Momentum Equation Applied to Deflectors

The application of the momentum equation to deflectors forms an integral part

of the analysis of many turbomachines, such as turbines, pumps, and compressors.
In this section we illustrate the steps in such an analysis. It will be separated into
two parts: fluid jets deflected by stationary deflectors and fluid jets deflected by
moving deflectors. For both problems we will assume the following:
KEY CONCEPT The • The pressure external to the fluid jets is everywhere constant so that the
pressure in the fluid as it pressure in the fluid as it moves over a deflector remains constant.
moves over a deflector • The frictional resistance due to the fluid-deflector interaction is negligible
remains constant. so that the relative speed between the deflector surface and the jet stream
remains unchanged, a result of Bernoulli’s equation.
KEY CONCEPT The • Lateral spreading of a plane jet is neglected.
relative speed between the • The body force, the weight of the control volume, is small and will be neg-
deflector surface and the jet lected.
stream remains unchanged.
Stationary Deflector. Let us first consider the stationary deflector, illus-
trated in Fig. 4.13. Bernoulli’s equation allows us to conclude that the magni-
tudes of the velocity vectors are equal (i.e., V2 ! V1), since the pressure is
assumed to be constant external to the fluid jet and elevation changes are negli-
gible (see Eq. 3.4.9). Assuming steady, uniform flow, the momentum equation
takes the form of Eq. 4.6.5, which for the x- and y-directions becomes
"Rx ! ṁ(V2 cos a " V1) ! ṁV1(cos a " 1)
(4.6.9)
Ry ! ṁV2 sin a ! ṁV1 sin a
For given jet conditions the reactive force components can be calculated.
Moving Deflectors. The situation involving a moving deflector depends
on whether a single deflector is moving (the blade on a snowplow or a water
scoop used to slow a high-speed train) or whether a series of deflectors is mov-
ing (the vanes on a turbine). Let us first consider the single deflector shown in
Fig. 4.14 to be moving in the positive x-direction with the speed VB. In a refer-
ence frame attached to the stationary nozzle, from which the fluid jet issues, the
flow is unsteady2; that is, at a particular point in space, the flow situation varies
V2 = V1

y α

Liquid jet

V1 α
x
Rx
Deflector Ry

Fig. 4.13 Stationary deflector.

2
This is a rather subtle point. To determine whether a flow is steady, we observe the flow at a given point in space.
If a flow property changes with time at that point, the flow is unsteady. In this situation, if we focus our attention
on a particular point just before the blade, such as point A in Fig. 4.14, first there is no flow, then the blade and
the jet pass through the point, then there is again no flow. This is an unsteady flow.
 VB
Vr2
V1 Vr2 = V1 – VB V2
y
VB Vr1
Vr1 = V1 – VB = relative speed V2 = VB + Vr2
Liquid jet VB ∆ t
A
α VB (Reference frame
x attached to the
deflector)
This fluid does not
change momentum R

Fig. 4.14 Moving deflector.

with time. A steady flow is observed, however, from a reference frame attached
to the deflector. From this inertial reference frame, moving with the constant
velocity VB, we observe the relative speed Vr1 entering the control volume to be
V1 " VB, as shown. It is this relative speed that remains constant as the fluid flows
relative to the deflector; it does not change since the pressure does not change.
Hence, from this moving frame, the momentum equation (4.6.5) takes the forms

"Rx ! ṁr(V1 " VB)(cos a " 1)

(4.6.10)
Ry ! ṁr(V1 " VB) sin a

where ṁr represents only that part of the mass flux exiting the fixed jet that has
its momentum changed. Since the deflector moves away from the fixed jet some
of the fluid that exits the fixed jet never experiences a momentum change; this
fluid is represented by the distance VB#t, shown in Fig. 4.14. Hence

