S tudy Notes in

General Chemistry

Matter and Its Properties

STEM_GC11MPIa-b- (1 to 12)

FOR SHS
STEM STUDENTS
 CONTENT
Matter and its properties
1. the particulate nature of
matter
2. states of matter
a. the macroscopic
b. microscopic view
3. Physical and chemical
properties
4. Extensive and intensive
properties
5. Ways of classifying
matter
a. pure substances and
mixtures
b. elements and compounds
c. homogeneous and
heterogeneous mixtures
6. Methods of separating
mixtures into their
component substances
STEM
CONTENT STANDARD LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
1. recognize that substances are made up of smaller
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-1
particles
The learners
demonstrate an 2. describe and/or make a representation of the
understanding of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2
properties of matter and the particles in each of the three phases of matter
its various forms
3. distinguish between physical and chemical
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3
properties and give examples
4. distinguish between extensive and intensive
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-4
properties and give examples
5. use properties of matter to identify substances and
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-5
to separate them
6. differentiate between pure substances and mixtures STEM_GC11MPIa-b-6
7. differentiate between elements and compounds STEM_GC11MPIa-b-7
8. differentiate between homogenous and heterogenous
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-8
mixtures
9. recognize the formulas of common chemical
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-9
substances
10. describe separation techniques for mixtures and
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10
compounds
11. compare consumer products on the basis of their
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11
components for use, safety, quality and cost
12. (LAB) apply simple separation techniques such
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12
as distillation, chromatography
STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 2
1.
The Particulate
Nature of Matter

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 3

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-1 Recognize that
substances are made up of smaller particles

Particulate Nature of Matter

• Matter is made up of particles.

• Particles of all matter have empty spaces between them. This empty
or vacant space between particles of matter is called interparticle
space.
• Particles constituting matter are extremely small in size and are
not visible to naked eyes.
• Particles of matter are always in state of continuous motion. They
possess energy of motion called kinetic energy. The motion of
particles increases with increase in temperature.
• Particles of matter attract each other. There is a force of attraction
between particles constituting the matter. The strength of this force
varies from one kind of matter to another.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 4

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-1 Recognize that
substances are made up of smaller particles

Characteristics of Particles of Matter

• Particles of matter have empty spaces between them
• Intermixing is possible only if it is assumed that particles of matter have
empty spaces between them.
• E.g. Diffusion is the ability of a gas to spread and occupy whole available space
irrespective of other gases present in its surroundings.
• Particles of matter are in constant motion
• The particles of the substance move from one place to another. It means that particles of
matter are always in motion.
• Diffusion is possible due to the presence of empty space between the particles of matter
and continuous random motion exhibited by these particles
• As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the particle increases and the particle
moves faster.
• Attraction between particles of matter
• Particles of all kinds of matter attract each. The strength of the force of attraction
(interparticle attraction ) varies from one kind of matter to another. In general, the solid
forms of matter have greater force of attraction between their particles. The interparticle
attraction in the liquid form of matter is comparatively less than interparticle attraction in
solid form of matter. Particles of matter in gaseous state have the least attraction between
them.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 5

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-1 Recognize that
substances are made up of smaller particles

Limitations of the Particle Model of Matter

• The particle theory assumes that particles are the same in all
substances.
• Particles in real life may be different from element to element in the
following ways:
• mass or size
• the force of attraction to other particles
• energy

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 6

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-1 Recognize that
substances are made up of smaller particles

Quiz #01. Particulate Nature of Matter

Supply the missing words.

1. Matter is made up of extremely small ___________.

2. Particles of matter have ___________ between them.
3. Particles of matter ___________ each other.
4. Particles of matter are always in a state of ___________.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 7

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-1 Recognize that
substances are made up of smaller particles

Quiz #01. Particulate Nature of Matter

(Ans.)
Supply the missing words.

1. Matter is made up of extremely small ___________.

particles
2. Particles of matter spaces between them.
have ___________
3. Particles of matter ___________
attract each other.
4. Particles of matter are always in a state of ___________.
motion

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 8

2.
States of Matter
a. macroscopic view
b. microscopic view

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 9

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Characteristics of States of Matter

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 10

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Solid State

• Solids are the objects that have these three properties:

• They have a specific shape.
• They have distinct boundaries.
• They have a volume.
• There is less kinetic energy among the particles in solids. They are
generally arranged in an order. Thus they possess a fixed shape.
They cannot be compressed.
• The force of attraction is the maximum among the particles of
solids. There is not much space between the particles. Therefore,
they cannot be compressed.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 11

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Liquid State

• Liquids have the following properties:

• Liquids have a fixed volume
• Liquids do not have a fixed shape.
• The force of attraction in liquid particles is less than solids. Therefore,
there is a space between the particles of liquids and they can flow easily.
They cannot be compressed. That is why they are also called fluids.
• Particles of liquids arrange each other is not fixed. You might have seen
that liquids take the shape of the container in which we put them. This is
because the particles of liquids have a high kinetic energy, they always
keep on moving.
• Other matter can diffuse into liquids whether it is solids, liquids, or
gases. This is so because there is a space between the particles of liquid
so particles of other matter can slip into those spaces.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 12

