales. Which task may be performed following mul-
tiple approaches (Crozier, 2010) such as paleoenvironmental
studies; physically based and statistical models, including
geomorphic thresholds; and ergodic methods based on re-
gional empirical evidence; (4) Testing those predictions and
assessing their uncertainty; (5) Identifying, and, if possible,
evaluating the detrimental and beneficial effects of the occurred
and predicted climate-controlled geomorphic changes.
13.8.2 The Dawning of Climatic Geomorphology
The second half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of
the twentieth were marked by pioneering scientific expeditions
in remote regions of the Earth. These travels were mainly fo-
cused not only on the exploration of new territories for the
evaluation of their mining and agricultural resources, but also
on colonization and Christianization. The resulting scientific
studies mainly dealt with mining and geology. Detailed de-
scriptions on landforms were scarce compared with the excel-
lent works carried out on botany and zoology. Some
publications generated from these expeditions include geo-
morphological descriptions, but they barely contributed to the
scientific foundation of the discipline. Nonetheless, some Ger-
man naturalists started taking into consideration Earth surface
processes, as illustrated by the works by Von Richtofen in 1886
and Albrecht Penck in 1894. During this period, de Martonne
(1913) introduced the term climatic geomorphology.
The Swiss geologist Agassiz (1940) presented his glacial
theory in the pioneering work Etudes sur les Glaciers, published
in 1840. Many of the notions included in this work had been
previously proposed by Charpentier and Venetz, Perraudin
(Editor’s Note: The number of researchers named in this
chapter is greater than the large number whose specific works
are referenced at the end of the chapter. Names of additional
researchers have been provided in the chapter to better repre-
sent the depth and breadth of activity in the development of
Climatic Geomorphology 117
research done in different areas that contributed to the devel-
opment of climatic geomorphology). It focused on the analysis
of glacial deposits, being the first widely acknowledged step in
‘glacial geomorphology’. Subsequently, the English geologist
Geikie (1873), in his work The Great Ice Age, discussed the
causes of glaciations, ice dynamics, and the origin of glacial
and postglacial deposits. The end of the nineteenth century
and the dawn of the twentieth century was a fruitful time for
glacial geomorphology. The work by Russell in 1897 on the
Malaspina Glacier, Alaska, the paper on Spitsbergen glaciers by
Garwood in 1899, and Kendall’s PhD in 1902 on glacier lakes
(cf. Kendall, 1902) illustrate this prolific period. During the
second half of the twentieth century, studies were progressively
more focused on the origin of erosional and depositional
landforms in ancient glaciated zones (Price, 1973). The 1947
book by the American geologist Flint (1947), Glacial Geology
and the Pleistocene, and the treatise The Quaternary Era by
Charlesworth in 1957 synthesized and reviewed the state of
the art on relict glacial landforms and deposits.
The study of the geomorphic processes related to frost ac-
tion goes back to the early nineteenth century, although the
birth of ‘periglacial geomorphology’ is situated at the begin-
ning of the twentieth century. The term ‘periglacial’ was
introduced by the Polish scientist Łoziński (1909) to designate
the processes and landforms resulting from freeze–thaw cycles
occurring around the margins of the ancient Pleistocene ice-
sheets. However, these periglacial features are not constrained
to the periglacial climatic belt, but they also occur in other
regions like high mountains in the tropics. Consequently, at
the present-time, this term is applied to a broader geo-
graphical area than in its initial use (Thorn, 1992). Also in this
period the concept of solifluction was introduced by Anders-
son (1906), who studied the characteristics of landforms in
periglacial regions. Numerous investigations were also carried
out in Siberia by Russian scientists, but these went largely
unnoticed by most European and American scientists due to
language barriers. The colonization of Alaska during the
beginning of the twentieth century resulted in the first
well-recognized advances in periglacial research (Cairnes,
Capps, and Eakin). In Europe, due to the inaccessibility of the
main northern territories, periglacial geomorphology de-
veloped 30 years later (French and Karte, 1988). The first ad-
vances were primarily related to paleogeographic and
environmental reconstructions of the late Pleistocene ice-
sheets in central and western Europe (i.e., Büdel, Cailleux,
Dylik, Edelman, Poser, Tricart, and Troll).
The late nineteenth century was a prolific period for the
investigation on ‘desert geomorphology’, mainly in the arid
zones of the western United States of America (King, 1976).
The geological expeditions and investigations of Powell
(1834–1918), Dutton (1841–1912), and especially Gilbert
(l843–1918) revealed an arid landscape in which the work of
surface water was particularly relevant. Powell (1875), in his
main work Exploration of the Colorado River and its Canyons,
introduced the key concept of base level, as forethought to the
notion of peneplanation. This author also established the
genetic classification of drainages as consequent, antecedent,
and superimposed. Dutton contributed to the knowledge of
isostasy, presented detailed descriptions of alluvial fans, and
established the earliest model of parallel retreat for the
118 Climatic Geomorphology
evolution of slopes in desert zones. Gilbert was certainly the
most outstanding American geomorphologist of this epoch.
His excellent reports, like Geology of the Henry Mountains
(Gilbert, 1877) and Debris transport by overland flows (Gilbert,
1914), constituted significant advances on fluvial processes,
sediment transport, river erosion, pediment formation, and
slope development. Gilbert can be considered as one of the
pioneers of surface process research. His report on the The
Physics of eolian sands and desert dunes is a benchmark work in
geomorphology. In this study, Gilbert illustrated the use of
lake terraces as markers of ancient lake levels to infer the
origin of the present-day Great Salt Lake, Utah. He also as-
sessed the isostatic rebound caused by the water level drop in
the large Pleistocene pluvial lakes (Gilbert, 1890).
Geomorphological contributions from other arid zones of
the world were comparatively less important (Graf, 1988).
Numerous expeditions were carried out by French scientists
across the Sahara Desert. They resulted essentially in descrip-
tive works, but some of these authors clearly introduced the
climatic change problem (i.e., Chudeau, 1915; Flamand, 1919;
Gautier, 1935; Urvoy, 1933). The Kalahari Desert was exten-
sively described by Passarge in 1905. Kaiser in 1921 analyzed
the Namib Desert and, in 1925, studied part of the Arabian
deserts in 1925. The Iranian and Thar (India) deserts were
explored in the decade of the 1870s (e.g., by Blanford, 1878;
Oldham, 1874). Regarding the Australian deserts, Juston, in
1935, discussed the age of the large erosional surfaces and
their relation to the weathering products (Brock and Twidale,
2011). After a first descriptive period, desert research in South
America started with the studies about the playa-lakes (salares)
of Atacama by Frenguelli (1928). Also notable was the re-
search on La Puna carried out by Walther Penck (1920). At the
beginning of the twentieth century the prevailing idea was that
the wind was the main geomorphic agent involved in the
development of planation surfaces in deserts (i.e., Hedin
(1903), Passarge, and Walther). However, Bryan, in 1920,
highlighted the idea that wind action only produces small
changes in these planation surfaces. Research on aeolian
processes carried out by Bagnold (1941) in the Egyptian
Desert was compiled in his classic dissertation entitled The
Physics of blown sands and desert dunes. This work constitutes the
foundations aeolian geomorphology.
The work of the North American scientist Dana in 1849 on
landforms developed in the volcanic islands of the Central
Pacific was instrumental for the initiation of ‘tropical geo-
morphology’ (Chorley et al., 1964). Previously, Thomson in
1822 had pointed out the occurrence of numerous isolated
hills protruding from the plains in the region of the Mo-
zambique and Tanzania border (Douglas and Spencer, 1985).
Similar observations were made by Bornhardt in 1900 in
eastern Africa, who introduced the term inselberg to denote
this kind of isolated hills. However, Darwin in 1890 and
Branner in 1896 documented the occurrence of thick wea-
thering profiles in tropical areas. Previously, Buchanan, in
1807, published the first scientific descriptions of lateritic
weathering horizons developed in India. During the first half
of the twentieth century, concurring with the exploration of
new territories all around the world’s climatic zones, different
works on tropical geomorphology were published (i.e.,
Cushing, Falconer, Grund, Hayes, Hubert, Passarge, and
Sapper) (Douglas, 1978). In 1926, Thorbecke presided over
the first meeting on climatic geomorphology (Düsseldorf,
Germany) in which the foundations of morphoclimatic
classifications were established. Among the most relevant
works of this period are those undertaken by the German
scientist Freise during the decade of the 1930s in the State of
Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), and that of Sapper in 1935 on the
Geomorphology of the Humid Tropics, which constituted the most
relevant review of the subject at that time.
13.8.3 The Establishment of Climatic
Geomorphology
During September 22–23 1926, a meeting was held in Düs-
seldorf, Germany, on landform development in different cli-
matic zones, as well as on morphoclimatic classification
(Thorbecke, 1927). The results of that conference constituted
the first explicit and comprehensive approach to climatic
geomorphology. However, according to some of the partici-
pants, the problem formulation for particular climatic regions
was not convincing (Beckinsale and Chorley, 1991).
In the middle of the twentieth century, Büdel (1944, 1948)
published articles that were expanded extensively in his book
Climatic Geomorphology (1977), as well as in some subsequent
papers (i.e., Büdel, 1980). In these works, morphoclimatic
zones were defined as areas with characteristic assemblages of
landforms resulting from the activity of processes controlled
by different climate types. In his paper published in 1948,
Büdel differentiated eight different morphoclimatic zones
using morphologic and climatic criteria. These were expanded
to ten in his treatise of 1977, in which mountainous en-
vironments were excluded. This author also proposed the term
‘climatogenic geomorphology’ (Büdel, 1963) as the science of
reconstructing past climates from the analysis of ancient relict
landforms. As pointed out by Bremer (1996), climatic geo-
morphology led directly to climatogenic geomorphology, be-
cause a great part of the landscapes is constituted by relict
landforms developed under past climates.
Tricart and Cailleux (1965) developed the concept of
zonation in geomorphology and elaborated a map of mor-
phoclimatic regions, giving a significant role to vegetation in
their designations. They differentiated 13 morphoclimatic re-
gions around the world, including the mountain zone. Birot
(1949) analyzed the influence of climate on slope develop-
ment in different lithologies. During the decade of the 1950s,
climatic differentiations of karst (Lehmann et al., 1954) and
granite (Wilhelmy, 1958) landscapes were proposed. Peltier
(1950) related in a diagram a variety of exogenic processes to
mean annual temperatures and total annual precipitation and
proposed the differentiation of nine morphoclimatic regions.
His graph was later modified by Wilson (1968, 1969). This
classification was criticized due to the limitations of the bi-
variable approach (Stoddart, 1969a). The book of Birot
(1960) on Le Cycle d’Erosion sous les Différents Climats consti-
tuted a relevant contribution to the geomorphology of arid
and humid tropical zones. Later, Birot (1973) proposed dif-
ferent landscapes or ‘topographical facies’ related to six cli-
matic areas with multiple transition zones: humid hot facies,
humid temperate, with dry season, desert, dry and cold, and

