Oil Shale Resources Development in Jordan

THE HASHEMITE KINGDOM OF JORDAN
NATURAL RESOURCES AUTHORITY
OIL SHALE RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
IN JORDAN
BY :
DR. YOUSEF HAMARNEH

Expert Petroleum
Engineering
Director I Advisor
Amman
Oil Shale Resources Development
Contents
Chapter One: Oil Shale Development In Jordan
1. General
2. Geology, Structure, Lithology and Petrography
3. Utilization
4. Previous activities
5. Strategy for oil shale exploitation
6. Conclusions
Summary of studies and investigations on oil shale deposits
Chapter Two: Oil Shale Deposits In Jordan
2.1. El-Lajjun Oil Shale
2.2. 2.1.1. Introduction
2.3. 2.1.2. The E1-Lajjun Drilling program
2.1.3. Oil Shale Composition, Shale Oil yields and Properties
Conclusions
- Exploitation and Utilization of El-Lajjun Oil Shale 49-50
- Direct combustion
- Retorting
- Water Requirements
- Review of the Efforts of Consultants of El-lajjoun oil shale deposit
- The cooperation with the German Federal Institute for Natural Resources and Geological
Sciences BGR
- The cooperation with the German Consortium Klockner - Lurgi.
- Cooperation with the BGR on Ground water development for the water supply of the E1-
lajjun oil shale complex
- The cooperation with the Soviet Technoprom Export
- Cooperation with SINOPEC INTL.
- Gasification of El-Lajjun oil shale
- Cooperation with Mitsubishi Corporation
- Cooperation with Hy-crude
- Other activities
Sultani Oil Shale
Review Of Efforts In Exploitation And Development Of Sultani Oil Shale
Conclusions
Jurf Ed-Darawish Oil Shale Deposit
El-Hasa Oil Shale Deposit
2.5. Attarat Umm. Ghudran Oil Shale Deposit
2.6 Wadi Maghar Oil Shale Deposit
2.7. Khan Ez-Zabib Oil Shale Deposit
2.8. Oil Shale Deposits in Northern Jordan
2.9. Eth - Thamad Oil Shale Deposit.
2.10. Azraq and El-Jafr Basin Oil Shale occurrences
Chapter Three: Composition and properties of oil shale. Laboratory procedures.
Chapter Four
Environmental Considerations
Synfuels Glossary
Bibliography
Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 1

CHAPTER ONE
OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT IN JORDAN
1. GENERAL:
Jordan is totally dependent on imported crude oil and petroleum products to meet all its energy
requirements. The daily petroleum consumption exceeds 75000 bbl I day with an average rate
of growth of 3% per annum, which is a significant drain of foreign exchange on Jordan’s
economy. This will have a noticeable impact on the balance of payments.
The presently known indigenous energy resources consist of large oil shale deposits and tar
sands, modest hydro potential, and low geothermal resources. To date no commercially
exploitable coal or lignite reserves have been discovered. Small deposits of oil were discovered
in Azraq in 1984 and produce 30 bbls/day. In 1987 gas was discovered in Risha, and 30 million
cubic feet of gas are produced daily from this field, to generate 120 MW
Jordan is endowed with a highinsolationintensityaveraging5to7 kwh/m3 that is one of the
highest intensities recorded any where in the world. Jordan offers an excellent solar regime for
deploying photovoltaic and low to high temperature solar systems for power generation
Jordan also has a potential wind regime suitable for electricity generation and direct water
pumping. It is estimated that about 2 to 3% of total fuel consumption in Jordan can be
substituted by solar and wind energy generation.
Recent studies show that biogas from animal and domestic wastes can substitute for about 4%
of imported fuel. Biogas offers great potential to energy deficient and isolated areas in Jordan.
So far, the only known major source of fossil energy fuel is oil shale, whose use as a substitute
for petroleum is of crucial importance for Jordan ‘s development. One of the key elements of
Jordan’s energy strategy is to diversify its energy supply sources to meet the energy need in
next decades of the twenty first century.
Oil shale had been known from ancient times; evidence of this is found in mosaics and floors
of the palaces, churches and mosques from the Greek, Roman, Byzantinian, Ummaidi and
Abbaside periods. Modern interest in oil shale began during the 1st World War, east of the
Jordan River, especially in the Yarmouk Region (Clapp 1936, Blake 1939 Quennell 1951,
Burdon 1959, Bender 1968), but no intensive investigations were conducted. More detailed
reconnaissance of Jordanian oil shale occurrences did not begin until EL – Lajjun oil shale
deposit was discovered by the German Geological Mission.
Jordan possesses a very large energy resource in its vast reserves of oil shale (over 50 billion
tons of geological reserves). There are 24 known surface, near surface and deep deposits of oil
shale occurrences have been reported in most of the Jordanian districts.
The geological studies and exploration for water, oil, and minerals showed that oil shale is
widely distributed in many parts of the country, either cropping out at the surface or
encountered in the exploratory wells.
The following are the main localities of oil shale ( fig 1):
A. In Northern Jordan (Irbid District), for example at Yarmouk River, Buweida & Beit Ras
villages, and at the Risha Rueished area in the northern east panhandle.
B. In Central Jordan (Karak District), in the area between Husseinieh in the south and
Daba’a in the north along the desert highway, and also in the EI-Lajjun area.
C. Southern Jordan (Ma’ an District), at the Jafr area.
D. Madaba District at Eth Thamad area.
From the above-mentioned deposits, there are 24 known surface and near surface deposits of
oil shale. Eight of these deposits i.e. El- Lajjun, Sultani, Jurf Ed – Darawish, Attarat Umm
Ghudran, Wadi Maghar, Siwaqa, Khan Al – Zabib & Eth – Thamad, were investigated to
different degrees. So far, only the deposits of El- Lajjun, Sultani, and Jurf Ed- Darawish have
been geologically investigated in detail. During the last two decades geological, techno-

economic and pre – feasibility studies for the exploitation of the El- Lajjun, and the Sultani
deposits for direct combustion and retorting, have been undertaken by the Ministry of Energy
& Mineral Resources, the Jordan Electricity Authority & Natural Resources Authority in
collaboration with American, Canadian, Chinese, German, Russian & Swiss consultants.


The major deposits of commercial scale interest are located south of Amman in central Jordan
and are easily accessible from the desert highway between Amman and Aqaba. These are:
A. El – Lajjun, which is located at about 100 kms south of Amman, about 15 kms east of
Karak, and west of Qatrana.
B. Sultani which is located at about 115 kms south of Amman just south of Qatrana
adjacent to the desert highway.
C. Jurf Ed- Darawish that is located 145 kms south of Amman near the desert highway and
the town of Jurf EdDarawish.
D. Attarat Umm Ghudran that is located approximately 34 kms east of Qatrana.
E. Wadi El – Maghar which is located approximately 40 kms south east of Qatrana
F. Siwaqa that is located about 9 kms north east of the abandoned Siwaqa railway station.
G. Khan EZ- Zabib which is located approximately 15 kms north east of the Khan Ez-
Zabib abandoned railway station
Proven reserves at El- lajjoun and Sultani deposits are together approximately 2 billion tons.
Over 90% of these reserves are exploitable by open cast mining. The reserves of Jurf Ed-
Darawish are estimated at 8.5 billion tons, Attarat Umm Ghudran at 11.3 billion tons and Wadi
El Maghar at 31.6 billion tons. The mean oil content of El – lajjoun, Sultani, Jun EdDarawish,
Attarat Umm Ghudran and Wadi El Maghar are 10.5, 5.7, 9.7, 11 & 6.8 wt% respectively.
The deposits are shallow with essentially horizontal beds. The overburden is unconsolidated
sedimentary rock consisting of gravels and silt with some marl and limestone stringers. The
thickness of overburden ranges from:
15 – 62 meters at El-Lajjoun.
2 – 65 meters at Sultani.
9 – 128 meters at Jurf El- Darawish.
45 – 62 meters at Attarat Umm Ghudran.
32.5 –50 meters at Wadi El- Maghar.
142 - 400meters at Eth – Thamad.
The average thickness of oil shale deposits vary from 30 m in the ElLajjoun area to 400m in
the Yarmouk area A conservative estimate of oil shale reserves in Jordan is 50 billion tons. It is
clear that what is really important is not the total reserves that may exist, but the mineable
reserves in deposits with favorable characteristics for large-scale economical development.
1.1 The Natural Resources Authority has been exploring oil shale deposits using the following
criteria
Favorable conditions for surface mining such as:
a.Minimal overburden.
b. Absence of significant structural disturbances
c.Absence or limitation of intrusive rock bodies.
1.2 Characteristics of oil shale layers namely:
a) Number of layers
b) Thickness of layers
1.3 Properties of oil shale:
a. Oil content, calorific value
b. Moisture content
c. Acceptable properties for processing.
1.4 Adequate reserves to justify installing a commercial processing plant. The deposits in
central Jordan have been selected for detailed studies due to the following factors:
a. They are the shallowest known deposits, offering favorable mining conditions.
b. The area is crossed by main road, in the central part of the country where reasonable
infrastructure exists.
c. The availability of adequate amounts of water for the industrial utilization. Among