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Gaseous State

• Gases have the following properties:

• They do not have a fixed volume.
• They do not have a fixed shape.
• The particles of gases have the least or almost no force of attraction
between them. Therefore, the particles have a large number of spaces
between them and they can freely move in any direction.
• They can be easily compressed and put into a small container, unlike
solids and liquids.
• Since there is a lot of space between the particles, different gases can
diffuse into each other easily.
• The kinetic energy between the particles is the maximum in the case of
gases. Therefore, the particles move around freely at high speed and
there is no fixed shape of gases.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 13

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Change of State

• The three states of matter can be interconverted by changing the

conditions of temperature and pressure.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 14

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Characteristics of States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas
Definite shape Indefinite shape Indefinite shape
Definite volume Definite volume Indefinite volume
Maximum force of Less forces of attraction Negligible force of
attraction between between particles compare attraction between
particles to solid particles
Cannot be compressed Cannot be compressed Can be compressed
Kinetic energy of particles Kinetic energy of particles Kinetic energy of particles
is minimum is more than solid is maximum
Particles cannot move Particles can slide over Particles can move freely
rather they vibrate only at one another
their fixed position
Highest density Density is lower than Lowest denisty
solid
Cannot flow Flow Flow
STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 15
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #02. States of Matter

Supply the missing words.

1. Solids and liquids are largely incompressible whereas gases are easily
___________.
2. The smell of a burning match stick spreads to every corner of the room due to
the property of ___________.
3. The particle forces of attraction in solids are very ___________.
4. Whenever there is a change in physical state of matter the ___________ remains
constant.
5. Sublimation is a process of conversion of a solid to a ___________.
6. Evaporation produces a ___________ effect.

compressible cooling density diffusion gas heating

liquid pressure strong temperature weak

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 16

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #02. States of Matter (Ans.)

Supply the missing words.

1. Solids and liquids are largely incompressible whereas gases are easily
___________.
compressible
2. The smell of a burning match stick spreads to every corner of the room due to
the property of ___________.
diffusion
3. The particle forces of attraction in solids are very ___________.
strong
4. Whenever there is a change in physical state of matter the temperature
___________ remains
constant.
5. Sublimation is a process of conversion of a solid to a ___________.
gas
6. Evaporation produces a ___________
cooling effect.

compressible cooling density diffusion gas heating

liquid pressure strong temperature weak

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 17

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #03. States of Matter

True or False

1. The interparticle force of attraction in gaseous state is very strong.

2. The interparticle space is very small in solids.
3. Solids are compressible and have tendency to flow.
4. Liquids are only slightly compressible.
5. Condensation of gases can he done by increasing the pressure
and decreasing the temperature

Answers:
1. False; 2. True; 3. False; 4. True; 5. True;

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 18

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #03. States of Matter (Ans.)

True or False

1. The interparticle force of attraction in gaseous state is very strong.

2. The interparticle space is very small in solids.
3. Solids are compressible and have tendency to flow.
4. Liquids are only slightly compressible.
5. Condensation of gases can he done by increasing the pressure
and decreasing the temperature

Answers:
1. False; 2. True; 3. False; 4. True; 5. True;

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 19

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #04. States of Matter

True or False

6. Boiling produces cooling effect

7. Evaporation is a process of conversion of liquid to gas at any
temperature below its boiling point.
8. Steam at 100°C produces more severe burns than water at 100°C.
9. Interpartide distance in matter decrease with increase in pressure
10. Celcius scale is a SI temperature scale.

Answers:
6. False; 7. True; 8. True; 9. True; 10. False.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 20

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #04. States of Matter (Ans).

True or False

6. Boiling produces cooling effect

7. Evaporation is a process of conversion of liquid to gas at any
temperature below its boiling point.
8. Steam at 100°C produces more severe burns than water at 100°C.
9. Interpartide distance in matter decrease with increase in pressure
10. Celcius scale is a SI temperature scale.

Answers:
6. False; 7. True; 8. True; 9. True; 10. False.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 21

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #05. States of Matter

1. The interparticle forces of attraction are weakest in

(a) water
(b) alcohol
(c) sodium chloride
(d) hydrogen gas

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 22

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #05. States of Matter (Ans).

1. The interparticle forces of attraction are weakest in

(a) water
(b) alcohol
(c) sodium chloride
(d) hydrogen gas

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 23

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #06. States of Matter

2. Which of the following is not matter?

(a) table
(b) excitement
(c) rock
(d) sea

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 24

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #06. States of Matter (Ans).

2. Which of the following is not matter?

(a) table
(b) excitement
(c) rock
(d) sea

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 25

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #07. States of Matter

3. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

(a) Matter is made up of particles

(b) Matter is continuous in nature
(c) Particles of matter are always in state of motion
(d) Particles of matter attract each other

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 26

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #07. States of Matter (Ans).

3. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

(a) Matter is made up of particles

(b) Matter is continuous in nature
(c) Particles of matter are always in state of motion
(d) Particles of matter attract each other

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 27

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #08. States of Matter

4. Condensation of all gases can be achieved by

(a) increasing the pressure

(b) decreasing the temperature
(c) decreasing the temperature and increasing the pressure
(d) increasing the temperature and decrease in pressure

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 28

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #08. States of Matter (Ans).