ṁr ! rA(V1 " VB) (4.6.11)

where the relative speed (V1 " VB) is used in the calculation; the mass flux rAVB
is subtracted from the exiting mass flux rAV1 to provide the mass flux ṁr that
experiences a momentum change.
For a series of vanes (a cascade), the jets may be oriented to the side, as
shown in Fig. 4.15. The actual force on a particular vane would be zero until the
jet strikes the vane; then the force would increase to a maximum and decrease to
zero as the vane leaves the jet. We will idealize the situation as follows: Assume
that, on the average, the jet is deflected by the vanes as shown in Figs. 4.15 and
4.16a as viewed from a stationary reference frame; the fluid jet enters the vanes
with an angle b1 and exits with an angle b 2. What is desired, however, is that the
relative velocity enter the vanes tangent to the leading edge of the vanes, that is, KEY CONCEPT The
relative speed remains
Vr1 in Fig. 4.16b is at the angle a1. The relative speed then remains constant as the
constant as the fluid travels
fluid travels over the vane with the exiting relative velocity Vr 2 leaving with the over a moving vane, i.e.,
vane angle a2. The relative and absolute velocities are related with the velocity Vr 2 = Vr 1.
equations which are displayed by the velocity polygons of Figs. 4.16b and 4.16c.
 Fixed jet

β1 V1

α1

VB

α2
β2
Time-average
position of
exiting jet

V2

Fig. 4.15 Fluid striking a series of vanes.

KEY CONCEPT Only the
x-component of force is
related to the power output.
Assuming that all of the mass exiting the fixed jet has its momentum changed, we
can write the momentum equation as
"Rx ! ṁ (V2x " V1x) (4.6.12)
Example 4.17 will illustrate the details.
Interest is usually focused on the x-component of force since it is this com-
ponent that is related to the power output (or requirement). The power would be
found by multiplying the x-component force by the blade speed for each jet; this
takes the form

Ẇ ! NRxVB (4.6.13)

where N represents the number of jets. The y-component force does not move in
the y-direction so it produces no power.

V1
β1 Ry
VB
Rx
Vr1 V1 α2 β2
α1 β1 Vr 2 V2

VB

V1 = VB + Vr1 V 2 = V B + Vr 2
β2 Vr 2 = Vr1
V2
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.16 Detail of the flow situation involving a series of vanes: (a) average position of jet;
(b) entrance velocity polygon; (c) exit velocity polygon.
Example 4.15
A deflector turns a sheet of water through an angle of 30° as shown in Fig. E4.15. What
force components are necessary to hold the deflector in place if ṁ ! 32 kg/s?

V2
2
y

30°
2 mm × 40 cm 1
Rx
V1 x

Ry

Fig. E4.15

Solution
The control volume we have selected includes the deflector and the water adjacent to
it. The only force that is acting on the control volume is due to a support needed to hold
the deflector. This force has been decomposed into Rx and Ry.
The velocity V1 is found to be

ṁ
V1 ! $$
r A1

32
! $$$ ! 40 m/s
1000 % 0.002 % 0.4

Bernoulli’s equation (3.4.8) shows that if the pressure does not change, then the mag-
nitude of the velocity does not change, provided that there is no significant change in
elevation and that viscous effects are negligible; thus we can conclude that V2 ! V1
since p2 ! p1. Next, the momentum equation is applied in the x-direction to find Rx and
then in the y-direction for Ry:

x-direction: "Rx ! ṁ (V2x " V1x)