the deposits in central Jordan El-Lajjun and Sultani were selected for feasibility
studies.
2. The Geology, Structure, Lithology and Petrography.
2.1 Geologically, oil shale belongs to the upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary formations,
which are wide spread in Jordan. The oil shale is generally not exposed, and all the
geological investigations so far conducted were based mainly upon shallow boreholes. The
following drilling densities were achieved during the various survey periods: El-Lajjun 135
boreholes. Sultani, 57 boreholes; Jun Ed – Darawish 50 boreholes; Attarat Umm Ghudran
41 boreholes: Wadi Al- Maghar 21 boreholes; and Eth Thamad 12 boreholes. Most of the
core samples were analyzed in the N. R. A. laboratories and in the BGR.
2.2 The economically important bituminous facies occurs in Central Jordan in the lower part
of the marine Chalk- Marl Unit.
The underlying formation is made up of the hard limestone and chert layers of the Phosphorite
Unit, whose upper 5 to 10 meters may also be bituminous. This lower sequence is, in Central
Jordan, of Maastrichtian age and consists of phosphatic limestone.
Mineable accumulations of phosphate occur in the Phosphorite Unit as at El- Hasa between
Sultani and Jurf Ed- Darawish, and at Wadi Al Abyad south of the Sultani oil shale deposit.
The age of the oil shale of Jurf Ed-Darawish was also classified as Maastrichtian (Bender,
1968; Heinbach, 1976: and Weiss 1969).
Tectonically, the area between Qatrana and Jurf Ed- Darawish forms part of an east Jordanian
block- faulted zone. Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments dip gently towards the east and south-
east to the El-Jafr basin and are cross – cut by a system of faults trending north – west and
north –north – west (Bender 1968)
The surveyed oil shale deposits are bounded by faults to varying degrees.
Traditionally, oil shale are defined as sedimentary rocks whose solid organic content is
insoluble in organic solvents, but which form liquid oil-like hydrocarbons when exposed to
destructive distillations, i.e. to temperatures up- to 500-600 0c, with a minimum oil yield of
around 5%.
The Jordanian oil shale are naturally bituminous marls and are varying shade of brown, grey or
black with typical bluish light-grey color when weathered. Another characteristic feature is
their content of light fine-grained phosphatic xenocrysts, some of which is accumulated in bone
beds.
The oil shale has few microfossils. The organic material of the oil shale consists largely
prebitumen bituminous ground-mass (Huffnagel 1981). This was formed during sedimentation
or in the early diagenetic process by mainly microbial influence, from initial plant and animal
materials with a lipidic composition.
A special feature of Jordanian oil shale is the fact that the foraminiferal shells are filled with
bitumen instead of the usual calcite (Jacob 1983). Very small humic and intertinitic (charcoal-
like) small particles also exist. A vitrinite reflectance of 0.32% has been measured in El-Lajjun
samples, which means that the organic substance has not sufficiently matured to generate
petroleum. This was also confirmed by the organic geochemical investigations conducted by A.
Abed (1982) on hydrocarbons extractable from shale from the El –Lajjun and Yarmouk areas.
The oil contents show considerable variations within the stratigraphic sequence, and between
the individual deposits. Throughout the world an oil content of 5% is considered the minimum
for any technical exploitation and especially for direct combustion. The oil shale calorific value
shows considerable fluctuations, just like the oil content. The mean figures are 5480 kj/kg, for
El- Lajjun, 5940 kj/Kg for Sultani and 4700 kj/kg, for Jurf Ed – Darawish. An interesting
feature from the point of view of technical utilization is that 20-30% of the original thermal
content remains in the retorted residue (the ash, or spent shale) which accordingly contains
sufficient energy to be used as fuel for generating electricity, or for producing heat required for

the further retorting of oil shale.

The principal mineral component of the oil shale is calcite or more rarely quartz together with
kaolinite and apatite and, on occasion feldspar, muscovite, Illite, goethite and gypsum as
secondary components. Dolomite occurs in some individual carbonate beds as in the Arbeed
limestone of El-Lajjun, the marker horizon between subunits A and B.
The main elements of the oil shale, if organic carbon is excluded are calcium, and silicon;
minor constituents are sulphur, aluminium, iron and phosphorous. The concentrations of the
remaining components are generally low. The silicon is derived from two sources: clastic
sediment input together with titanium, aluminium and iron; and from synsedimentary or early
diagenetic silicification.
The distribution of phosphorous is of particular interest. Its amount decreases from the bottom
to the top of the bituminous sequence. Phosphorous content is not favorable in the utilization of
the spent shale for the manufacture of cement.
Molybdenum, chromium and tungsten are significantly enriched in the bituminous marl in
comparison to limestone. Zinc, vanadium, nickel, copper, lanthanum and cobalt are also
enriched, where as barium is depleted. The contents of arsenic and lead are low to moderate
and do not pose any problem for the technical processes, nor for the environment. The uranium
content is relatively high but it is clearly associated with phosphorous and not with the
bituminous organic matter.
Significant positive correlations exist between the oil content and the elements sulphur,
chromium, nickel, copper, zinc and molybdenum as well as with the clastic components like
silicon, aluminium, titanium, iron and probably zirconium. A pronounced positive correlation
occurs between phosphorous, uranium, yttrium, and vanadium.
In summary it can be stated that, although considerable concentrations of some trace elements
occur locally, their concentration is not high enough to permit their extraction as a by product,
nor to cause serious environmental pollution.
The sulphur content ranges from 0.3 to 4.3%. Sulphur is of particular importance with regard to
the use of the oil shale as energy source. About one third of the sulfur is organically bound
(Huffnagel 1980). Alkylthiophenes provide more detailed information on subdivision of the
several lithological facies; and on the palaeoenvironment than conventional biological markers
(hydrocarbons). Further evidence is found that C25 highly branched isoprenoid thiophenes are
markers for diatoms C37 and C38 mid chain 2.5 – dialkyl thiophenes are markers for algae of
the class of prymnxesiophyceae, and that C35 hopanoid thiophenes are markers for bacterial
activity. Identification of organic sulphur compounds may lead to the recognition of unknown,
biosynthesised functionalised lipids (e.g. C44, C48 mid-chain dimethyalkenes).
APPENDIX I
OIL SHALE RESERVES
Deposit Geological Reserve Surface Area Overburden Oil Shale Oil %
X 109 Km2 (m) (m)
El-Lajjun 1.3 20.4 31 29.4 10.5
Sultani 0.989 24.0 69.5 31.6 7.5
Jurf Ed-Darawish 8.6 1500 69.0 31.0
Attarat Umm Ghudran 11 670 47 36.3 11
Wadi Maghar 31.6 19 40 40 6.8
Eth-Thamad 11.4 150 142-400 72-200 10.5
Khan Ez-Zabib N.A N.A 66 39.45 6.9

Drilled wells Moisture Ash S Density C. value (kj/kg)