4. Condensation of all gases can be achieved by

(a) increasing the pressure

(b) decreasing the temperature
(c) decreasing the temperature and increasing the pressure
(d) increasing the temperature and decrease in pressure

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 29

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #09. States of Matter

5. On increasing the temperature of a gas

(a) its K.E increases

(b) its K.E decreases
(c) its gets converted into liquid
(d) its particles come closer to each other

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 30

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #09. States of Matter (Ans).

5. On increasing the temperature of a gas

(a) its K.E increases

(b) its K.E decreases
(c) its gets converted into liquid
(d) its particles come closer to each other

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 31

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #10. States of Matter

6. Latent heat of fusion is

(a) heat supplied to increase the temperature

(b) heat supplied to decrease the temperature
(c) heat supplied to convert a solid into its gaseous state.
(d) heat supplied to convert solid into its liquid state.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 32

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #10. States of Matter (Ans).

6. Latent heat of fusion is

(a) heat supplied to increase the temperature

(b) heat supplied to decrease the temperature
(c) heat supplied to convert a solid into its gaseous state.
(d) heat supplied to convert solid into its liquid state.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 33

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #11. States of Matter

7. The boiling points of the liquids decrease in the following order:

B.P of water > B.P of kerosene > B.P of alcohol > B.P of petrol.
Which of the following order in correct for decreasing rate of
evaporation?

(a) water > alcohol = kerosene > petrol

(b) petrol > alcohol > kerosene > water
(c) remains same in all liquids
(d) water > kerosene > alcohol > petrol

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 34

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #11. States of Matter (Ans).

7. The boiling points of the liquids decrease in the following order:

B.P of water > B.P of kerosene > B.P of alcohol > B.P of petrol.
Which of the following order in correct for decreasing rate of
evaporation?

(a) water > alcohol = kerosene > petrol

(b) petrol > alcohol > kerosene > water
(c) remains same in all liquids
(d) water > kerosene > alcohol > petrol

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 35

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #12. States of Matter

8. Select the substance which does not undergo sublimation

(a) Table salt

(b) Naphthalene
(c) Ammonium chloride
(d) Camphor

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 36

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #12. States of Matter (Ans).

8. Select the substance which does not undergo sublimation

(a) Table salt

(b) Naphthalene
(c) Ammonium chloride
(d) Camphor

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 37

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #13. States of Matter

9. Among the three physical states

(a) Both solids and liquids show fluidity

(b) Both liquids and gases show fluidity
(c) Only liquids show fluidity
(d) Only gases show fluidity

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 38

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #13. States of Matter (Ans).

9. Among the three physical states

(a) Both solids and liquids show fluidity

(b) Both liquids and gases show fluidity
(c) Only liquids show fluidity
(d) Only gases show fluidity

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 39

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #14. States of Matter

10. The melting point of a solid is an indication of

(a) its rigidity

(b) its shape
(c) the strength of the force of attraction between its particles
(d) its ability to intermix with other solids

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 40

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-2 Describe and/or make a representation
of the arrangement, relative spacing, and relative motion of
the particles in each of the three phases of matter

Quiz #14. States of Matter (Ans).

10. The melting point of a solid is an indication of

(a) its rigidity

(b) its shape
(c) the strength of the force of attraction between its particles
(d) its ability to intermix with other solids

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 41

3.
Physical and
Chemical Properties

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 42


Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical Properties
• can be measured without
changing the identity and
composition of the substance
• color, odor, density, melting
point, boiling point, and
hardness
STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples
Chemical Properties
• describe the way a substance
may change or react to form
other substances.
• Ex: flammability (the ability of a
substance to burn in the
presence of oxygen)
43
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples

Changes: Physical vs. Chemical

Physical Changes Chemical Changes

• a substance changes its • aka chemical reactions

physical appearance but not its • a substance is transformed into
composition a chemically different
• Ex: evaporation of water and substance
changes of state • Ex: burning

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 44

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples

Quiz #15. Properties: Physical vs.

Chemical
In the process of attempting to characterize a substance, a chemist makes the
following observations: The substance is a silvery white, lustrous metal. It melts at
649°C and boils at 1105°C. Its density at 20°C is 1.738 g/cm3. The substance
burns in air, producing an intense white light. It reacts with chlorine to give a
brittle white solid. The substance can be pounded into thin sheets or drawn into
wires. It is a good conductor of electricity.
Which of these characteristics are physical properties, and which are chemical
properties?
Ans:
Physical properties: (1) silvery white (color); (2) lustrous; (3) melting point = 649°C;
(4) boiling point = 1105°C; (5) density at 20°C = 1.738 g/cm3; (6) pounded into
sheets (malleable); (7) drawn into wires (ductile); (8) good conductor.
Chemical properties: (9) burns in air to give intense white light; (10) reacts with Cl2
to produce brittle white solid.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 45

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples

Quiz #15. Properties: Physical vs.