! 32 kg/s (40 cos 30° " 40)m/s

! Rx ! 172 N

0
y-direction: Ry ! ṁ(V2y " V1y)
O
QQQ
QQQ

! 32(40 sin 30°) ! 640 N

Example 4.16
The deflector shown in Fig. E4.16 moves to the right at 30 m/s while the nozzle remains
stationary. Determine (a) the force components needed to support the deflector,
(b) V2 as observed from a fixed observer, and (c) the power generated by the vane. The
jet velocity is 80 m/s.
VB
Vr 2 30°
V2

y Vr 2

2 mm × 40 cm Vr1 = V1 – Vb = 50 m/s

V1 = 80 m/s Water 30°

Rx

VB = 30 m/s Ry

Fig. E4.16
Solution
(a) To solve the problem of a moving deflector, we observe the flow from a reference
frame attached to the deflector. In this moving reference frame the flow is steady and
Bernoulli’s equation with p1 ! p2 can then be used to show that Vr1 ! Vr2 ! 50 m/s,
the velocity of the sheet of water as observed from the deflector. Note that we cannot
apply Bernoulli’s equation in a fixed reference frame since the flow would not be
steady. Applying the momentum equation to the moving control volume, which is indi-
cated again by the dashed line, we obtain the following:
x-direction: "Rx ! ṁr[(Vr2)x " (Vr1)x]
! 1000 kg/m3 % 0.002 m % 0.4 m % 50 m /s (50 cos 30° " 50) m/s
! Rx ! 268 N
0
O
y-direction: Ry ! ṁr[(Vr2)y " (VQQr1QQQ)y]
Q
! 1000 % 0.002 % 0.4 % 50(50 sin 30°) ! 1000 N
When calculating ṁr we must use only that water which has its momentum changed;
hence the velocity used is 50 m/s.
(b) Observed from a fixed observer the velocity V2 of the fluid after the deflec-
tion is V2 ! Vr2 & VB, where Vr2 is directed tangential to the deflector at the exit and
has a magnitude equal to Vr1 (see the velocity diagram above). Thus
(V2)x ! Vr 2 cos 30° & VB
! 50 % 0.866 & 30 ! 73.3 m!s
(V2)y ! Vr 2 sin 30°
! 50 % 0.5 ! 25 m!s
Finally,
V2 ! 73.3 î & 25 ĵ m!s
(c) The power generated by the moving vane is equal to the velocity of the vane
times the force the vane exerts in the direction of the motion. Therefore,
Ẇ ! VB % Rx ! 30 m/s % 268 N ! 8040 W
Example 4.17
High-speed air jets strike the blades of a turbine rotor tangentially while the 1.5-m-
diameter rotor rotates at 140 rad/s (Fig. E4.17a). There are 10 such 4-cm-diameter jets.
Calculate the maximum power output. The air density is 2.4 kg/m3.
Fixed air jet

β1 = 30° V1 = 200 m/s

α1

VB
x

α 2 = 30° (a) Top view of rotor showing one jet

V1
β1 Ry
VB
Vr1 V1
α2 β2 Rx
α1 β1 c.s.
Vr 2 V2
VB

(b) (c)
β2
(d) V2

Fig. E4.17
Solution
The blade angle a1 is set by demanding that the air jet enter the blades tangentially, as
observed from the moving blade; that is, the relative velocity vector Vr must make the
angle a1 with respect to the blade velocity VB. This is shown in Fig. E4.17b. The rela-
tive entrance velocity is Vr1 (Fig. E4.17b), and the relative exit velocity is Vr2
(Fig. E4.17c). Both velocity polygons are presented by the vector equation
V ! Vr & VB
which states that the absolute velocity equals the relative velocity plus the blade veloc-
ity. From the polygon at the entrance we have
V1 sin b1 ! Vr1 sin a1
V1 cos b1 ! Vr1 cos a1 & VB
! 200 sin 30° ! Vr1 sin a1
200 cos 30° ! Vr1 cos a1 & 0.75 % 140
where VB is the radius multiplied by the angular velocity. A simultaneous solution
yields
Vr1 ! 121 m!s a1 ! 55.7°
The friction between the air and the blade is quite small and can be neglected when cal-
culating the maximum output. This allows us to assume Vr2 ! Vr1. From the exiting
velocity polygon we can write
VB " Vr2 cos a2 ! V2 cos b2
Vr2 sin a2 ! V2 sin b2
! 0.75 % 140 " 121 cos 30° ! V2 cos b2
121 sin 30° ! V2 sin b2 (continued)
 A simultaneous solution results in