% % % g/cm3
El-Lajjun 135 2.15 54.7 3.1 1.81 6906
Sultani 57 5.5 55.5 2.4 1.96 6380
Jur Ed-Darawish 50 4.5 58.4 2.4 2.1 4603
Attarat 41 3.25 53.2 2.6 1.8 7235
Wadi Maghar 21 2.9 57.5 2.6 2.03 4773
Eth-Thamad 12 2.5 54.7 3.2 1.8 6906
Chemical Composition Of Bituminous Marl

Component Jurf Ed-Darawish Sultani El-Lajjun
SiO2% 6.3 26.26 16.13
TiO2% 0.16 0.13 0.16
Al2O3% 3.76 2.87 3.77
Fe2O3% 1.55 1.12 1.55
MnO% 0.00 n.d 0.01
Mn2O3% 0.19 0.95 0.85
CaO% 38.37 26.3 30.43
Na2O% 0.1 0.27 0.1
K2O% 0.18 1.37 0.00
P2O5% 1.53 3.48 3.3
SO3% 4.73 4.38 4.83
LOI% 39.5 33.0 38.13
Component Jurf Ed-Darawish Sultani El-Lajjun

As ppm 10 17 -
Cu 68 115 92
Mo 20 99 73
Ni 102 139 167
Pb 9 11 7
Rb 10 14 10
Sn 26 235 n.d
Sr 1187 707 1015
Th 12 10 6
U 17 25 29
W 19 10 n.d
Y 34 27 33
Zn 190 649 451
Zr 46 46 36
Ba 34 45 113
Co 15 15 9
Cr 226 267 431
La 333 28 27
V 101 268 162
Elemental Composition Of Shale OIL
Average Content%
C H N O S AS
Jurf Ed-DARAWISH 78.85 9.81 0.98 2.1 8.4 <0.1
Sultani 78.59 9.98 0.71 1.04 9.78 <0.1

3. Utilization:
In the past oil shale has been used as a building or decorative material, as in the ancient
mosaics and shrines of late antiquities, and as a raw material for obtaining special substances
e.g. icbthyol or kerochemicals. Oil shale has also been employed for oil production, and used
as a mix with coal to drive locomotives in World War I (Schmitz 1982). At present commercial
utilization on economic basis is possible by retorting and direct combustion as in Estonia, and
China, and in special cases possibly by gasification.
Among the deposits in Central Jordan, El- lajjoun and Sultani had been selected for further
studies because they offer very good conditions for retorting and direct combustion projects, to
wit:
- The oil shale is of good quality and equally suitable for retorting and direct combustion.
- The ratio of overburden to shale is very low.
- The layers are horizontal and structurally undisturbed.
- Those portions worth mining do not contain any thick, sterile intercalations.
- The overburden and oil shale do not present any special engineering difficulties for large
operations.
- The deposits are located in a thinly populated area, but have good roads connected with
asphalted highways.
4. Previous Activities:
The N.R.A (The Natural Resources Authority) has done extensive geological studies to
determine the oil shale reserves at El-Lajjun and Sultani. In 1979, the N.R.A commissioned a
study by the BGR (German Federal Institute) for the evaluation of El-Lajjun, Jurf Ed-
Darawish, ElHisa and Sultani deposits in central Jordan, and a techno-economic pre-feasibility
study for an oil shale retorting complex using Lurgi -Ruhrgas Process. The results of this study
indicated that EL-Lajjun oil shale deposit shows continuity over an area of 18 sq. km with
about 1 billion tons of oil shale reserves containing some 100 million tons of shale oil. The
deposit was suitable for open cast mining and could support a 50,000 bbls/day oil shale
retorting complex for 30 yrs.
In October 1980. The N.R.A commissioned Phase I of the two prefeasibility studies for:
a. An oil shale complex using the Lurgi-Ruhrgas (LR) process for extracting 50,000
bbls/day of shale oil.
b. Installation of a power plant of 300 MW capacity utilizing El-Lajjun oil shale by means
of Lurgi ‘s circulating Fluidized bed combusting process (CFB).
The studies were completed in 1982 and concluded that both options were technically viable.
In March 1986 N.R.A contracted with the German Consortium Klockner-Lurgi to up date the
previous study. The up date study consisted of a revised geological study, revised prefeasibility
study, performance of retorting pilot tests, CFB combustion tests on 200 tons of El-Lajjun oil
shale sample in Germany, and hydrogeological studies for water resources. In addition,
Klockner-Lurgi also undertook an assessment of the possibility of burning the spent shale in
the electric power generation plant of 350 MW by adopting Lurgi’s F.B.C process.
In 1985 another agreement was signed with the China Petrochemical International Company
(SINOPEC) to carry out a proving test in order to determine whether a Fushun- Type retort
would be technically feasible for processing El-Lajjun oil shale. The final report of the proving
test was submitted in 1986 and the results emphasized that the Fushun - Type retort was quite
suitable for processing E1-Lajjun oil shale and that the results were promising.
SINOPEC International proposed the installation of a 100 tons/day Fushun-Type retort at a cost
of 6 million U.S.$. Cooperation with SINOPEC was halted due to high operation costs.
Since 1986,the Jordan Electricity Authority (JEA) and Natural Resources Authority (N.R.A)

together with the assistance of U.S AID and CIDA (Canadian) and Brown Boveri and
Company (Swiss), has been investigating the possibility of exploiting Sultani oil shale for
direct combustion for power generation. This effort would utilize the state -of the - art
Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) technology. Performance tests on Sultani oil shale done by
B.B.C, Lummus/Combustion Eng. and Bechtel Pyropower (funded by CIDA and USAID) have
demonstrated that Sultani oil shale is suitable as fuel for direct combustion in CFB power
plants.
Although oil shale retorting has a long history, the research conducted by the Americans and
the Europeans after the 1973 oil crisis the resulting high prices led to further research and
development of modern oil shale retorting processes. Lurgi technology and other processes
based on tar sands in U.S and Canada has proven the technology on a pilot scale and the
current lower level of oil prices has rendered commercial development and operation of such
plants uneconomic.
Therefore, in order to reduce financial risks associated with the construction of pilot retorting
complex at El - Lajjun. The N.R.A should proceed carefully and review the experience and
results prior to making a decision to make a large investment in such a project.
As regards to CFB technology, In the last decade more than 60 plants were operating on low
calorific value, fuels. However, none of these plants have been operated on oil shales. Further,
the technical problems involved in the disposal and the utilization of spent ash have not been
analyzed in detail.
5. Strategy For Oil Shale Exploitation:

Since none of the new technologies (retorting or direct combustion by CFB) have been tested
in an oil shale - based commercial plant, it is wise to wait for the start-up of a larger oil shale
retorting unit and of an oil shale based commercial CFB plant. At the same time, monitoring of
technological breakthroughs in commercial oil shale exploitation and evaluation of both the
retorting and the direct combustion options should be undertaken. But, in view of the rapid
growth rate in electricity demand and the planned grid interconnections between Jordan and
Egypt and between Turkey, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Egypt and Israel, it is recommended (after
reviewing the results of techno-economic evaluation of cornmerciality elsewhere of both the
retorting and CFB technologies,) to go forward with oil shale exploitation through joint venture
and B.O.T. In the interim the N.R.A and the MEMR should continue to address the technical
environmental and operational issues to be prepared for economic exploitation when either the
retorting and for CFB technologies are proven commercially viable in the long run.
5.1. Geological Assessment of Oil Shale:

Since most of the work on the assessment of Sultani, Jurf-Ed-Darawish, Attarat Um-Ghudran,
Eth-Thamad, Wadi EL- Maghar, Khan Ez-Zabib and other deposits has been done in limited
areas, the N.R.A would be advised to continue its geological, mining and techno-economic
studies on these promising deposits in order to prove that the reserves are adequate to supply
sufficient fuel to the commercial scale plants: 50.000 bbls/day or 400 MW power plants (as
visualized in the Technoprom Export and Bechtel studies). In addition, geological!
geochemical studies and detailed hydrological investigations on El-Lajjun, Sultani and other
similar deposits should be continued by N.R.A.
5.2. Evaluation of Water Resource Availability, Ash disposal and Environment:
In conjunction with the geological assessment of the oil shale, N.R.A should undertake an
evaluation of the extent of underground water which should be needed for the operation of a
power plant and for a retorting plant in the context of National Water Resource Availability.
Such an evaluation should also address the issues concerning the disposal and potential long-
term environmental impact.