humid and cold. A significant part of these works constitute
the foundations of the Climatic Geomorphology. They intro-
duce the main concepts, the influence of climate on the
morphogenetic processes, and the criteria used to differentiate
morphoclimatic zones.
13.8.4 The Development of Climatic Geomorphology
Until the second half of the twentieth century, geomorphology
was mainly focused on reconstruction of morphogenetic
stages in which erosion and tectonic processes sculptured the
present-day landscapes. This was denoted by Chorley (1978)
as the historic stage of geomorphology, mainly oriented to the
establishment of erosion models, the analysis of denudation
chronology, and studies on structural landscapes. Sub-
sequently, the increasing interest on the quantitative analysis
of processes and landforms in different climatic zones resulted
in further development of climatic geomorphology. This
branch of geomorphology has made much progress during the
last decades, as reveals the profusion of published thematic
volumes on different morphoclimatic zones.
During the second half of the twentieth century, ‘glacial
geomorphology’ benefited from relevant advances on the
mechanics of ice-flow (i.e., Hambrey, Lliboutry, Nye, Paterson,
and Weertman). Also in this period, research on glacial pro-
cesses and landforms (i.e., Boulton, Dreimanis, Drewry, Iver-
son, Linton, Menzies, and Sugden), and on fluvioglacial
environments and glaciotectonics (i.e., Price, Menzies, van der
Wateren (Maltman et al., 2000)) were abundant. In addition
to the papers published in specialized or general scientific
journals, numerous thematic volumes were published on tills,
moraines, drumlins, glaciotectonics, fluvioglacial, and glacio-
lacustrine environments. General volumes on glacial geo-
morphology were also produced, such as those of Embleton
and King in 1975, Sugden and John in 1976, Menzies in
1995–96, and Benn and Evans in 1998.
Over the same period, research on ‘periglacial geomorph-
ology’ was mainly focused in field and laboratory analysis of
processes, such as frost action (rock and soil cracking, wea-
thering, heaving, thrusting, and classification), mass move-
ments, fluvial processes, and wind action topics (i.e., Clark,
Corte, French, Lachenbruch, Lautridou, Mackay, Pissart, and
Washburn (French, 2003)). Landforms resulting from this
wide variety of processes develop in specific micro- and
mesoenvironments that indirectly generate significant gaps in
the understanding of periglacial environments (Barsch and
Caine, 1984). Many geomorphologists have been devoted to
the study of periglacial landforms (i.e., Barsch, Büdel, Czudek,
Demek, French, Mackay, Pissart, Rapp, Tricart, and Wash-
burn). Some treatises on periglacial geomorphology have also
been published. The work of Washburn in 1980, considered
by Thorn (1992) to be the ‘bible’ of this discipline deserves
special mention. The thematic volume edited by Clark in 1988
is a collection of papers covering most topics related to peri-
glacial geomorphology. Finally, the treatise of French in 1996,
and updated in 2007, provides an excellent review of the
present knowledge on periglacial research.
Special expeditions were required to study many of the
remote and inhospitable desert regions of the world. Satellite
Climatic Geomorphology 119
imagery became a much appreciated tool for research on ‘arid
zone geomorphology’ since the decade of the 1970s. It made
possible small-scale mapping, especially in the great sand
deserts that were otherwise intractable. The increasing interest
on the understanding of arid environments is demonstrated
by the recent creation of several ‘desert research centers’
around the world. Research on weathering under desert con-
ditions and resultant microlandscapes has been undertaken by
Cooke, Evans, Goudie, Mabbutt, Twidale, and Viles. Dorn and
Oberlander have mainly carried out rock (‘desert’) varnish
studies, and Goudie, Machette, Marion, Reevees, Summerfield
and Watson, and Nash and Wright published studies on cal-
crete and silcrete crusts. There is also abundant recent litera-
ture on experimental analysis of complex response in
geomorphic systems like slopes and drainage basins (i.e.,
Abrahams, Bryan, De Ploey, Parsons, Schumm, and Thornes).
Fluvial geomorphology on deserts has been addressed by a
number of authors including Leopold, Wolman, Miller,
Schumm, and Shick. Badland research has been focused on
slope evolution and the quantification of slope retreat and soil
erosion (i.e., Grossman, Howard, King, Mabbutt, Oberlander,
Selby, and Twidale). The challenging topic of pediments
(glacis) in arid areas has been undertaken by numerous
authors (i.e., Birot, Dresch, King, Mabbutt, Mensching, Tricart,
and Twidale). Blair, Bull, Denny, Harvey, Hooke, and
Mcpherson are some of the key authors who have studied
alluvial fans. There is also abundant research on playa-lakes
and sebkhas (i.e., Eugster, Glennie, Hardie, Krinsley, Goudie,
and Thomas). Aeolian processes have been the subject of
numerous research papers in different scientific journals by
Goudie, Kocurek, Lancaster, Livingstone, Mainguet, McCauley,
Péwé, Pye, Thomas, Tsoar, and Warren, among others. The-
matic volumes on aeolian geomorphology have been recently
published by Pye in 1987; Pye and Tsoar in 1990; Lancaster in
1995; Livingstone and Warren in 1996; Goudie and Mid-
dleton in 2006. However, the continuous publication of the-
matic volumes and special issues on arid zone geomorphology
reveals the interest on the topic, such as those of Tricart in
1969, Mabbutt in 1970, Cooke et al. in 1993, Abrahams and
Parsons in 1994, Thomas in 1997, Laity in 2008, and Parsons
and Abrahams in 2009. The books of Thomas and Parsons
and Abrahams compile excellent contributions by prominent
specialists on drylands.
‘Tropical geomorphology’ has not been a systematic re-
search topic until very recently (Gupta, 1993). Some authors
do not even consider it to be a true morphoclimatic zone
(Stoddart, 1969a, b; Twidale and Lageat, 1994). Studies on
weathering processes and laterite development have been
carried out by Berry, Birot, Goudie, Loughnan, McFarlane,
Ollier, Ruxton, and Thomas. Research on water erosion in
tropical forests, mainly carried out in experimental basins, has
increased during the last four decades. Studies on fluvial
transport were undertaken by Douglas, Spencer, and Walling.
Mass movements are common in deeply weathered slopes
of tropical zones as illustrated by the works of Brand, Lal, So,
and Tricart. Büdel (1957) analyzed planation surfaces and
inselbergs in the tropics. He developed the theory of double
planation, differentiating an upper denudation surface and a
lower weathering front. The constant removal of the wea-