Chemical (Ans.)
In the process of attempting to characterize a substance, a chemist makes the
following observations: The substance is a silvery white, lustrous metal. It melts at
649°C and boils at 1105°C. Its density at 20°C is 1.738 g/cm3. The substance
burns in air, producing an intense white light. It reacts with chlorine to give a
brittle white solid. The substance can be pounded into thin sheets or drawn into
wires. It is a good conductor of electricity.
Which of these characteristics are physical properties, and which are chemical
properties?
Ans:
Physical properties: (1) silvery white (color); (2) lustrous; (3) melting point = 649°C;
(4) boiling point = 1105°C; (5) density at 20°C = 1.738 g/cm3; (6) pounded into
sheets (malleable); (7) drawn into wires (ductile); (8) good conductor.
Chemical properties: (9) burns in air to give intense white light; (10) reacts with Cl2
to produce brittle white solid.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 46

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples

Quiz #16. Properties: Physical vs.

Chemical
Read the following description of the element zinc, and indicate which are
physical properties and which are chemical properties.
Zinc is a silver–gray-colored metal that melts at 420°C. When zinc granules
are added to dilute sulfuric acid, hydrogen is given off and the metal
dissolves. Zinc has a hardness on the Mohs scale of 2.5 and a density of
7.13 g/cm3 at 25°C. It reacts slowly with oxygen gas at elevated
temperatures to form zinc oxide, ZnO.
Ans:
Physical properties: (1) silver-grey (color); (2) melting point= 420°C; (3)
hardness = 2.5 Mohs; (4) density = 7.13 g/cm3 at 25 °C.
Chemical properties: (5) metal; (6) reacts with sulfuric acid to produce
hydrogen gas; (7) reacts slowly with oxygen at elevated temperatures to
produce ZnO.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 47

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples

Quiz #16. Properties: Physical vs.

Chemical (Ans.)
Read the following description of the element zinc, and indicate which are
physical properties and which are chemical properties.
Zinc is a silver–gray-colored metal that melts at 420°C. When zinc granules
are added to dilute sulfuric acid, hydrogen is given off and the metal
dissolves. Zinc has a hardness on the Mohs scale of 2.5 and a density of
7.13 g/cm3 at 25°C. It reacts slowly with oxygen gas at elevated
temperatures to form zinc oxide, ZnO.
Ans:
Physical properties: (1) silver-grey (color); (2) melting point= 420°C; (3)
hardness = 2.5 Mohs; (4) density = 7.13 g/cm3 at 25 °C.
Chemical properties: (5) metal; (6) reacts with sulfuric acid to produce
hydrogen gas; (7) reacts slowly with oxygen at elevated temperatures to
produce ZnO.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 48

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples

Quiz #17. Changes: Physical vs. Chemical

Label each of the following as either a physical process or a chemical

process:

(a) corrosion of aluminum metal chemical

(b) melting of ice physical
(c) pulverizing an aspirin physical
(d) digesting a candy bar chemical
(e) explosion of nitroglycerin chemical

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 49

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples

Quiz #17. Changes: Physical vs. Chemical

(Ans.)
Label each of the following as either a physical process or a chemical
process:

(a) corrosion of aluminum metal chemical

(b) melting of ice physical
(c) pulverizing an aspirin physical
(d) digesting a candy bar chemical
(e) explosion of nitroglycerin chemical

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 50

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples

Quiz #18. Changes: Physical vs. Chemical

A match is lit and held under a cold piece of metal. Which of the following
observations / occurrences are due to physical changes, and which are
due to chemical changes? The following are made:

(a) The match burns. chemical

(b) The metal gets warmer. physical
(c) Water condenses on the metal. physical
(d) Soot (carbon) is deposited on the metal. physical

(c) The production of H20 is a chemical change, but its condensation

is a physical change.
(d) The production of soot is a chemical change, but its deposition is a
physical change.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 51

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-3 Distinguish between physical
and chemical properties and give examples

Quiz #18. Changes: Physical vs. Chemical

(Ans.)
A match is lit and held under a cold piece of metal. Which of the following
observations / occurrences are due to physical changes, and which are
due to chemical changes? The following are made:

(a) The match burns. chemical

(b) The metal gets warmer. physical
(c) Water condenses on the metal. physical
(d) Soot (carbon) is deposited on the metal. physical

(c) The production of H20 is a chemical change, but its condensation

is a physical change.
(d) The production of soot is a chemical change, but its deposition is a
physical change.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 52

4.
Extensive and
Intensive Properties

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 53


Properties: Intensive vs. Extensive
Intensive properties
• not depend on the amount of
the sample being examined
• can be used to identify
substances
• Ex: temperature, melting point,
and density, pressure,
refractive index, equilibrium
constant, molar entropy
STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-4 Distinguish between extensive
and intensive properties and give examples
Extensive properties
• depend on the quantity of the
sample and include
measurements of mass and
volume
• relate to the amount of
substance present
• Ex: mass, length, and volume,
internal energy, enthalpy, heat
capacity, entropy, Gibbs free
energy
54
5.
Ways of Classifying
Matter
a. pure substances and mixtures
b. elements and compounds
c. homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 55

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-5 Use properties of matter to
identify substances and to separate them
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-6 Differentiate