V2 ! 60.5 m!s b2 ! 89.8°

The momentum equation applied to the control volume, shown in Fig. E4.17d, gives

"Rx ! ṁ(V2x " V1x)

! 2.4 kg/m3 % p % 0.022 m2 % 200 m/s(60.5 cos 89.8° " 200 cos 30°) m/s
! Rx ! 104.3 N
There are 10 jets, each producing the force above. The maximum power output is then

power ! 10 % Rx % VB
! 10 % 104.3 N % (0.75 % 140) m/s ! 109 600 W or 109.6 kW

Momentum Equation Applied to Propellers

The application of the momentum equation to propellers is also of sufficient
interest that this section will be devoted to illustrating the procedure. Consider
the propeller of Fig. 4.17 with the streamlines shown forming the surface of a con-
trol volume in which the fluid enters with a uniform velocity V1 and exits with a
uniform velocity V2. The outer streamlines just touch the tips of the propeller.
This flow situation can be seen to be identical to that of a propeller moving with
velocity V1 in a stagnant fluid by adding V1 to the left in Fig. 4.17. The momen-
tum equation, applied to the large control volume shown, gives

F ! ṁ(V2 " V1) (4.6.14)

1 Area A
3
4
2
V1 F
V2

Streamline

Fig. 4.17 Propeller in a fluid flow.

This control volume is not sufficient, however, since the areas A1 and A2 are
unknown. We know the flow area A of the propeller. So a control volume is
drawn close to the propeller such that V3 ! V4 and A3 ! A4 ! A. The momen-
tum equation (4.6.5) in the x-direction gives

F & p3 A " p4 A ! 0 (4.6.15)

or

F ! ( p4 " p3)A (4.6.16)

Now, since viscous effects would be quite small in this flow situation the energy
equation up to the propeller and then downstream from the propeller is used to
obtain

V 21 " V 23 p1 " p3 V 24 " V 22 p4 " p2

$ $ & $$ ! 0 and $ $ & $$ ! 0 (4.6.17)
2 r 2 r

Adding these equations together, recognizing that p1 ! p2 ! patm, we have

r
(V 22 " V 21) $$ ! p4 " p3 (4.6.18)
2

Inserting this and Eq. 4.6.16 into Eq. 4.6.14 results in

1 (4.6.19)
V3 ! $$ (V2 & V1)
2

where we have used ṁ ! rAV3 since the propeller area is the only area known. KEY CONCEPT The
This result shows that the velocity of the fluid moving through the propeller is the velocity of the fluid moving
through the propeller is the
average of the upstream and downstream velocities.
average of the upstream
The input power needed to produce this effect is found by applying the en-
and downstream velocities.
ergy equation between sections 1 and 2, where the pressures are atmospheric;
neglecting losses, Eq. 4.5.17 takes the form

V 22 " V 21
Ẇfluid ! $ $ ṁ (4.6.20)
2
 where Ẇfluid is the energy input between the two sections. The moving propeller
requires power given by

Ẇprop ! F % V1
(4.6.21)
! ṁV1(V2 " V1)

The theoretical propeller efficiency is then

Ẇprop V1
hP ! $$ ! $$ (4.6.22)
Ẇfluid V3

KEY CONCEPT In a wind In contrast to the propeller, a wind machine extracts energy from the airflow;
machine, the downstream the downstream velocity is reduced and the diameter is increased.
velocity is reduced and the
diameter is increased.