thered horizon results in the exhumation of the so-called
120 Climatic Geomorphology
etch-surfaces. The development of these ideas was mainly
achieved by Bremer, Ollier, Thomas, and Twidale. Carbonate
outcrops are subject to intense dissolution in tropical climates
generating typical cone karst and tower karst landscapes (i.e.,
Balazs, Lehmann, and Sweeting). Books on tropical geo-
morphology are scarce compared to those dealing with other
morphoclimatic zones. The works of Birot in 1973 and Tricart
in 1974 constituted important contributions, but the thematic
volume edited by Thomas in 1994, subsequent to his earlier
contribution in 1974, is probably the most valuable treatise
on tropical processes and landforms. Moreover, the book of
Faniran and Jeje in 1983 offered a state of the art on this
subject in the early 1980s. Finally, the thematic volumes of
Twidale in 1982, Gerrad in 1988, Vidal-Romanı́ and Twidale
in 1998, Twidale and Vidal in 2005, and Migon in 2006 also
consider issues on granite geomorphology closely related to
tropical geomorphology.
13.8.5 Climatic Geomorphology: Processes and
Morphoclimatic Zonation
Climatic geomorphology explores how climatic factors, such
as the intensity, frequency, and duration of precipitation, frost
intensity, direction, and power of wind, control the develop-
ment of landscapes (Ahnert, 1998). It is noteworthy that, in
this recent definition, quantitative aspects are taken into ac-
count. Initially, in the pioneering work of Peltier (1950), only
two climatic parameters (mean annual temperature and total
annual precipitation) were considered in establishing the re-
lationships between climate and five key geomorphic pro-
cesses: chemical weathering, frost action, fluvial erosion, mass
movements, and wind action (Figure 5). For Peltier, ‘‘this set
of graphics simply represents the schematic illustration of a
concept.’’ He distinguished two groups of morphogenetic
elements, weathering, and the transport agents of the resultant
materials. The author proposed nine different morphogenetic
regions (Figure 6), characterized by distinctive geomorphic
processes. Distinctions made by Peltier were mainly qualita-
tive and very subjective (Derbyshire, 1973). A similar ap-
proach was developed by Leopold et al. (1964). Wilson (1968,
1969) followed a similar method, but changed the frost action
graph by a mechanical weathering one, modified the fields of
relative intensities of geomorphic processes defined by Peltier,
and distinguished six climatic regimes designated as climate-
process systems. Wilson stressed the influence of the monthly
variation in temperature and precipitation (seasonality) on
the activity of geomorphic processes (Figure 7). Tanner (1961)
used potential evapotranspiration instead of temperature be-
cause this factor reflects more adequately moisture availability,
which controls the proportion of vegetation cover. In addition
to the four main morphogenetic regions (glacial, temperate,
arid, and rainforest), Tanner added tundra, savannah, and
semiarid regimes.
An interesting approach was proposed by Common (1966)
in his work on landslides and morphoclimatic regions. He
considered that mass movement, as part of the denudation
process, might be used to recognize different landscapes. In-
stead of using a large number of variables, he elaborated three
global maps based on precipitation and temperature
parameters of geomorphic interest (i.e., precipitation regimes,
intervals of total precipitation, and temperature).
Worldwide scale classifications of climate and vegetation
controls on weathering intensity and products have been also
undertaken (Strakhov, 1967). Strakhov recognized a clear
climate-controlled zonation of weathering, and identified
lixiviation or solution maxima in the tropical forest and taiga-
podsol zones, where precipitation reaches the highest values.
Weathering is more intense and deeper in the tropics due to
accelerated kinetics of the chemical reactions caused by higher
temperatures. On the contrary, in the desert zones, weathering
is generally less intense and shallower due to scarce precipi-
tation. The north–south global cross section presented by
Strakhov (1967) led to differentiation of a set of weathering
profiles linked to the various climatic zones (Figure 8).
He also created a global map showing the geographical dis-
tribution of weathering profiles.
Another attempt to produce a morphoclimatic zonation
was based on regional differences in fluvial erosion, although
this process is greatly influenced by allochtonous factors.
Several regression curves relating mean annual precipitation
(Langbein and Schumm, 1958; Fournier, 1960; Wilson,
1973) or mean annual runoff (Douglas, 1967; Dendy and
Bolton, 1976) with sediment production in tones per
square kilometer per year have been proposed. Most of
the authors assume that maximum fluvial erosion occurs at
approximately 300 mm of precipitation, whereas others
highlight the occurrence of another denudation peak at ap-
proximately 1500 mm. Corbel (1964) analyzed erosion data
from different climatic zones and found lower values in the
tropics. Fournier (1960) obtained very different conclusions
from the analysis of 78 drainage basins between 2460 and
1 060 000 km2. He analyzed the correlation between sus-
pended load in rivers and the climatic parameter p2/P, where
p is the maximum monthly precipitation, and P the total
annual precipitation. Opposite to Corbel, Fournier (1960)
found that erosion increases as precipitation augments. This
author elaborated a map of worldwide erosion distribution.
According to this map, the highest values occur in the humid-
seasonal tropics and decrease toward equatorial and arid
regions. Milliman and Meade (1983) (Figure 9) studied
sediment yield using deposits filling reservoirs and sedimen-
tation rates at geological time scales. Figure 9(b) shows
annual suspended sediment discharge contributed by rivers to
the sea worldwide.
Chorley et al. (1984) pointed out that a simple morpho-
genetic classification may be developed considering par-
ameters such as mean annual temperature, mean annual
precipitation, and seasonality, expressed by the temperature of
the warmest month, or by the number of months with pre-
cipitation higher than 50 mm (Figure 10). The resulting dia-
gram is composed of eight different regions that may be
divided into two main groups:
1. First-order morphogenetic regions, considered as non-
seasonal by Beckinsale and Chorley (1991), comprising
the glacial, arid, and humid tropical regions. These are
characterized by the occurrence of nonseasonal processes
with low erosion rates, except those related to sporadic
events such as surging glaciers, desert storms, and mass
 Climatic Geomorphology 121