Pure Substances and Mixtures between pure substances and mixtures

Pure Substance Mixtures

• aka substance • combinations of two or more

• has a fixed composition and substances in which each
distinct properties. substance retains its own
• Ex: water and table salt chemical identity and hence its
(sodium chloride) own properties
• its compositions of mixtures
can vary
• Components: the substances
making up a mixture
• Ex: sweetened coffee

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 56

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-7 Differentiate
between elements and compounds

Elements and Compounds

Elements Compounds

• substances that cannot be • composed of two or more

decomposed into simpler elements, and thus contain two
substances. or more kinds of atoms
• Each element is composed of • Types:
only one kind of atom. • Organic and inorganic
• Types: • Acids, bases, and salts
• Metals
• Nonmetals
• Semimetals or metalloids

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 57

 Elements

Source:
https://periodic.lan
l.gov/images/perio
dictable-3-13-17.pdf

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 58

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-7 Differentiate
between elements and compounds

Mixtures and Compounds

Mixture Compound
Variable composition – you can Definite composition – you cannot vary
Composition vary the amount of each the amount of each element in a
substance in a mixture compound
The different substances are not The different elements are chemically
Joined or not
chemically joined together joined together

Each substance in the mixture The compound has properties which are
Properties
keeps its own properties different from the elements it contains

Each substance is easily It can only be separated into its

Separation
separated from the mixture elements using chemical reactions

Water, carbon dioxide, magnesium

Examples Air, seawater, most rocks
oxide, sodium chloride

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 59

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-8 Differentiate between
homogenous and heterogenous mixtures

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures

Homogeneous Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixtures

• uniform throughout • do not have the same

• aka solutions. composition, properties, and
• Ex: air (gaseous solution, appearance throughout the
mixture of the gaseous mixture
substances nitrogen, oxygen, • Ex: sand, rocks, and wood
and smaller amounts of other
substances), gasoline (liquid
solution), brass (solid solution)

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 60

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-5 Use properties of matter to
identify substances and to separate them
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-6 Differentiate
between pure substances and mixtures
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-7 Differentiate
between elements and compounds
STEM_GC11MPIa-b-8 Differentiate between
homogenous and heterogenous mixtures

Classification scheme for matter. At the chemical level all matter is classified
ultimately as either elements or compounds.
STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 61
STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 62
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-7 Differentiate
between elements and compounds

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 63

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-9 Recognize the
formulas of common chemical substances

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 64

 Quiz #19. Classifying Matter

Classify each of the following as a pure substance or a mixture; if a

mixture, indicate whether it is homogeneous or heterogeneous:

1. rice pudding heterogeneous mixture

2. seawater homogeneous mixture
3. magnesium pure substance
4. gasoline homogeneous mixture
5. air homogeneous mixture
6. tomato juice heterogeneous mixture
7. iodine crystals pure substance
8. sand heterogeneous mixture

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 65

 Quiz #19. Classifying Matter (Ans.)

Classify each of the following as a pure substance or a mixture; if a

mixture, indicate whether it is homogeneous or heterogeneous:

1. rice pudding heterogeneous mixture

2. seawater homogeneous mixture
3. magnesium pure substance
4. gasoline homogeneous mixture
5. air homogeneous mixture
6. tomato juice heterogeneous mixture
7. iodine crystals pure substance
8. sand heterogeneous mixture

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 66

 Quiz #20. Classifying Matter

Give the chemical symbols for the following elements:

Set I Set II
(a) aluminum (a) carbon
(b) sodium (b) Potassium
(c) bromine (c) chlorine
(d) copper (d) zinc
(e) silicon (e) phosphorus
(f) nitrogen (f) argon
(g) magnesium (g) calcium
(h) helium (h) silver

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 67

 Quiz #20. Classifying Matter (Ans.)

Give the chemical symbols for the following elements:

Set I Set II
(a) aluminum Al (a) carbon C
(b) sodium Na (b) Potassium K
(c) bromine Br (c) chlorine Cl
(d) copper Cu (d) zinc Zn
(e) silicon Si (e) phosphorus P
(f) nitrogen N (f) argon Ar
(g) magnesium Mg (g) calcium Ca
(h) helium He (h) silver Ag

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 68

 Quiz #21. Classifying Matter

Name the chemical elements represented by the following symbols:

Set I Set II
(a) H (a) Cr
(b) Mg (b) I
(c) Pb (c) Li
(d) Si (d) Se
(e) F (e) Pb
(f) Sn (f) V
(g) Mn (g) Hg
(h) As (h) Ga

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 69

 Quiz #21. Classifying Matter (Ans.)