5.3. TECHNICAL ISSUES:

It is worthwhile for the N.R.A to discuss and review the technology and economics of the
ongoing pilot and commercial oil shale retorting plants in U.S.A, Canada, Australia, Brazil,
Japan, China, Israel, Europe, and other regions. Progress made in the development of oil shale
technology the experience gained in oil shale retorting technology world wide, and the analysis
performed in Jordan on oil shale studies should be combined to prepare a long term strategy for
the economic production of shale oil from oil shale in order to meet Jordan’s long-term demand
of fuel.
Since oil shale has not been used directly as a fuel in any CFB based power plants, JEA should
carefully watch if such power plants are being put in the near future in other countries with
similar conditions as Jordan, e.g. Israel for the commercial development of oil shale - based
power plants, detailed feasibility studies based on the lesson from the world -_wide experience
should be done. Major technical issues regarding handling of oil shale feed; disposal and
utilization of spent shale; water availability: and comparative efficiency of air cooling versus
water cooling should be further investigated. Since all proposals (Russian, German, Canadian
Chinese and U.S) have been prepared by vendors with a bias towards utilizing their technology
and over all plant design, it would be wise to conduct an integrated evaluation of all proposals
and compare the relative benefits and the issues which need to be resolved in each proposal.
Such a study would include both technical and economic parameters. Based on such
evaluations, JEA can formulate its strategy of exploiting oil shale as a fuel in the long - term
power generation plans of Jordan.
6. Conclusion:
Progress made in the development of oil shale technologies and monitoring of the experience
world wide, together with the analysis performed in Jordan in addressing the water resources
availability and disposal and environmental and other operational issues, should be utilized to
formulate the strategy for economic exploitation of oil shale to meet Jordan’s energy
requirements. Such a strategy should include:
a. Formulation of guide-lines and codes for oil shale mining, ash disposal and water resource
utilization.
b. Preparation and regulatory framework to encourage private sector participation, including
the option of build, operate, and turn over (B0T), both in oil shale mining and power plant
investment.
c. Reassessment of the economics of oil shale exploitation reflecting the changing alignment
of the J.D against foreign currencies on investment, and the uncertainty of world oil prices.
d. Preparation of investment plan for power generation evaluating alternative technology that
optimally meet Jordan’s long- term power need at least costs.
Summary of Studies and Investigations on Oil Shale Deposits

Type of Study Studied well Studied in general Not Studied
1. Geological Lajjun, Sultani Jurf, Attarat Wadi Maghar The rest
2. Hydrogeolgoical Lajjun The rest
3. Mining Lajjun, Sultani The rest
4. Oil shale utilization Lajjun Sultani The rest
5. Oil shale comminuition Lajjun Sultani
6. In-Situ Retorting All deposits
7. Retorting Lajjun The rest
8. Shale Oil utilization as is All deposits
9. Upgrading of shale oil Lajjun The rest
10. Transportation of shale oil
11. Refining of up-graded oil
12. Marketing
13. Environmental Lajjun, Sultani
14. Direct combustion

CHAPTER TWO
OIL SHALE DEPOSITS IN JORDAN
2.1. EL-LAJJUN OIL SHALE:

2.1.1. INTRODUCTION:
El-Lajjun oil shale deposit was discovered by the German Geological Mission (directed by
professor Dr. Bender & Huffnagel, 1980). Studies of the El-Lajjun deposit were started in 1968
by the Natural Resources Authority (N.R.A). The studies consisted of core drilling and
laboratory analysis. Reports reflecting these activities were prepared by Spears, 1969; Dinneen,
1970 ; Hamarneh 1970,and Omary, 1979
Operations were discontinued in 1969 owing to the low prices of crude oil, but as a result of the
energy crises, investigations were resumed early in 1979 by the N.R.A with much greater
interest.
This program of operation was being assisted by the Federal Republic of Germany, represented
by the Federal Institute of Natural Resources and Geosciences (BGR), and was recommended
as part of the technical cooperation between Jordan and FRG ( Abu Ajamieh, 1980; Huffnagel,
1980; Nimry 1981 ). The program consisted of additional boreholes in the El- Lajjun area to
delineate the deposit plus laboratory analysis and semi-industrial tests. These investigations
proved that sufficient quantities of good quality oil shale are available at El-Lajjun for potential
exploitation. On the basis of the encouraging results of these studies, it was decided to proceed
on further pre.-feasibility studies. In October, 1980, the N.R.A commissioned the services of
the German Consortium Klockner-Lurgi to conduct a mining and technical pre-feasibility study
concerning the exploitation of El-Lajjun oil shale for retorting in 50.000 bbls/day plant, and
also for supplying a 300 MW power plant. The study was completed in 1982 and concluded
that commercial utilization is economically viable and that retorting is cheaper than the
generation of electricity by direct combustion.
In March, 1986 the N.R.A contracted the West German Consortium again to up-date the
previous studies, with a view to assessing the technical and economic feasibility of a large
scale retorting complex. This study consisted of revised geological study, performance of a
retorting pilot test with CFB combustion test, and hydrogeological studies for water resources.
In 1980 the N.R.A commissioned a pre-feasibility study by TechnopromExport to assess the
potential for direct burning of El-Lajjun oil shale in a 300 MW power plant (by a conventional
combustion method). This study concluded that EI-Lajjun oil shale is suitable as a fuel for
direct combustion.
In 1985, the N.R.A contracted China Petro-Chemical International Company (SINOPEC Int-L)
to perform tests on El-Lajjun oil shale using the existing Fushun type retort. The performance
test proved the viability of using the Fushun type retort for the production of shale oil.
2.1.2. Location:
The El-Lajjun oil shale deposit is located in the western part of Central Jordan
1. Located approximately 110 km south of Amman and mid way along the highway
between Karak and Qatrana 1. The deposit is 10 kms long and 2 to 2.5 kms wide.
2. Main roads cross the area in the central part of the country where a reasonable
infrastructure exists.
This deposit is the shallowest known oil shale deposit that offers favorable conditions for open
pit mining.
2.1.3. Geology:
Stratigraphically consists of limestone, marl, cherts, shales and phosphates of Campanian -

Maestrichtian to Holocene ages, and is situated in a north -south trending graben.

The average thickness of oil shale is 30 m. The average stripping ratio is 0.9: The estimation of
the reserves was based on detailed calculations based on: isopach maps of the bituminous chalk
- marl - unit and on the oil content as determined by Fischer~ Assay.
The proven reserve amounts to 1.3 billion tons of oil shale having oil content of 125 million
tons.
One hundred and seventy three boreholes were drilled during the periods 1968/1969, 1979, and
1982-1985. The drilled thickness varies from 1.4 to86.5 m.
The BGR and Klockner - Lurgi reports confirmed the oil shale reserves both in quality and
quantity.
2.1.4. Structure:
In the investigated area the main structural feature is the El- Lajjun graben, controlling a
morphological depression bordered from east and west by faults striking generally N - S.
2.1.5. Stratigraphy:
The bituminous facies in the area occur in the upper portion of the Phosphorite Unit as well as i
the Lower Chalk Marl Unit (in which the best grades of oil shale occur).
The stratigraphy of the bituminous layers of the chalk marl unit is based on drill hole data. On
the basis of the oil content determined by Fischer Assay, the bituminous sequence of the chalk
marl unit has been subdivided into several sub - units (Huffnagel, 1980).
The deposit is a homogenous one. This is shown by the uniformity of lithology, as well as the
distribution of several constituents such as moisture, oil and sulphur.
The following sub - units have been recognized from bottom to top:
1. Sub-Unit P.
This is the upper most bituminous part of the phosphorite unit, which reaches 7 meters in
thickness. Sub - unit P is characterized by an average oil content ranging between 5.5 and
7.5%, with a very high P2O5 content and variable CaCO3.
2. Sub - Unit A.
This unit has the highest average oil content (12.6%). It is the thickest of all units (12-18m),
and is characterized by high average sulphur content (3-5%).
3. Sub- Unit AL.
This unit includes the dolomitic limestone (Arbid limestone). This sub - unit is slightly
bituminous with approximately 3% oil content
4. Sub - Unit B
This sub - unit consists of the section between the Arbid limestone and the first appearance of
limestone concretions and is characterized by high average oil yield (12.3%), the highest Si02
content (26.1%) and the lowest CaCO3 content (33%).
5. Sub-Unit C.
This sub-unit is relatively thin (5 - 6m) and has low oil content (7.8%). The CaCO3 content is
greater than in sub-unit B (5.3%) while the SiO2 content is less (11.5%).
6. Sub-Unit D.
In this sub-unit the bituminous chalk - marl reaches a maximum thickness of 11m. The average
oil content is11.1%.
7. Sub-Unit E.
This sub-unit is approximately 27 m thick and consists of average oil content of 6%. The
CaCO3 content averages (56%) (which is higher than the CaCO3 content in sub-unit D) and the
Al203 in this sub-unit is the highest in the whole bituminous sequence - 6.7%. The average P2O5
content falls below 2%.
8. Sub-Unit F.
The thickness of this sub-unit reaches about 17 m and the average oil content 9%. The CaCO3