Steady Nonuniform Flow

If we cannot assume uniform velocity profiles, we can let the momentum flux be
expressed as

" V dA ! bV# A
A
2 2
(4.6.23)

where we have introduced the momentum-correction factor b, expressed ex-

plicitly as

$ V 2 dA
b! $ (4.6.24)
# 2A
V

The momentum equation (4.6.5), for a steady flow with one inlet and one exit,
can then be written as

' F ! ṁ(b 2V2 " b1V1) (4.6.25)

For a laminar flow with a parabolic profile in a circular pipe, b ! 4/3. If a profile
is given, however, the integral is usually integrated and Eq. 4.6.2 is used.
Example 4.18
Calculate the momentum correction factor for a parabolic profile (a) between parallel
plates and (b) in a circular pipe. The parabolic profiles are shown in Fig. E4.18.
r
y V(r)
h V(y)
x
x
R
h

Vmax
Vmax
(a) A wide channel (b) A circular pipe

dy y dr

2h z r
dA = wdy

dA = 2π r dr
w
R

Fig. E4.18
Solution
(a) A parabolic profile between parallel plates can be expressed as
y2
%
V(y) ! Vmax 1 " $$2
h &
where y is measured from the centerline, the velocity is zero at the walls where y ! ( h,
and Vmax is the centerline velocity at y ! 0. First, let us find the average velocity. It is
1
"
# ! $$ V dA
V
A

" % & y2
h
Vmax
1 1 2
! $$ Vmax 1 " $$2 „ dy ! $$ h " $$ h ! $$ Vmax
h„ 0 h h 3 3 % &
where we have integrated over the top half of the cross-section. Then
$ V2 dA y2 2
" % &
h
2 6
b ! $2$ ! $$ 4 2
2
V max 1 " $$2 „ dy ! $$
$$V max % 2h„ h 5
#
V A 9 0

where the factor “2” in the numerator accounts for the bottom half of the channel.
(b) For a circular pipe a parabolic profile can be written as

% r2
V(r) ! Vmax 1 " $$2
R &
where R is the pipe radius and V ! 0 at r ! R. The average velocity is found to be

" V dA ! $pR1$ " V %1 " $Rr$&2pr dr ! $12$V

R
2
1
#
V ! $$ 2 max 2 max
A 0

The momentum correction factor is then

$ V 2dA
" V %1 " $Rr$&2pr dr ! $43$
R
2 2
1 2
b ! $2$ ! $$1 2 2 max 2
#A
V $$V maxpR 0
4

The correction factors above can be used to express the momentum flux across a cross-
# 2.
sectional area as brAV
 Noninertial Reference Frames

KEY CONCEPT A
noninertial reference frame
is needed to study the flow
from a rocket.
In certain situations it may be necessary to choose a noninertial reference frame
in which the velocity is measured. This would be the case if we were to study the
flow through a dishwasher arm, around a turbine blade, or from a rocket.
Relative to a noninertial reference frame, Newton’s second law takes the form
(refer to Eq. 3.2.15)

D
' F ! $$
Dt
" rV dV
sys

& " '$ddt$S & 2! % V & ! % (! % r) & $dd!$t % r(r dV

sys
2
2 (4.6.26)

where V is the velocity relative to the noninertial frame; the acceleration aof
each particle in the system is already accounted for in the first integral. Equation
4.6.26 is often written as

D
' F " FI ! $$
Dt
" rV dV
sys

d
! $$
dt
"
c.v.
rV dV & "
c.s.
rV(V) n̂) dA (4.6.27)

where FI is called the “inertial body force,” given by

FI ! " '$ddt$S & 2! % V & ! % (! % r) & $dd!$t % r(r dV

sys
2

2
(4.6.28)

Since the system and control volume are identical at time t the system integration
can be replaced with a control volume integration in the integral of Eq. 4.6.28.
Example 4.19 will illustrate the use of a noninertial reference frame.
Example 4.19
The rocket shown in Fig. E4.19, with an initial mass of 150 kg, burns fuel at the rate of
10 kg/s with a constant exhaust velocity of 700 m/s. What is the initial acceleration of
the rocket and the velocity after 1 s? Neglect the drag on the rocket.

c.s.