Name the chemical elements represented by the following symbols:

Set I Set II
(a) H (a) hydrogen (a) Cr (a) chromium
(b) Mg (b) magnesium (b) I (b) iodine
(c) Pb (c) lead (c) Li (c) lithium
(d) Si (d) silicon (d) Se (d) selenium
(e) F (e) fluorine (e) Pb (e) lead
(f) Sn (f) tin (f) V (f) vanadium
(g) Mn (g) manganese (g) Hg (g) mercury
(h) As (h) arsenic (h) Ga (h) gallium

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 70

6.
Methods of
Separating Mixtures
into Their Component
Substances

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 71

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Methods of Separating Mixtures

• Separation of solid-solid mixtures

• Mechanical picking
• Magnetic separation
• Sublimation
• Separation of solid-liquid mixture
• Evaporation
• Distillation
• Crystallization
• Filtration
• Sedimentation and decantation
• Separation of liquid-liquid mixture
• Decantation
• Distillation
• Separation of liquid-gas mixture
• Boiling

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 72

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Need for Separation of Mixtures

• To separate unwanted constituents from the useful components

of a mixture.
• Example: Separation of cream from milk, separation of husk particles from
wheat grains.

• To obtain a pure substance from a mixture of substances that

may or may not be impurities.
• Example: Separation of salt from sea water, separation of suspended
impurities in tap or well water.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 73

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Mechanical Picking

• This method is used when the solid particles are of different size,
shape and color and visible to the human eye.
• Example
• Separating small stones from wheat or rice.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 74

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Magnetic Separation

• This method is used when one of

the components is magnetic and
other components are non-
magnetic.
• Example:
• mixture of iron filings and powdered
sulfur
• method utilized by the iron and steel
industry

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 75

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Sublimation

• This method is used when one

of the components sublimes on
heating.
• Sublimation is the process of
direct change of state from solid
to gas.
• Example:
• A mixture of common salt and
ammonium chloride.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 76

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Evaporation

• This method is used when the

liquid in the mixture has a
low boiling point. To
separate the liquid, simple
evaporation or boiling is
used depending on the boiling
point of the liquid.
• Example:
• Sulfur dissolved in carbon
disulfide can be separated by
placing the solution in the sun.
• Table salt and water

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 77

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Distillation

• Distillation is the process

of converting a liquid into
vapor (by heating) and
condensation of the vapor
to separate the pure liquid.
The condensed vapor is
called distillate.
• Example:
• Mixture of iodine in
chloroform
• Mixture of common salt in
water

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 78

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Crystallization

• Crystallization is also
used in solid-solid types of
mixture. This can be done
by cooling a hot saturated
solution of the mixture
which gives crystals of the
pure or less soluble
substance on cooling.
• Example
• Separation of pure copper
sulfate from impurities

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 79

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Filtration

• Filtration is the process of removing

suspended impurities from a solution.
This method is used when the solid is
insoluble in the liquid and thus forms
a heterogeneous mixture.
• The mixture is poured into a folded
filter paper when the liquid passes
through the filter paper and is
collected as filtrate . The insoluble
solid is left behind on the filter paper
as residue. The method of folding the
filter paper to form a cone which will fit
into the mouth of a funnel is shown.
Example:
• Chalk powder and water
• Sand and water

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 80

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Sedimentation and Decantation

• This method is used to separate a heterogeneous mixture

containing an insoluble solid in a liquid. The mixture is allowed to
stand for some time without disturbing the mixture by stirring or
in any way. The insoluble solid substances that are heavier settle
at the bottom. A clear liquid column forms on the top. This clear
liquid column is called supernatant liquid. The solid substance
that settles down is called sediment. This process is known as
sedimentation.
• The clear liquid is slowly poured out taking care not to disturb the
solid sediment at the bottom too much. This process is known as
decantation.
• Example:
• Sand and water can be separated by sedimentation and then decantation.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 81

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Sedimentation and Decantation

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 82

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Centrifugation

• Centrifugation is a method in which solid or liquid particles of different

densities are separated by rotating them in a tube in a horizontal circle.
The denser particles tend to move along the length of the tube to a
greater radius of rotation, displacing the lighter particles to the other
end. Heavier particles are therefore, separated quite readily from the
mixture
• Centrifugation is a method of separating the components from a
homogeneous solid-liquid mixture by rotating them at high speed in a
centrifuge. The heavier solid particles are separated and settle at the
bottom. The difference in densities between the components of a
homogeneous mixture is used to separate them by rotating them in a
centrifuge. Heavier particles are forced to the bottom of the container.
• Example:
• Separating of blood components

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 83

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Centrifugation

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 84

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-10 Describe separation
techniques for mixtures and compounds

Use of Separating Funnel

• This method can be used for separating two or more

liquids that do not mix with each other. The mixture is
poured into a separating funnel. On standing, such a
liquid-liquid mixture separates into two distinct layers -
the heavier liquid forms the lower layer, while the lighter
one forms the upper layer. The tap at the bottom of the
funnel is opened and the lower liquid is drained out into
a beaker. Now another beaker is placed under the funnel
and the lighter liquid is next drained out.
• Example:
• A mixture of kerosene and water can be separated in this way.
Kerosene, which is lighter than water, will form the upper
layer. The lower layer is water

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 85

Laboratory Part:
Consumer Products

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 86

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Metals

• Metals have special properties when

compared to other elements that make
them suitable for making many useful
things to make our daily lives
comfortable.
• Useful Metals:
• Iron: Used for making several articles from
a safety pin to nails to frames to rods for
buildings, etc.
• Aluminum: Used for household items like
utensils, door frames, window frames,
aircraft frames
• Copper: Utensils, electrical wires ,boilers
• Gold, Silver, Platinum: Jewelry