content exceeds 7% as in sub-unit G.

9. Sub-Unit G.
The average oil content in this sub-unit is 4.3%.
Below, the average physico - chemical characteristics of the sub - units are listed
Sub-unit Oil% Moisture S C-org. Cal. Value CaCO3 Al2O3 P2O5 SiO2 (m)
G 4.3 3.6 1.9 3.6 2580 73.9 2.5 0.5 5.6 7
F 3.4 2.3 1.7 5.6 2050 71.1 3.1 1.3 6.7 17
E 5.7 2.8 2.6 8.6 4180 56.0 4.8-6.7 1.73 12.4 4-23
D 11.1 3.4 3.3 12.8 6850 45.0 5.0-6.7 3.35 13.3 2-11
C 7.8 2.2 2.3 9.8 4700 53.0 4.2-4.8 3.3 11.5 5-6
B 12.3 3.1 3.2 14 8100 33.0 2.6-2.9 3.6 26.1 8-11
AL 5.2 2.3 1.7 6.2 4090 60.0 20.1-6.6 3.0 22.0 1-2
A 12.6 1.9 3.5 14.5 8170 46.0 3.4-3.5 2.7 14.6 12-18
P 6.1 1.8 1.9 8.3 4200 45.0 1.1-1.4 9.7 9.1 2-6
2.2. The El-Lajjun Deposit Drilling Program:

One hundred and thirteen boreholes were drilled during the period, 1968/1969, 1979/1982. The
drilled thickness varies between 1.4 and 86.5m.
The core recovery in the oil shale and the overlying chalky marl and Phosphorite was excellent
(over 85%).
In 1983 a new drilling program started aimed at providing accurate figures for the proven
reserves of the different subunits. The core-hole spacing was 300 meters.
2.3. Oil Shale Composition, Shale Oil Yields And Properties

2.3.1. Previous activities:
The technical analysis which started in 1968 were performed by N.R.A & BGR, and in eluded
Fischer Assay Analysis, in which the oil shale was pyrolysed up to 5200c and the amounts of
oil, water, gas and the residue (spent shale) were recorded. Other analyses included the
determination of organic matter, sulphur, moisture, trace elements and other inorganic
constituents. Representative samples were analyzed in different institutions and organizations
such as the U.S.G.S, B.G.R, I.G.S, B.P, JOSECO SINOPEC, Acad. of
SeienceUSSR,AOSTRA, and Ahlstrom Finland. The results of these investigations were
reflected in the reports submitted to N.R.A by Speer’s of the BP, (1969) Dinneen of the
U.S.G.S, (1970) Jacob of the BGR, (1969) Huffnagel, (1980) Hamarneh,(1979) Oman, Abu
Ajamieh, (1980) lladdadin (1975) and others. This program of different investigations was
terminated by N.R.A in 1970 because of the low oil prices. As oil prices continuously
increased from 1973 onwards, N.R.A resumed its studies of this deposit in 1979. The need for
a complete assessment of this oil shale deposit became inevitable and Omary of the N.R.A
analyses the previous work done in 1979. This was followed by a detailed study by Abu
Ajamieh (1980, 1988) and Hamarneh,(1970 - 1994) Further studies of El-Lajjun deposit were
conducted in 1979 by N.R.A in cooperation with the Federal Institute of Natural Resources and
Geosciences (BGR) of the Federal Republic of Germany. The work done in that program
included:
1. Mapping and completion of 1:10000 geological map.
2. Electric Resistivity Survey.
3. Additional core drilling.
4. Laboratory and industrial tests.
The laboratory tests included: Fischer Assay analysis, organic matter determination, moisture,
sulphur, X-Ray diffraction, XRF, TGA, and flash retorting tests.
In 1982 - 1983 a new drilling program started aimed at drilling about 60 more boreholes in the

southern part of the deposit and including laboratory analysis of core samples in order to assess
the reserves in that area.
2. 3. 2. Composition of EL-Lajjun Oil Shale:

Analysis of some representative samples are given below:
Fischer Assay High Lean Average
Oil 16.7 8 13.4
Water 2.1 3.3 2.6
Spent shale 76.5 83. 80.3
Gas and loss 4.6 5.7 3.7
Sp.Gr.of oil 0.966 0.964 0.977
600F 60 0F
Carbon, % Raw Shale

Total C% 27.2 18.7 25.2
Mineral C% 5.19 5.48 3.57
Mineral calculated as CaCO3 43.2 45.6 29.7
Organic carbon %.
Calculated as total organic matter 27.5 13.2 22.1
Spent Shale, %
Total carbon 15.2 9.9 15.8
Mineral carbon 5.87 3.3 6.86
Organic carbon 9.3 6.6 8.0
Total Sulphur Distribution % in Raw Shale

In spent shale 25.4
In total volatiles 74.6
a - in shale oil 31.1
b-in gas 41.
c-in water 2.5
Fractions of Shale Oil Obtained By Fischer Assay:

Type of hydrocarbon High grade Lean Average
Saturated hydrocarbons 9.63 9.06 8.01
Aromatic hydrocarbons 75.77 78. 76.32
Asphaltic compounds 14.61 12.96 15.67
Soluble Bitumen from Raw Shale:

Methanol Soluble 1.78 1.41 0.86
Chloroform Soluble 4.96 3.61 3.63
Organic Matter Distribution in low temperature carbonization:

Yields from organic matter % by wt
Total shale oil 54.7
Total shale oil 5.8
Gas 18.3
Ash 21.2
Sum of useful products (only combustibles) 73
Properties of Shale Oil produced by F.A

Specific Gravity 60 of /60 of 0.968
Sulphur content % by wt. 8.5-10.2
Carbon content % by wt. 78.55-79.4

Nitrogen content % by wt. 0.66-0.9

Asphaltenes % by wt. 0.35
Wax % by wt. 4.8
Pour point, 0F +30.
Acidity mg kcm/gm 3.3
Nickel, p.p.m. 8.
Vanadium ppm. 9.
Bromine No. 100.
Initial boiling point 0C 77.
Distilled up to 3000C 48-62% (pre vol)
Sulphur content In Shale Oil Fractions:

Fraction LBP - 100 0C 3.68
Fraction 100 - 200 0C 9.52
Fraction 200 - 300 oC 10.06
Identification of group chemical constituents tithe gas %by vol

CO2 14.5
CO 1
Paraffines 28.4
H25 26.2
H 21.6
Olefines 9.3
Potential Heat Distribution:

Potential heat of the raw shale (100%) 2340kca1/kg
Potential heat of oil shale 54. %
Potential heat of gas 16.9%
Potential heat of spent shale 30.1 %
Calorific value of the gas 9380 kcal /M3
Inorganic Chemical Analysis of Raw Shale:

SiO2 Wt, % 16.13
CaO 30.42
MgO 035
Al2O3 3.77
Fe2O3 1.5
P205 3.3
S03 4.8
AS ppm. <0.1
Cu 92.
Mo 73.
Ni 167.
Sr 1015.
U 29.
Zn 451.
Ba 113.
Cr 341.
V 162
Bulk properties:
High Calorific value KcaI/kg 1270
Low Calorific value Kcal/Kg 1390
Mean Calorific value Kcal/kg 1590
Average Oil content, ¶4 by wt 10.5
Density (g/cmt3) 1.8-2.04

El - Lajjun Oil Shale, Bore Hole Data

B.H. No. Thickness (m) oil yield, % gals/ton Organic%
28 33.38 10.3 27.9 17.6
29 34.45 11.03 30.0 19.0
30 27.9 12.46 33.9 21.4
31 3036 12.17 33.1 20.9
32 35.36 12.17 33.1 20.9
33 30.79 13.0 35.4 22.4
34 17.56 11.8 32.1 203
36 6.71 11.74 31.9 202
37 33.54 11.76 32.0 20.4
38 30.18 9.6 26.1 16.5
39 3.05 7.9 21.5 13.6
40 19.21 12.4 33.7 21.33
41 1523 11.54 3139 19.85
42 20.12 11.1 302 19.1
43 16.77 11.4 31.2 19.73
44 17.99 11.4 31.0 19.6
46 23.17 11.5 313 19.73
47 SM 8.7 23.7 15.0
48 13.59 12.1 32.9 20.8
50 20.12 10.6 23.8 18.2
55 17.99 11.7 31.8 20.1
56 9.45 9.95 27.1 17.1
El - Lajjun Oil Shale, Bore Hole Data cont.

B.H. No. Thickness (m) oil yield, % gals/ton Organic%
57 33.54 11.5 313 19.73
59 27.47 10.4 283 17.9
60 32.29 11.2 30.5 193
61 23.74 103 28.0 17.7
68 23.7 9.7 26.4 16.7
73 30.0 5.4 14.7 9.3
74 59.45 8.6 23.4 14.8
78 30.0 11.6 31.6 19.95
79 69.0 8.3 22.6 14.3

Oil Content:
The yields of low-temperature carbonization process (Fischer Assay) are oil, water, gas and
residue (spent shale). Oil content is one of the main parameters that determine the suitability of
the deposit to be used as a source of oil production by retorting.
The analysis were carried out in aluminum cast retort, where the oil shale was pyrolysed up to
520 ‘k and the amounts of water, oil, gas and residue (spent shale) were recorded. The
recommended final pyrolysis temperature may not be an appropriate temperature for appraisal
of oil yield of El-Lajjun oil shale. Oil yield determination was made at different final pyrolysis
temperatures to obtain a highest oil yield value of EI-Lajjun oil shale as shown below.
Oil yield determined at various final temperatures:
Final T-true 0c 500 510 520 530 535 540 550
Oil yield % 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.6 9.7 9.9 9.6
The oil content in the deposit varied from 0.5 to 18.5% and the average content of the whole
deposit ( as concluded by Lurgi - Klockner ) was 10.5% : hence the amount of recoverable oil
varies considerably, but reaches 161.5 L/T.
Organic Carbon:
The organic carbon was determined using the Leco carbon analyser, after the removal of
(mineral) carbonates by dilute (10%) HCL. The results of analysis showed that El-Lajjun oil
shale contains organic material relatively uniform in composition and correlates well with the
oil yield as shown in the figs. Annex (2). The correlation factor (coefficient -0.986). This
determination can be recommended as a replacement for the Fischer Assay, since it is less
expensive.
Calorific Value:
The results of analysis showed that the mean gross calorific value was 2000 Kcal/kg and that
the organic carbon content and the gross calorific value correlate very well as shown in figs of
appendix 2. Therefore, it is possible to estimate with sufficient accuracy the gross calorific
values, if only the content of organic carbon is known. It was also concluded that, on the basis
of the gross calorific values in parallel with other geological and chemical data, the high oil
shale contains energy sufficient for generating electricity by direct combustion. This is the case
if modern methods are used to overcome the obstacle of the high sulphur content, and if
operation is at temperatures below the initial deformation temperatures of carbonates (1215 -
12410C ) in order to avoid intensive fouling on the water walls of the boiler furnace and other
heating surfaces. Otherwise slag deposits may form on the water walls, especially in the high
temperature zone. Deposits of dense slag may also occur on the super heater and economizer
tubes which lead to abrasive wear of these tubes. High ash fusing point determation of El-
Lajjun oil shale gives an initial depormation temperature (Ti) of 12300C while the softening
temperature (T2) and fusing temperature ( T3) are 1250 and 1260 respectively.
Sulphur:
The total sulphur content was determined by wet chemical methods and by combustion in
oxygen with a Leco analyser. The sulphur content of the oil shale varies from 0.4 % to 4 % and
gradually decreases from bottom to top as shown below:

Sub-Unite S%
G 1.9
F 1.7
E 2.6
D 3.3
C 2.3
B 3.2
AL 1.7
A 3.5
P 1.9
The high sulphur content in the retorted oil indicates that a considerable part of the sulphur is
chemically bound to the organic material.
Others:
The high percentage of carbonates in the ash is an indication to cementation ability, which may
lead to serious difficulties in the operation of ash disposal system.
The presence of P205 affects the operation of electrostatic precipitator, bringing down
efficiency.
Carbonate Content:
The carbonate (mineral C02) of El-Lajjun oil shale is as high as more than 18.1%. The higher
content of carbonates especially calcium carbonate is favorable to using the shale ash as
cement raw material, provided that the contents of P205 and S are within the acceptable limits.
Density:
Density is one of the important parameters for the calculation of the reserves. The bulk density
of the El-Lajjun oil shale was determined to be 1.81 g/cm3.
Mineralogical Composition:
The mineralogical composition was determined mainly by X-ray diffraction. The results of
investigations showed that the mineralogy of ElLajjoun oil shale as a whole is uniform with
depth. The mineralogical composition can be described as follows.
Calcite 20 - 80 main constituent

Quartz 10-40
Kaolinite 5-10
Apatite 4-14 Minor
component
Dolomite 2-3.6
Feldspar 5
Pyrite 5 Traces
Muscovite- 5
illite
Geothite 5
Gypsum 5
Opal Present
As seen from the above mentioned data the major constituents of ElLajjoun oil shale are calcite
and quartz, while the other constituents are either minor or in trace.

Chemical Composition:
The chemical compositions were determined by wet chemical analysis and X-Ray
Fluorescence. The results are given below in wt %
SiO2 4.65-41.63 Na2O 0.00 - 0.32

TiO2 0.03 - 0.38 K20 0.02 - 0.56
AL203 0.97 - 9.26 P2O5 0.47 - 14.67
Fe2O3 0.41 - 3.57 SO3 0.07 - 6.73
MnO 0.01 CaO 15.32 -
45.67
MgO 0.17-8.17 L.O.I 27.9 - 45.9
The presence of P2O5 in a maximum range of 14.67 wt % is harmful for cement production and
limits the use of shale ash to a large extent. Cement blend and other uses in the production of
construction materials are possible.
Organic Matter:
The organic matter content ranges from 22 - 30 % by wt. The greater part is insoluble in
organic solvent, i.e. kerogen. The soluble part (bitumen) forms 2.6% of the total organic
matter.
Pyrolysis Of Oil Shale And Endothermic Heat Of Reaction:

Differential Scanning Calorimetry was used to conduct pyrolysis testing of pulverized oil shale
(<200 mesh). The initial pyrolysis temperature was 3100C and the final temperature was about
5850C. The endothermic heat of pyrolysis as calculated was 42.4 kcal/kg
Rock Eval apparatus was also used to conduct pyrolysis of a pulverized (< 80 mesh) sample of
El - Lajjun oil shale. The data on hydrocarbon evolution is as follows:
Peak temp T max. Adsorbed H/C,S1 Pyrolysis H/C,S2