Fuel

Ve H (t )

Fig. E4.19
Solution
The control volume is sketched and includes the entire rocket. The reference frame
attached to the rocket is accelerating upward at d 2H/dt 2. Newton’s second law is writ-
ten as, using z upward,
' Fz " (FI)z ! $$
d
"
dt c.v.
rVz dV &
c.s.
"
rVzV)n̂ dA

d 2H
! " W " $$ mc.v. ! re("Ve)VeAe
dt 2
where
d
$$"
dt c.v.
rVzdV ) 0

since Vz is the velocity of each mass element r dV relative to the reference frame
attached to the control volume; the only vertical force is the weight W; and mc.v. is the
mass of the control volume. From continuity we see that
mc.v. ! 150 " ṁt ! 150 " 10t
! W ! (150 " 10t) % 9.81
The momentum equation becomes
d 2H
"(150 " 10t) % 9.81 " $$ (150 " 10t) ! "ṁeVe ! "10 % 700 ! "7000
dt 2
This is written as
d 2H 700
$$ ! $$ " 9.81
dt 2 15 " t
The initial acceleration is found by letting t ! 0:
d 2H
$$ *
dt 2 t!0
700
! $$ " 9.81 ! 36.9 m!s2
15
Integrate the expression for d 2H/dt 2 and obtain
dH
$$ ! "700 ln (15 " t) " 9.81t & C
dt
The constant C ! 700 ln 15 since dH/dt ! 0 at t ! 0. Thus at t ! 1 s the velocity is
dH 15
$$ ! 700 ln $ " 9.81 % 1 ! 38.5 m!s
dt 14
 Example 4.19a Pressure-Jet Virtual Lab, 932–935

MOMENT-OF-MOMENTUM EQUATION
In the preceding section we determined the magnitude of force components in a
variety of flow situations. To determine the line of action of a given force com-
ponent, it is often necessary to apply the moment-of-momentum equation. Also,
in analyzing the flow situation in devices that have rotating components the
moment-of-momentum equation is needed to relate the rotational speed to the
other flow parameters. Since it may be advisable to attach the reference frame to
the rotating component, we will write the general equation with the inertial
forces included. It is (see Eq. 4.2.4)

D
' M " MI ! $$
Dt
" r % V r dV
sys
(4.7.1)

where

" d 2S
MI ! r % $$ '
dt 2
d!
& 2! % V & ! % (! % r) & $$ % r r dV
dt ( (4.7.2)

KEY CONCEPT The
inertial moment MI accounts
for the fact that a noninertial
reference frame was
selected.
This inertial moment MI accounts for the fact that a noninertial reference frame
was selected; it is simply the moment of FI (see Eq. 4.6.28). Applying the system-
to-control volume transformation, the moment-of-momentum equation for a
control volume becomes

d
' M " MI ! $$
dt
"c.v.
r % V r dV & "
c.s.
r % V(V ) n̂) r dA (4.7.3)

Examples will illustrate the application of this equation.

Example 4.20
A sprinkler has four 50-cm-long arms with nozzles at right angles with the arms and 45°
with the ground (Fig. E4.20). If the total flow rate is 0.01 m3/s and a nozzle exit diame-
ter is 12 mm, find the rotational speed of the sprinkler. Neglect friction.
y

dV = A dr
50 cm V
x

r 12 mm
Ω

Ve

Fig. E4.20
Solution
The velocity exiting a nozzle as shown is
Q
V e ! $$
A
0.01/4
! $$2 ! 22.1 m!s
p % 0.006
where the factor 4 accounts for the four exit areas. Attach the reference frame to the rotat-
ing arms as shown. Then, recognizing that r % [! % (! % r)] ! 0 and assuming a station-
ary sprinkler so that d2S/dt 2 ! 0 and constant angular velocity so that d !/dt ! 0, we have

MI ! " c.v.
r % (2! % V)r dV

"
0.5

!4 r î % (2* k̂ % Vî)rA dr
0

"
0.5

! 8rAV* k̂ r dr ! rAV* k̂
0

where the small mass of water in the end nozzles is neglected compared to that in the long
arms; the factor 4 again accounts for the four arms (each arm would provide the unit
vector k̂). Since there are no external moments applied to the sprinkler about the ver-
tical z-axis, 'Mz ! 0. For the steady flow Eq. 4.7.3 provides

"
0
(' M)z " (MI)z ! (r % V)z V ) n̂ r dA
O
QQQ
QQQ

"
c.s.