Chemical weathering Frost action

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Inches 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Inches

10°F −12°C 10°F g −12°C

on
Weak Str e
20 −7 20 rat −7
de
Mo
30 −1 30 −1

40 4 40 Weak 4
Moderate
50 10 50 10

60 16 60 16
Absent or insignificant
70 21 70 21
Strong
80 27 80 27
(a) 203 178 152 127 102 76 50 25 cm (b) 203 178 152 127 102 76 50 25 cm

Weathering regions Fluvial erosion

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Inches 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Inches
Mod. mech. Minimum
10°F −12°C 10°F −12°C
Strong mechanical pluvial erosion
20 weathering Slight −7 20 −7
Moderate
Mod. chem. wea. mech. −1
30 −1 30
wea.
Mod. chem.
40 4 40 4
wea. with frost
50 action 10 50 Maximum 10
pluvial erosion
60 Moderate 16 60 16
Strong chemical Very
70 weathering 21 70 21
chemical slight
80 weathering weathering 27 80 Minimum 27
Min.
(c) 203 178 152 127 102 76 50 25 cm (d) 203 178 152 127 102 76 50 25 cm

Mass movement Wind action

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Inches 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Inches

Maximum
10°F −12°C 10°F −12°C
m wind action
x imu −7 20 −7
20 Ma
Moderate −1
30 −1 30
wind action
Minimum
40 4 40 4
mass
Maximum movement 10 50 10
50
mass
movement 60 Maximum 16
60 16
Moderate wind
70 mass 21 70 Minimum action 21
movement 80 wind action
80 27 27

(e) 203 178 152 127 102 76 50 25 cm (f) 203 178 152 127 102 76 50 25 cm
Figure 5 ‘Peltier diagrams’ illustrating the relative importance of some geomorphic processes as a function of mean annual rainfall and
temperature. Reproduced from Peltier, L.C., 1950. The geographic cycle in periglacial regions as it is related to climatic geomorphology. Annals
of the Association of American Geographers 40, 214–236.