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 87

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Metallic Alloys
• Alloy is a metal made by combining two or
more metallic elements
• Useful Alloys
• Stainless steel (Iron + Chromium + Nickel +
Carbon = 73, 18, 8, 1) Various gadgets,
utensils, rods, vehicle frames
• Bronze (Copper + Zinc + Tin = 80, 18, 2) Door
knobs, artifacts
• Brass (Copper + Zinc = 70, 30) Utensils
• German Silver (Copper + Zinc + Nickel = 50,
30,20) Utensils
• Bell metal (Copper + Tin = 80, 20) Bells,
decorative items
• Solder (Tin+ Lead = 50, 50) For soldering
wires in electrical circuits
• Duralumin (Aluminum + Copper +
Magnesium + Manganese = 95, 4, 0.5, 0.5)
Aircraft frames, windows

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 88

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Glasses

• Glass is a transparent, brittle and hard material that can be used in a

variety of ways. A special property of glass is that on heating slowly it
softens. Soft glass can be easily bent and blown into various shapes.
This property of glass greatly increases its utility.
• Glass is made from several substances – a common component used in
the manufacture of glass is silica (SiO2). There are several types of glass.
• Different types of glass are used for different purposes.
• Soda Glass
• Potash Glass
• Crooke's Glass
• Optical Glass
• Borosilicate Glass
• Coloured Glass

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 89

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Cement

• Cement is a grey powdery substance that

when made wet and allowed to dry sets to
form a mass that is as hard as rock . Cement
is manufactured by heating a mixture of
limestone, clay and gypsum in special
furnaces called kilns. Cement is a complex
material comprising of silicates of calcium
and aluminum.
• Uses of Cement
• Mortar (paste of sand, cement and water used in
between bricks )
• Concrete (mixture of stone chips (gravel ,sand,
cement and water)
• Reinforced concrete (framework of closely laid
iron bars is filled with wet cement, sand and
gravel)

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 90

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Plastics

• One of the most common and very useful man-

made material is plastic. Polythene carry bags,
plastic bottles, cool drink crates , electronic
appliances, cabinets, frames of washing
machine, electrical insulations and furniture
foam are some of the things made of plastic.
Plastics are cheap, light and strong. They can
be molded into different shapes.
• But plastics are a great source of pollution.
Plastics are not biodegradable - they do not
decompose easily. The use of plastic has
increased so much that plastic garbage is also
increasing every day. Plastic cannot be disposed
off by burning as poisonous gases are evolved,

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 91

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Plastics

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 92

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Soaps and Detergents

• Soaps are prepared by hydrolysis of vegetable oils

in the presence of alkalis. Soaps are soluble in
water and produce lather with soft water. However,
they form insoluble calcium and magnesium salts
of fatty acids with hard water. Thus, soap becomes
less effective with increasing hardness of water.
• Detergents are obtained by the action of
concentrated sulfuric acid on some petroleum
products. Detergents resemble soaps in action with
the major difference being that they do not form
insoluble salts with hard water. Hence they are
used in the washing of clothes. Liquid detergents
are used as shampoos, or as cleansing agents for
clothes made of silk and wool.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 93

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Paints
• Paints are applied on walls and metal surfaces to
prevent corrosion. Painting surfaces also makes
the surface look attractive. Cars, bikes,
refrigerators, ships, railway coaches and houses
are painted with multiple coats of paint before
use.
• Paint contains a pigment, a vehicle and a
thinner. A pigment is a colored material – zinc
oxide, white lead and titanium dioxide are the
commonly used white pigments. Some colored
minerals are used as colored pigments. The
pigment is mixed with a vehicle. Some examples
are linseed, soya bean oil and special polymers. A
thinner is a solvent. Some examples are
turpentine oil or kerosene. It makes the paint
more fluid so that it may be applied easily.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 94

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Fertilizers

• As crops and plants are grown again and

again in the same soil, the soil loses all
nutrients. These nutrients are replaced
by using fertilizers . The main nutrients
that need to be replaced artificially in the
farms are nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium. Other micronutrients are
potassium, calcium, magnesium and
sulfur.
• Natural manures like cow dung and
biocompost, are helpful in increasing the
fertility of the soil naturally. However as
this is found to be insufficient, artificial
fertilizers are used to restore the fertility
of the soil.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 95

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Pesticides

• Some pests and insects destroy crops or eat

away the grains before they are harvested.
Pests include insects, fungi and rats. They
eat up grain stored in granaries and our
homes. Pesticides and fungicides are used
to kill these pests and improve the yield.
Rodenticides are used to kill rodents.
• Even after using pesticides, millions of
pesos are lost every year due to the damage
caused to crops by pests. Two important
insecticides are DDT and gammexene.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 96

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-11 Compare consumer products on the
basis of their components for use, safety, quality and cost

Medicine

• A drug or medicine is a substance whose use is

recommended by doctors to bring about a desired
biochemical change in the body.
• Drugs also include harmful chemicals like cocaine
and heroin that are habit forming and very
harmful for our mental as well as physical health.
So their use is illegal.
• Specific categories of drugs:
• Analgesics are used to reduce pain. Example:
paracetamol.
• Anti-pyretics are used to reduce fever. Example:
aspirin.
• Antibiotics are used to control infections. Examples:
penicillin, ampicillin, streptomycin, amoxicillin.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 97

Laboratory Part:
Distillation and
Chromatography

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 98

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Simple Distillation

• Simple distillation is used to separate a solvent from a solution. It

is useful for producing water from salt solution.