"rAV* ! 4 [0.5 î % (0.707Ve k̂ " 0.707Ve ĵ)]z Ver dA

A
exit
2
"VA* ! "4 % 0.5 % 0.707V e Ae
! * ! 4 % 0.5 % 0.707 % 22.1 ! 31.25 rad!s
where we have used AV ! AeVe from continuity considerations.
Example 4.21
The nozzles of Example 4.20 make an angle of 0° with the ground and 90° with the
arms. The water is suddenly turned on at t ! 0 with the sprinkler motionless. Determine
the resulting *(t) if the arm diameter is 24 mm. Neglect friction.

Solution
The reference frame is again attached to the rotating arms, as sketched in Example 4.20.
Referring to the control volume integral of Eq. 4.7.3, we observe that r " V ! 0 since r
is in the same direction as V along an arm. Thus Eq. 4.7.3, along with Eq. 4.7.2, takes the
form

" r î % '2* k̂ % V î & * k̂ % (*k̂ % r î) & $dd$*t k̂ % r î(rA dr

0 0.5
QO
QQ " 4
'QQQM
0

d
! $$
dt
"
c.v.
r î % V î r dV & 4 " A
exit
0.5 î % Ve(" ĵ)Ver dA

Perform the vector operations and divide by 4r,

" r dr " $dd*$t A " r dr ! "0.5V

0.5 0.5
2 2
"2AV* e Ae
0 0

The required integration, using AV ! AeVe ! 0.01 m3/s and Ve ! 2.21 m/s gives

d*
$$ & 132.6* ! 5862
dt

This linear, first-order differential equation is solved by adding the homogeneous solu-
tion (suppress the right-hand side) to the particular solution to obtain

*(t) ! Ce"132.6t & 44.2

Using the initial condition *(0) ! 0, we find that C ! "44.2. Then

*(t) ! 44.2(1 " e"132.6t) rad!s

Observe that as time becomes large, the angular velocity is limited to 44.2 rad/s. If fric-
tion were included, this value would be reduced. If 44.2 is multiplied by 0.707 to
account for the 45° angle, we obtain the value of Example 4.20.
SUMMARY
In this chapter we have presented the control-volume formulation of the funda-
mental laws. This formulation is useful when the integrands (the velocities and
pressure) are known or can be approximated with an acceptable degree of accu-
racy. If this is not the case, the differential equations of Chapter 5 must be solved
(numerically as in Chapter 14 or analytically as in Chapter 7), or experimental
methods must be used to obtain the desired information; much of the remainder
of this book is devoted to this task. After unknown velocities and pressures are
determined, we often return to the control-volume formulation and calculate
integral quantities of interest. Examples would include the lift and drag on an air-
foil, the torque on a row of turbine blades, and the oscillating force on a suspen-
sion cable of a bridge.
As we have observed in the examples and problems of this chapter, the task
of applying the control-volume equations is highly dependent on the appropriate
selection of the boundaries of the control volume. Such boundaries are selected
at locations either where information is known or where the unknowns appear.
Experience is often required in the selection of a control volume, as it is in the
selection of a free-body diagram in statics, dynamics, and solid mechanics. The
student has undoubtedly gained some of this experience while working through
the sections of this chapter. Table 4.1 presents the various forms of the funda-
mental laws to aid the user in selecting an appropriate form for a particular
problem.