movements. The central zones of these nonseasonal re-
gions are not very sensitive to climatic changes.
2. Second-order morphogenetic regions, considered as sea-
sonal ones by the same authors, comprising tropical
wet–dry, semiarid, dry continental, humid midlatitude, and
periglacial regions. These regions have seasonal processes
and are more sensitive to climatic changes. In these regions
it is possible to differentiate warmer climates (tropical
wet–dry and semiarid), where geomorphic processes differ
significantly depending on the length of the wet season,
122 Climatic Geomorphology

and cooler climates (dry continental, humid midlatitude, Geomorphologists generally use in their analyses climatic
and periglacial), whose geomorphic processes differ mainly parameters such as those employed by Peltier (1950), Tanner
depending on summer temperatures and also partly on (1961), Leopold et al. (1964), Wilson (1968, 1969), Chorley
precipitation amounts. These authors present a map et al. (1984), and others. These data can be applied to develop
modifying that by Tricart and Cailleux (1965) of the broad overviews about geomorphic processes. Nevertheless,
current distribution of their eight morphogenetic regions. the utilized mean values have significant limitations because
most of the surface processes have a discontinuous nature
with significant variations in frequency and magnitude
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Inches (Ahnert, 1987, 1998; De Ploey et al., 1991). It seems necessary
to use other numerical parameters such as rainfall intensity,
ial
10°F Glac −12°C wind velocity or frequency, and duration of frost. Once these
numerical data have been selected, a frequency-magnitude
la cial −7
20 Perig analysis can be performed to analyze the morphoclimatic
elements. Ahnert (1987) proposed a magnitude-frequency
30 −1
Boreal index for precipitation from which the distribution of me-
Savanna
4
teorological events of geomorphological significance can be
40
recognized. De Ploey et al. (1991), using daily precipitation
50 10 values, obtained a sort of quantification of the cumulative
Maritime
potential erosion, which may serve to evaluate slope erosion
rid
i-a

60 Moderate 16 by sheet overland flow. This kind of approach may be a first

m
Se

step toward a more comprehensive morphoclimatology.

70 21
Although there is a general agreement about the concept
Selva and aims of climatic geomorphology, some criticisms and
80 Arid 27
objections have been raised by some authors. Stoddart
203 178 152 127 102 76 50 25 cm (1969a) considered that morphoclimatic regionalization
Figure 6 Definition of morphogenetic regions based on mean
based on a limited set of climatic factors may lead to mis-
annual rainfall and temperature. Reproduced from Peltier, L.C., 1950. representations. According to this author, climatic factors, al-
The geographic cycle in periglacial regions as it is related to climatic though important, are not the dominant ones; landscape
geomorphology. Annals of the Association of American Geographers development results from complex interactions among cli-
40, 214–236. mate, structural components, and vegetation. They contend

0.1 1 3 5 8 10 15 20 inches
100 °F A SA S
35 °C
90
Tropical Wet−dry 30
80 Desert
25
HT Equatorial
70 Mediterranean 20
60 15
Latitude 10
50 Continental Equable Climatic régimes and
40 5
climate-process systems
P 0
32
−5
20
−10
10
G
D
0 Polar −20
−10
−20 S −40
My
−40 −40
−60 −60
−80 −80

0 0.5 1 3 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 cm
Figure 7 Diagram showing the climatic regimes and climate-process systems of Wilson (1968) based on monthly rainfall and temperature data
reported by Strahler (1965). Scales are modified to emphasize arid regions. The boundaries of the climate-process systems are indicated by dashed
lines with dots. A: Arid; SA: Semiarid; S: Selva; HT: Humid temperate; P: Periglacial; G: Glacial. Reproduced from Wilson, L., 1968. Morphogenetic
classification. In: Fairbridge, R.W. (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, pp. 717–729.
 Climatic Geomorphology 123

Tundra Taiga-podsol zone Steppes Semidesert and desert Savannas Tropic forest zone > 3000 Savannas
3000
2700
Precipitation (mm)

2400
2100 1° Fall of vegetation
1800
1500 25
ration
1200 20 Evapo
900 15 1 °C
600 10 tio n 600–700
ipita
Prec
300 15 150–200
0 10
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + +
Zone of mobility of all components + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ 1 + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 + + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + ++ +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + ++ ++
Zone of increased mobility of all components
+ + +
+ +
Figure 8 Weathering zones in relation to latitude. 1. Fresh rock; 2. Debris affected by limited chemical weathering; 3. Zone dominated by
hydrolysis; 4. Kaolinite zone; 5. Zone of iron and aluminum oxides; 6. Ferricrete. Reproduced from Strakhov, N.M., 1967. Principles of
Lithogenesis. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, vol. 1, 245 pp.

that it is not possible to separate climatic geomorphology
from other geomorphologic approaches. Baker and Twidale
(1991) considered that the glacial and arid morphogenetic
regions are the only ones that can be easily identified, whereas
the other climatic landscapes can hardly be recognized and
defined. Twidale and Lageat (1994) pointed out that the
glacial, periglacial, and arid morphoclimatic regions represent
50% of the Earth’s continental surface, and the other half
is occupied by humid zones (rainforest, savannah, moderate
maritime, and boreal regions of Peltier). The opponents of
climatic geomorphology state that in the latter humid zones,
most of the landscapes may be considered of doubtful
designation (Stoddart, 1969b). Another aspect raised by
Twidale and Lageat (1994) is that some processes controlled
by climatic factors have a widespread distribution. For in-
stance, landforms linked to fluvial erosion and sedimentation
can be observed in all the climatic regions (gullies, gorges,
meanders, alluvial fans, braided channels, etc.). Tafonis
and gnammas occur in a wide variety of climatic zones, and
patterned ground developed in periglacial and arid zones
constitute an example of landform convergence or ‘equifin-
ality’ throughout different climatic environments (Birot,
1955). In these cases, different processes eventually give rise to
similar morphologies. Consequently, these authors maintain
that the impact of climate has been largely overvalued, but
do not deny that climate plays a key morphogenetic role.
Also they argue against the establishment of a humid tropical
region on the basis of the abundance of landslides and etched
surfaces, because these landforms also develop in other
climatic zones.
13.8.6 The Zonal Concept in Climatic
Geomorphology
From a global perspective, many of the processes occurring at
the lithosphere–atmosphere interface may be considered as
zonal, as their distribution tend to form wide bands from the
poles to the equator controlled by the different amounts of
both precipitation and insolation (Derbyshire, 1976). The
zonal concept had been previously used in other disciplines
such as climatology, pedology, and biogeography. The
subdivision of the continental area into climatically related
edaphic regions was first proposed by Dokuchayev (1883),
who distinguished zonal, azonal, and intrazonal soils. The
first ones are well-developed soils that differ according to the
ecological and climatic conditions of the area in which they
were formed. The azonal soils are poorly developed, with
many features similar to those present in the host rock. Finally,
the intrazonal soils display a good development, but they are
influenced by factors like poor drainage or salinity.
The work by Troll (1944) on periglacial microlandforms is
considered to be an introduction to the concept of zonation
in climatic geomorphology. The term ‘zonal’ applies to those
processes or features whose geographical distribution occurs
in latitudinal bands roughly parallel to the Equator, such as
the equatorial forests, coral reefs, and inland ice caps. Each
one of these bands constitutes a morphoclimatic zone (Tricart
and Cailleux, 1965). The term ‘azonal’ refers to those pro-
cesses and landforms with a worldwide geographic distri-
bution such as fluvial, aeolian, and coastal systems. Finally,
the term ‘extrazonal’ is used to denote some processes
124 Climatic Geomorphology