• Simple distillation works because the dissolved solute has a

much higher boiling point than the solvent. When the solution is
heated, solvent vapour evaporates from the solution. The gas
moves away and is cooled and condensed. The remaining solution
becomes more concentrated in solute as the amount of solvent in it
decreases.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 99

 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Simple Distillation

1. Salty 2. The
water is water vapor
heated cools in the
condenser
and drips
into a
beaker

3. The water has

condensed and
is now in the
beaker, the salt
stays behind

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 100
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Fractional Distillation

• Fractional distillation is used to separate different liquids from a

mixture of liquids. It is useful for separating ethanol from a
mixture of ethanol and water, and for separating different fractions
from crude oil.

• Fractional distillation works because the different liquids have

different boiling points. When the mixture is heated:
• vapors rise through a column which is hot at the bottom, and cold at the top
• vapors condense when they reach a part of the column that is below the
temperature of their boiling point
• the liquid flows out of the column

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 101
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Fractional Distillation

• There are two ways of obtaining different liquids from the

column:
• By collecting different liquids from different parts of the column. The
substance with the lowest boiling point is collected at the top of the column.
• By continuing to heat the mixture to increase the temperatures in the
column. The substance with the lowest boiling point is collected first.

• Different liquids can be obtained

• from different parts of the column, or
• by continuing to heat the mixture to increase the temperatures in the
column.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 102
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Fractional Distillation

• Distillation process to separate ethanol from water

1. Water and
ethanol
solution is
heated

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 103
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Fractional Distillation

• Distillation process to separate ethanol from water

2. The ethanol
evaporates first,
cools, then
condenses

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 104
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Fractional Distillation

• Distillation process to separate ethanol from water

3. The water
left evaporates,
cools, then
condenses.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 105
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Chromatography

• Chromatography is based on the principle of differential movement

of individual components of a mixture through a stationary phase
under the influence of a mobile phase

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 106
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Chromatography

• Adsorption chromatography: Differential adsorption of the

various components of a mixture on a suitable adsorbent such as
silica gel or alumina.
• Column chromatography: The mixture is passed through adsorbent packed
in glass tube. (Ex: Mixture of naphthalene and benzophenone)
• Thin layer chromatography: The mixture is passed over adsorbent on a
thin glass plate.
• Partition chromatography: Differential partitioning of components
of a mixture between stationary and mobile phases.
• Paper chromatography: A special quality paper known as chromatography
paper is used. It contains water trapped in it, which acts as the stationary
phase. (Ex: For separation of sugars and amino acids.)

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 107
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Paper Chromatography

• Paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of soluble

substances. These are often coloured substances such as food
colourings, inks, dyes or plant pigments.

• Chromatography relies on two different 'phases':

• the stationary phase, which in paper chromatography is very uniform,
absorbent paper
• the mobile phase is the solvent that moves through the paper, carrying
different substances with it

• The different dissolved substances in a mixture are attracted to the

two phases in different proportions. This causes them to move at
different rates through the paper.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 108
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Paper Chromatography

1. Water and ethanol solution is heated

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 109
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Paper Chromatography

2. As the paper is lowered into the

solvent, some of the dye spreads up
the paper
STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 110
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Paper Chromatography

3. The paper has absorbed the

solvent, and the dye has spread
further up the paper
STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 111
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Paper Chromatography

• Separation by chromatography produces a chromatogram which

can be further interpreted to identify substances.

• A paper chromatogram can be used to distinguish between pure

and impure substances:
• a pure substance produces one spot on the chromatogram
• an impure substance produces two or more spots

• A paper chromatogram can also be used to identify substances by

comparing them with known substances. Two substances are likely
to be the same if:
• they produce the same number of spots, and these match in color
• the spots travel the same distance up the paper (have the same Rf value)

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 112
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Paper Chromatography

In this chromatogram,
the brown ink is made of
a mixture of the red,
blue and yellow inks.
This is because the
spots in the brown ink
are at the same heights
(and have the same Rf
value) as the reference
inks.

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 113
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Paper Chromatography

• Rf values can be used to identify unknown chemicals if they can be

compared to a range of reference substances. The Rf value is
always the same for a particular substance. The Rf value of a spot
is calculated using:
distance travelled by substance
Rf =
distance travelled by solvent
• Rf values vary from 0 (the substance is not attracted at all to the
mobile phase) to 1 (the substance is not attracted at all to the
stationary phase).

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 114
 STEM_GC11MPIa-b-12 (LAB) Apply simple separation
techniques such as distillation, chromatography

Lab: Paper Chromatography

• Measurements needed in the formula

distance travelled by substance

Rf =
distance travelled by solvent

STEM STUDY NOTES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Matter and Its Properties 115