C mg/g mg/g
414 11.15 113.2
Potential CO2 S3 Organic matter

S1+S~mg/g mg/g Degradation %
wt
124.35 3.7 79.39
It was concluded that, at a pyrolysis temperature of 360 0C the cumulative hydrocarbon (liquid
and gas) evolution is 35.5%. At a pyrolysis temperature of 400 0C the cumulative hydrocarbon
evolution is already 84%. When the pyrolysis temperature reaches 450 0C, the cumulative
hydrocarbon evolution reaches 98.5%. The hydrocarbon potential of El-Lajjun oil shale is
124.35 mg/g, (organic matter degradation is 79.39% ). If the calorific value is taken into
consideration the sum of calorific value of pyroysis products (oil & gas) accounts for about
73% of that of the raw shale.
Thermal Tests:
Thermal analysis tests were carried out by the differential thermal analysis, apparatus (D.T.A)
and the thermal gravimetric apparatus. The D.T.A is a measure of the change in temperature of
a sample heated at a constant rate. Any physical or chemical change involving the release or

absorption of energy results in a temporary temperature excursion

Consequently any reaction or change of state results in an endothermal temperature excursion
appearing as a blip on the curve. A combustion process would cause an exothermic excursion.
A change in state upon heating is endothermic. The D.T.A curve can be used to determine the
heating value of the fuel and to obtain the kinetic data with the development of appropriate
procedure.
D.T.A thermal tests with a heating rate 100C 1mm. were conducted and the following heat
effects were recorded:
1. 30-1500C endothermic - release of the adsorbed water.
2. 150 - 5500C exothermic - reaction of the 1st organic complex.
3. 420 - 5200C - roasting of the pyrites.
4. 480 - 520 - dehydration of the phosphate complex.
5. 450 - 8000C - reaction of the 2nd organic complex.
6. 790 - 9400C endothermic - dissociation of dolomite.
7. 9200C - endothermic - dissociation of calcite.
Thermal Gravimetric Tests (TGA):

T.G.A (thermal gravimetric apparatus) is a record of change in weight as the sample is heated
at a constant rate. T.G.A reveals the temperature levels at which a physical change in state
occurs with the evolution of gas. Hence, TGA reveals the change in weight of a combustible
material as it is heated. From TGA the ignition temperature, char burn out, % of ash and % of
moisture can be identified. The tests revealed that three reaction phases can be identified:
1. 250-5000C
2. 500 - 700 0C
3. 700-10000C
The ignition temperature occurs at 250 0C and the burn out is completed at 500 0C. The
reaction phase of 250 - 700 0C showed a loss in weight and heat absorption predominately
caused by thermal decomposition of organic matter and a reaction phase of 700 - 1000 0C loss
in weight and heat absorption predominately caused by the decomposition of carbonates.
The loss in weight for the range of 250 - 7000C is mainly the sum of oil, water and gas
produced in pyrolysis while the loss in weight in the range 700 - 1000 0C is mainly the CO2
released from the decomposition of carbonates.
The heat required in retorting of oil shale consists mainly of two phases: endothermic heat of
pyrolysis and sensible heat required to heat oil shale to pyrolysis temperature. The sensible heat
accounting for a major part of the total heat required, can be calculated from the equation:
H1 = CPdt
Based on the specific heat of the oil shale and shale char determined for Different temperature
intervals. The calculated sensible heat are shown below:
Sensible heat H25 - 500 0C Kcal/kg 213.1
Reaction heat kcal/kg 42.4
Total heat Kcal/kg 255.5
The heat required for the evaporation of moisture in oil shale is not listed. If the moisture
content of El - Lajjun oil shale is taken as 4.5% an additional heat of 29 kcal per kg shale is
required.
Differential scanning test (DSC) was conducted on combustion of pulverized shale char. Two
phases of organic carbon and endothermic decomposition of carbonates were observed in
combustion testing at constant heat up-rate and atmospheric conditions, which agreed well with
T.G.A and D.T.A. The result of analysis of the heat of combustion of shale char are shown as
follows:

Organic Carbon Exothermic peak heat Endothermic peak Net heating value
%WT kcal/kg. heat/kg kcal/kg
5.5 418 148 270
The endothermic heat of the decomposition of carbonates is about 27 -35 % of the exothermic
heat of the organic matter.
Oil Shale And Spent Shale Ignition Characteristics:

For the oil shale analyzed the ignition temperature in the air stream is between 250 and 300 0C.
The fluctuations in the ignition temperature even for the same deposit are due to the differences
in the composition of the material. The ignition temperature and also the volatile constituents
are characteristic parameters for the determination of the mill outlet temperature and of the
fineness of the grind fuel.
The ignition characteristics of El-Lajjun oil shale have been determined by using thermo
gravimetric analyzer (T.G.A )and CO/CO2 analyzer. The physical characteristics of El-Lajjun
oil shale and spent shale are shown below:
Pulverized Oil Spent
Shale shale
Particle size, mm 6.5-14 9-15
Apparent Density 1.57 1.48
g/cm3
Total porosity cm3 /g 0.0666 0.382
3
Specific surface m I 7.58 6.76
g
Porosity % 10.4 42.2
Equivalent radius 176. 833.
(A)
The ignition range of oil shale and spent shale are:

Oil Shale 310-3800C
Spent Shale 350 - 4000C.
The surface temperature of oil shale and spent shale increases upon heating. Meanwhile, the
organic matter in the pyrolysis process is given up in the form of volatiles and gases (such as
CH4, CO., H2, CnHn). When the rate of heating on the surface of the sample is larger than that
of the volatiles or gases released, the temperature of the sample surface increases. As soon as
the temperature of the sample is high enough ignition takes place on the surface of the sample.
This process of ignition is called heterogeneous. The rate of volatile release is 81.7 - 84.9% and
testifies to the inflammability of the shale.
Chemical composition shows little effect on ignition. The main factors affecting the ignition of
the shale are the physical properties and the conditions of combustion. The greater the porosity
of oil shale the lower is the ignition temperature. The reason is that the volatiles and gases
pyrolysed in oil shale with higher porosity will be released easily.
The ignition mechanism for spent shale is also heterogeneous because pyrolysis is prone to
release the volatile gases.
The experimental equation of ignition of El-Lajjun oil shale and spent shale has been
considered as a function of chemical composition such as Fischer Assay Oil (Os) organic
carbon (Oc) physical properties (total porosity vo, specific surface area (s) porosity (e), and
equivalent pore radius (r)) as well as the combustion flow rate of gas (v), particle diameter (Dp)

and the constant rate of heating (Ct):

Tig Tj + T2 (1)
T1 Fl (v,Dp,Ct) (2)
T2 T2 (Oi,Co,Vo, S,e,r) (3)
Where Tig is the ignition temperature.

T1 is associated with the condition of combustion.
T2 is correlated to the chemical composition and the physical properties.
For equation (2) Ti can be expressed as:
T1= a..v + b..Dp + C.Ct (4)
Where V is the flow rate of the gas (ml I mm), Dp is the diameter of the sample (mm) Ct is the
constant rate of heating 0C/min, a,b,c as constants as seen below.
Oil Shale 1.443/e-2 -3.4943 -4.8059
Spent 1.8478 e-2 0.2522 2.0851
shale
T2-can be for oil shale as:

for spent shale T2 = 468.76 - 0.48179 e-2 (5)
T2=459.15 - 1.2959 e-2. Co.r (6)
Where e is the porosity %:

Co- is the content of organic carbon
r - is the equivalent pore radius.
A - The max. and relative mean deviation as listed below:
Max. dev. % M.dev. %
Oil Shale 4.9 1.3
Oil Shale 6. 2.6
It can be concluded that the effect of combustion conditions and physical properties on its
ignition temperature is more important than their chemical composition.
• The ignition temperature of oil shale decreases with increasing porosity
• The ignition temperature of the spent shale decreases with increasing the equivalent
pore radius and the content of organic matter.
• The ignition process for both oil shale and spent shale is heterogeneous.
Composition And Properties Of Fischer Assay Products:

Low temperature carbonization (Fischer Assay) gives the amounts of oil water, gas, and
residue (spent shale). The 50 g. aluminium cast retorts method is used.
Properties Of Shale Oil:

The shale oil was obtained from a rotating retort, the only means available to produce shale oil
for preliminary evaluation. As compared with commercially operating internally heated retorts,
the shale oil produced contains more light fractions.
The shale oil appears to be mobile black liquid with a pungent smell and high water content.
The properties of this shale oil are shown as follows:
Density g/cm3 0.9668
0
DistillationIBP C 121.
1600C dist. off % wt 9.0
1800C dist.off%wt 19.2000C dist.off%wt 29.