Sediment yield
(tonnes km–2 yr–1)

1000
500
100
50
10

(a)
142 59 25

100
444 30
131 31 133 1738
17 66
256 110
930
210 3000
1438
232 67

286
113
290
150
28
3228
17
18
154
Annual suspended 62
290 sediment discharge
(million tones)

(b)

Figure 9 (a) Sediment yield in the main drainage basins of the world. Blank spaces indicate essentially no discharge to the ocean. (b) Annual
discharge of suspended sediment from the largest drainage basins of the world. The width of the arrows is proportional to the sediment
discharge. Numbers refer to average annual input in millions of tonnes. The direction of the arrows does not indicate the direction of the
sediment transport. Reproduced from Hugget, R.J., 2003. Fundamentals of Geomorphology. Routledge, London, 386 pp.

that, even though characteristic of a certain climatic zone, can
also occur in other areas: for instance, some periglacial and
glacial processes and landforms occurring in low latitude
mountains.
The mountain areas display a characteristic climatic zon-
ation or ‘altitudinal gradient’. In transects across high moun-
tains located at low latitudes we can find, from the bottom to
the summit, temperate, periglacial, and glacial environments.
In each altitudinal band, the landscape is controlled by
specific morphoclimatic conditions (Büdel, 1948). This cli-
matic altitudinal gradient is due to variations in temperature
and precipitation with elevation. Temperature diminishes
gradually with altitude as the air becomes less dense and solar
radiation increases. An elevation increment of 1000 m in the
Alps involves a decrease in average temperature roughly
equivalent to the temperature reduction experienced in a
1000 km journey toward the North Pole. This thermal drop is
normally accompanied by altitudinal and latitudinal
 Climatic Geomorphology 125

30 0
°

20 50

)
° 0 M

(°C
ea
n

e
Arid an

ur
10

t
10 n

ra
° 00 ual

2
pe
Semi- pr

m
ec

te
arid ip

al
0° 15 ita
Dry

nu
00 tio

an
continental n

5
(m

n
ea
−1 22 Tropical 20 m
° )
M 0 ° wet-dry 00
Peri- 10° Humid
−2 Humid 25

11
0 ° glacial mid 00
−2 0° tropical
5° latitude 27
Glacial 50
Temperature warmest month (°C) Number of months
cold-warm > 50 mm Rainfall
dry-wet
Seasonality
Figure 10 Main morphoclimatic zones classified according to mean annual temperature (1C), mean annual precipitation (mm), mean number of
wet months (450 mm) and mean temperature of the warmest month (1C). Reproduced from Chorley, R.J., Schumm, S.A., Sugden, D.E., 1984.
Geomorphology. Methuen, London, 607 pp.

variations in vegetation (Büdel, 1977). With increasing alti-
tude, a characteristic succession in the morphology and size of
patterned ground commonly occurs, as reported for the Swiss
Alps and Karakoram by Furrer (1972). Similar cases have been
described in other mountainous areas, demonstrating the
impact of altitudinal gradient in process and landform dis-
tribution. Precipitation varies with height, generally displaying
an initial increasing trend that diminishes upward after
reaching a maximum. Most high mountains are characterized
by a more rainy and cloudy intermediate step. Another im-
portant effect is the aspect of the slopes; in the northern
hemisphere, snow is preserved during longer periods in north-
facing slopes. Additionally, the wind-facing areas are more
humid than those located in the lee side, which are generally
dry due to the rain-shadow effect (Tricart and Cailleux, 1965).
The imprint of climate and structural factors on the land-
scape is largely dependent on the scale. According to Chorley
et al. (1984), at scales of 106–107 km2 the variety of landscapes
is better explained by climatic differences, whereas at scales of
104–105 km2 landscape variability is dominated by structural
and lithological factors.
13.8.7 The Main Morphoclimatic Zones
The definition of morphoclimatic zones should be based on
the identification of the dominant climate-controlled geo-
morphic processes and landforms of these areas, taking into
account, also, the possible occurrence of inherited Quaternary
and Tertiary features. Interest in the geomorphic record of
climatic change was shown by Penck and Brückner (1901–09)
in their dissertations on the alpine glaciations. Similarly,
Passarge (1904), in his work on the Kalahari Desert, found
clear evidence of alternating arid and savannah conditions in
the past. Büdel (1948) insisted on the importance of paleo-
landforms, and, in 1963, proposed the term climatogenic
geomorphology, as the study of different generations of relict
landforms and the succession of climatic conditions under
which they formed. The distinction between modern and
ancient inherited landforms and the establishment of ad-
equate relative chronologies for the relict features is essential
for understanding landscape evolution.
The division of the Earth surface into different morpho-
climatic zones has always been a complex and controversial
task. Our knowledge about the morphoclimatic controls in
some remote areas of the world is rather limited, making it
difficult to delineate precise boundaries (Tricart and Cailleux,
1965). The increasing availability of remotely sensed data has
partially solved this problem. Moreover, except for the case of
coastal environments, the morphoclimatic boundaries are
generally gradational. For instance, the transition between the
savannas and semiarid areas in Africa reach large dimensions.
However, according to Büdel (1977), there are physiographic
areas like the Black Forest, the Po plain, and the Appalachian
Mountains that can be clearly differentiated. Generally, only
the cores of the different morphoclimatic zones can be iden-
tified unambiguously.
The main reviews on climatic geomorphology are those by
Büdel (1948, 1963, 1977) and Tricart and Cailleux, (1965),
who elaborated different maps of the morphoclimatic areas
that they proposed (Figures 11–13). Recently, Gutiérrez
(2005) published a textbook on this subject. Büdel (1948),
using climatic and morphologic criteria, divided the Earth into
seven climatomorphological zones. He proposed a map showing
the distribution of these morphoclimatic zones in the ‘Old
World’ (Europe, Asia, and Africa). Tricart and Cailleux (1965)
criticized this zonation indicating the following drawbacks:
(1) lack of homogeneity; (2) segregation of three types of
permafrost regions; (3) consideration of the Mediterranean
area as a single zone; and (4) use of confusing terminology.
Büdel (1963) indicated that some nonclimatic factors
(i.e., petrovariance or bedrock resistance variability, epeir-
ovariance or epeirogenesis, distance from base level, topo-
graphy, and human influences) would play a relevant role on
landscape evolution if the Earth’s climate would be uniform.
For Büdel, in each sector of the Earth, climate determines the
126 Climatic Geomorphology
Equator
Glacier zone
Zone of pronounced valley
formation
Extratropical zone of valley
formation
Figure 11 Distribution of the present-day morphoclimatic zones of the Earth according to Büdel, J., 1963. Klima-genetische geomorphologie.
Geographische Rundschau 15, 269–285 (English translation in Derbyshire, E. (Ed.), 1973. Climatic Geomorphology. Macmillan, London, pp. 202–227).
combination of morphogenetic processes. He divided the
Earth’s surface into five morphoclimatic zones (Figure 11),
based on the distribution of climate-controlled landforms and
without taking into account the effects of the altitudinal gra-
dients on climate. These morphoclimatic zones were denoted
by the modern climate, but Büdel stated that in midlatitude
zones, characterized by a slower geomorphic evolution, the
influence of the past climates may be relevant.
The classification proposed by Tricart and Cailleux (1965)
is based on two main criteria: (1) large climatic and bio-
geographic areas that define the main zonal boundaries;
and (2) some climatic and biogeographic subdivisions com-
bined with palaeoclimatic differences. They differentiated the
following areas:
1. Cold Zone
a. Glacier domain.
b. Periglacial domain.
2. Midlatitude Forest Zone
a. Maritime domain with relict Quaternary glacial and
periglacial landforms.
b. Continental domain with Quaternary and present-day
ice caps and the possible occurrence of permafrost.
c. Mediterranean domain with a smaller influence of relict
Quaternary landforms.
3. Arid and subarid zones. They are divided based on:
a. Moisture deficit in xerophitic bush-land steppes and
deserts.
b. Temperature of cold and warm areas.
4. Humid intertropical zone
Subtropical zone of pediment
and valley formation
Tropical zone planation
surface formation
a. Savannah domain, with sparse vegetation cover, intense
chemical weathering although discontinuous over the
time, and occurrence of significant overland flow events.
b. Forest domain with dense vegetation cover and intense
chemical weathering.
From these primary climatic zones, Tricart and Cailleux
(1965) subdivided the Earth’s surface into 12 different mor-
phoclimatic regions (Figure 12). However, according to
Beckinsale and Chorley (1991), in this division the morpho-
climatic influences are not clearly distinguished from the cli-
matogenic ones. Perhaps it is also excessive to subdivide the
periglacial domain into five morphoclimatic regions charac-
terized by the occurrence of modern or relict landforms. Ac-
cording to Stoddart (1969a), it seems that the map of Tricart
and Cailleux (1965) gives greater importance to the landform
controlling factors than to the landscape itself. Derbyshire
(1973) indicated that the vegetation was considered as a
dominant geomorphic factor and that the terminology util-
ized is more pedologic and biogeographic than climatic or
geomorphological.
The map of morphoclimatic zones presented by Büdel
(1977) (Figure 13) implicitly indicates that the morphocli-
matic boundaries enclose areas in which the main active
geomorphic processes depend on a particular and uniform
climate. However, the boundaries of climatic zones are
gradational, so that the diagnostic geomorphic processes may
only have a full representation on the core of these zones.
However, the low and middle elevation zones are taken
into account, whereas the high mountains are obviated.
 Mollweide projection
80° 80°

60° 60°

40° 40°

20° 20°

160° 140° 120° 100° 80° 60° 40° 20° 0° 20° 60° 80° 140° 160° 180°0°
0°180° 40°

20° 20°

40° 40°

60° 60°
1 000 000
km2 100 000
km2 10 000 80° 80°
km2

Climatic Geomorphology
1000500 0 1000 2000 3000 km 5 Maritime, or mild-winter forest zone of mid-latitudes 9 Deserts and degraded steppes without severe winters

1 Glacial regions 6 Maritime, forest zone of mid-latitudes with severe winters 10 Deserts and degraded steppes with severe winters

2 Periglacial regions with permafrost 7 Mid-latitude forest zone-Mediterranean type 11 Savannas

3 Periglacial regions without permafrost 8 Semi-desert steppes 12 Intertropical forests

4 Forest on quaternary permafrost 8a Semi-desert steppes with severe winters Mountainous areas where étagement plays a dominant role

Figure 12 Distribution of the morphoclimatic zones of the Earth proposed by Tricart, J., Cailleux, A., 1965. Introduction a la Géomorphologie Climatique. SEDES, Paris, 306 pp.

127
128 Climatic Geomorphology

80° 80°

60° 60°

40° 40°

20°N 20°N

120°W 80° 40° Aquator 0° 60°E

20° S 0°S

40°

60° 60°

80°
120°W
Glacial zone (and immediately
adjacent area)
Subpolar zone of excessive
valley-cutting
Taiga valley-cutting zone,
in the permafrost region
Ectropic zone of retarded
valley-cutting
Subtropic zone of mixed relief
development, etesian region
0 3000km80°
80° 40° 0° 40° 80° 120° 160°E Entwurf: J. Budel 1974
Subtropic zone of mixed relief
development, monsoonal region
Winter cold arid zone of surface transformation,
largely through pediments and glacis
Warm arid zone of surface preservation
and traditionally continued development,
largely through fluvio-aeolian sandplains
Peritropical zone of excessive planation
Innter tropical zone of partial planation

Figure 13 Map of morphoclimatic zones excluding the high mountains. Reproduced from Büdel, J., 1977. Klima-Geomorphologie. Borntraeger,
Berlı́n, 304 pp. (English translation in Fischer, L., Busche, D., 1982. Climatic Geomorphology. Princetown University Press, Princetown, 443 pp.).

The establishment of different morphoclimatic regions is very
complex because: (1) the definition of the criteria used to
delineate boundaries, which actually do not exist, is quite
subjective; and (2) the differentiation between modern and
relict landforms is frequently a difficult task. According to
Büdel (1977) the geomorphic imprint of active processes
operating in midlatitude areas is generally very weak, and
more than 95% of the landscape in these regions is constituted
by relict landforms.
The most significant features of the main morphoclimatic
areas have been described by Kiewietdejonge (1984) in his
great review on Büdel’s work:
1. Glacial zone, to which Büdel did not dedicate special at-
tention to. According to him, in this zone the morpho-
genetic processes are more easily studied in deglaciated
regions than in the presently active glacial regions.
2. Periglacial zone of pronounced valley-cutting. This zone cor-
responds to the subpolar and solifluction regions of Büdel
(1948), characterized by the importance of mass move-
ments on periglacial slopes. Its northern boundary is de-
fined by the glaciers and the southern one by the
solifluction limit at the timber-line or permafrost termi-
nation. The tree-line usually coincides with the boundary
of the slopes affected by solifluction, whereas the perma-
frost boundary can expand over lower latitudes. The upper
horizon of the ground may be structured generating pat-
terned ground. Fluvial incision may reach high rates in
these zones. Slopes may develop by parallel retreat leading
to the generation of talus flatirons or tripartite slopes.
3. Ectropic zone of retarded valley-cutting. It is the most diverse
and possibly the most complex region, with the occurrence
of a large variety of landforms. Some 95% of the landscape
in the European sector of this area is constituted by

inherited landforms. Stepped planation surfaces (Pied-
monttrepen of W. Penck) are very common. Pediment
(glacis) surfaces and shallow and wide valleys may be
common. In the areas affected by ancient glacial erosion,
extensive landscapes of hills and lakes are developed. A
loess cover derived from materials deposited during pre-
vious cold periods commonly mantles the ground. This,
together with the following region, are the most important
ones for the study of climatogenic geomorphology.
4. Subtropical zone of mixed relief development. This comprises
the mediterranean and monsoonal regions with different
morphological and climatic characteristics. Büdel did
not present descriptions of the monsoonal regions, but
just adjusted his observations to the mediterranean areas.
This zone is a transitional area whose evolution may
have been controlled by tropical, periglacial, glacial,
temperate, humid, and arid climates. In addition, in this
regions human activity should be considered, which may
have an extraordinary impact on shallow landslides
and fluvial erosion. The landscape in this zone is the
assemblage of relict and modern landforms, commonly
showing an altitudinal zonation. In carbonate terrains,
considerable development of Cenozoic planation surfaces
is recognized with superimposed karstic landforms. In
fluvial valleys and intramontane basins the development of
pediments is common, generally related to fluvial terrace
sequences.
5. Arid zone with transformation of planation surfaces into pedi-
ments and development of plains mantled by fluvioaeolian sands.
This area includes deserts with cold winters and tropical
arid zones. In this latter zone, particularly intense wetting
and drying and salt weathering processes occur. Within this
zone erosional plains with inselbergs, extensive hamadas,
and stone deserts are common features. Calcretes or pet-
rocalcic horizons develop on pediment and terrace allu-
vium. These alluvial–fluvial deposits constitute the main
source for the sand deserts. The winter-cold arid zones are
characterized by pediment sequences. Frost shattering is
the dominant weathering process.
6. Peritropical zone (humid-dry) of excessive planation. In this
region thick weathering horizons commonly develop,
which can reach several hundreds of meters thick with the
eventual development of laterites. In tectonically active
areas, the formation of extensive plains can be explained by
the double planation mechanism of Büdel (1957), where
etchplains and inselbergs are characteristic.
7. Equatorial zone of partial planation. This is not a very well
studied zone due to the difficulties posed by the dense tree
cover. Here, chemical weathering is more intense than in
the other areas. In the central areas of these zones, plana-
tion surfaces undergo little reworking because the forma-
tive processes are much attenuated.
The presented classifications show significant differences in the
number of morphoclimatic zones: Büdel (1948) with seven;
Peltier (1950) with nine; Büdel (1963) with five; Tricart and
Cailleux (1965) with thirteen; Wilson (1968) with six; Büdel
(1977) with ten; and Chorley et al. (1984) with eight. These
variations reflect the diversity of the criteria used to develop
the regionalizations and their high degree of subjectivity.
Climatic Geomorphology 129
The thematic monographs published so far have been fo-
cused on the following morphoclimatic zones: glacial, peri-
glacial, arid, and tropical humid. These reviews propose more
detailed climatically based classifications. The geomorphology
of temperate regions has not been treated comprehensively in
any publication, probably due to the high proportion of relict
landforms.
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Biographical Sketch

Dr. Mateo Gutiérrez (b. Burgos, 1941) studied Geology at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid. He has taught
several Geology subjects at Madrid University, the Colegio Universitario of Teruel, and the University of Zaragoza,
where he became full professor in 1980. He has given postdoctorate courses on Geomorphology at Sao Paulo
University (Brazil) and San Juan University (Argentina).
Mateo has investigated on a wide variety of geomorphological topics, including regional geomorphology, karst,
tectonic geomorphology, aeolian landforms, weathering features, periglacial geomorphology, soil erosion, etc. He
has translated several geology books into Spanish, published more than 40 papers in international journals and is
the author of the books Climatic Geomorphology (2005, Elsevier) and Geomorfologı́a (2008, Prentice Hall).

Dr. Francisco Gutiérrez (b. Salamanca, 1969) studied Geology at the Universities of Zaragoza (Spain) and
Aberdeen (UK). He is currently full professor at the Department of Earth Sciences in the University of Zaragoza
and teaches Geohazards, Field Geology, and Geomorphology. He has carried out research stays at the Universidad
Complutense de Madrid, the Faculty of Geographical Sciences in Utrecht University, and the Colorado Geological
Survey.
Francisco’s main research topics include evaporite dissolution phenomena (sinkhole hazards, impact on fluvial
systems, morphostructures generated by interstratal karstification), geomorphological mapping, fluvial geo-
morphology, slope movements, tectonic geomorphology, and paleoseismology. He has published more than 50
papers in international journals. Francisco is member of the Executive Committee of the International Association
of Geomorphologists and of the Editorial Board of the journals Geomorphology and Environmental Earth Sciences.