2200C dist.off%wt 39.

240 0C dist. Off/! Volume 42.
260 0C dist. Off/ Volume 48.
Kinematic Viscosity ( Cst)(sentistokes):

20 0C 6.836
50 0C 3.138
Pour point 0C -.14
Acid Number (mg koh/g) 0.380
Base Number (mg /koh/g) 13.81\
Elementary Analysis:
C% 77.92
H% 9.44
S% 9.67
N% 0.46
Asphaltenes % <0.1
Resin % 28.2
Average molecular wt. 275.
Group Components Of The Shale Oil:

Paraffines % 17.7
Olefines % 13.1
Aromatics and Sulpho-
Organic compounds % 56.1
Oxygen compounds 13.1
Nickel in p.p.m 8.0
Vanadium in p.p.m 9.0

Properties Of Narrow Shale Oil Fractions:

Fraction %wt in Cumulative Density g/cm S% N%
Oc Oil Oil 200C
<100 0.7 0.7 7 0.25
100 -120 2. 2.7 0.8376 10.4 0.18
121 -140 4.1 6.8 0.8658 14.3 0.22
141 -160 4.5 11.8 0.8745 13.7 0.26
161 -180 7.7 19. 0.8990 13.5 0.31
181 -200 7.8 26.8 0.9048 12.1 0.38
201- 220 7.6 34.4 0.9163 11.1 0.31
221 -241 5. 39.4 0.9386 9.9 0.47
241 -250 2.7 42.1 0.9527 10.5 0.51
251 -275 5.4 47.5 0.9602 10.9 0.59
276 -300 5.6 53.1 0.9651 10.3 0.62
301 -320 4.9 58. 0.9788 9.5 0.61
321 -340 4.5 62.5 0.9951 9.8 0.6
341 -360 4.9 67.4 1.0081 10.2 0.63
361 -380 4.2 71.6 0.9750 8.1 0.7
381 -395 2.6 74.2 -0.977 8.1 0.7
396 -425 6.1 80.3 -0.978 9.2 0.69
>425 17.1 97.4 8.8 0.66
Properties of Narrow Fractions:

Fraction Refractive Molecular N- N-
index n 20D weight Compound Compound
calcul. % calcul. %
<100 1.4415
100- 120~N 1.4489 103 33.5 1.3
121 – 140 1.4427 108 48.3 1.7
141 – 160 1.4776 110 47.1 2.
161 – 180 1.4863 128 34.0 2.8
181 – 200 1.4906 138 52.2 3.8
201-220 1.5011 154 53.4 3.6
221-240 1.5158 171 53.2 5.8
241-250 1.5252 181 59.4 6.6
251-275 1.5325 190 64.7 8.
276-300 1.5345 198 63.7 8.7
301-320 1.5420 233 69. 10.2
321-340 1.5502 247 75.3 10.6
341 - 360 1.5598 267 85.1 12.1
361 - 380 1.5648 278 70.4 13.5
381 -395 1.5671 295 48.8 14.5
396 - 425 1.5686 321 85.8 14.7
> 425

Properties of Shale Oil Fractions:

Fraction 0C < 180 < 200 140-250 200 - 360
Yield % 18.9 26.7 30.8 40.5
Density g/cm3 0.8863 0.9441 0.9627
200C
Distillation, < 180 < 200 140-250 200 - 360
IBP 104 156 40.5
10 % 141 173
50 % 161
90 % 181
95 %
98 %
E.P 197
Bromin number
g/Br2/100 ml 77.8
S% 13.9 10.2 10.8 10.3
N% 0.23
Refractive Index 1.4756
Acid Number 5.98 9.6 12.4
Pour Point <-30
Smoke Point mm 17.0
Aromatics % 73. 73.5 77.7 88.0
Olefines, % 17. 17.5 14.3 8.3
Paraffins, % 10. 9 8.3 3.7
Carbon Residue %
The crude shale oil was distilled in a unit with 17 theoretical plates, heated to 200 0C at
atmospheric pressure and to 4250C at reduced pressure. The yield, density, sulphur, nitrogen,
refractive index and molecular weight of various fractions were determined and reported.
As shown in the previous data the density of the oil is as high as 0.9668 gIcm3. It is rich with
light fractions, with 29 % (vol) of < 200 0C Fraction and 58 % (vol.) of < 300 0C fraction. The
viscosity is as low as 6.836 centistokes at 200C. It has a low pour point of - 140C, low
asphaltenes and nitrogen. However, the sulfur content is as high as 9.67:%.
The produced shale oil is light in nature. The <200 0C fraction has a very high sulphur
content,> 10 %, and a lower nitrogen content, 0.2 - 0.4. This fraction contains more cyclic
compounds as indicated by refractive index. For the 200 - 360 0C fraction it also has a high
sulfur content of about 10%, slightly lower than the <2000C fraction, but its nitrogen content is
twice as high as the < 2000C fraction. Such a high S and N content will cause trouble in the
refining of kerosene and diesel fuel fractions. The sulfur content tends to decrease, while the
nitrogen content tends to increase, in heavier fractions.
Shale oil from El - Lajjun can be classified as a high - sulfur aromatic - based oil: This was
detected from the characterization factor of two key fractions: K = 10.2 for 200 - 2750C
fraction and K = 10.6 for 395 -425 0C fraction.
The < 2000C fraction is rather heavy and lacks light components. It has a high yield, high
density, and high actual gum content. It changes color quickly in exposure to air and is very
unstable. Owing to the high sulfur, nitrogen and olefin contents, gasoline can be only produced
by deeper refining.
The 140 - 2500C fraction has a high yield, high density, high acidity, high actual gum, low
smoke point and high aromatic and olefin contents. It also changes color quickly on exposure

to air and is very unstable. Its density is as high as 0.9441.

The 200 - 3600C fraction has a low pour point, high acidity, high sulfur and nitrogen content,
high actual gum content, and low alkaline content. These properties are not favorable to
producing diesel fuel Similarly deep refining is also required to produce diesel fuel.
The yield of the> 425 0C fraction is only 17.1 %. This fraction is rich in cyclic compounds, and
high quality asphalt can be produced.
Composition Of Pyrolysis Gas

Composition % (vol.)
Methane 17.53
Ethylene 3.22
Ethane 7.72
Propylene 4.8
propane 6.46
Isobutane 0.52
N - butane 2.52
i - n - butane 3.33
Transbutane - 2 1.0
Cis - butane - 2 0.72
- pentane 0.65
n - pentane 2.40
d - methye butene 1 1.1
d - methye butene - 1.04
2
C5 0.85
C6 3.65
CO2 11.28
H2 20.63
CO 10.24
NH3 18g/NM3
H2S 282g/nm3
The yield of pyrolysis gas is 23 NM3/ ton of oil shale, and the calculated heating value is 9810
Kcal / M3. This gas can be used as a make up heat source in retorting or as city gas. The H2S
content in pyrolysis gas is as high as 282 g / NM3. Therefore the recovery of H2S and corrosion
prevention of condensation - recovery equipment should be taken into consideration in
retorting of El-Lajjun oil shale.
The characteristics of shale char (spent shale) from the pyrolysis of El - Lajjun oil shale < than
3 mm in size is given below:
TOC Organic Inorganic H% S% N% CO2 Kcal/k
carbon carbon g
11.3 5.37 6.02 0.42 1.04 0.42 22.0 418
9 8
Heat combustion of shale char:

Organic Exothermic heat Endothermic kcal Net kcal /kg
carbon kcal/kg /kg
5.37 418 148 270

The particulate shale char obtained from retorting was put in a T.G.A unit to conduct
combustion tests at constant heating up rate or at constant temperature.
Particle size Heat up rate 0C Tempera wt. Temp. range wt.

mm. 1mm range,0C s loss% 0
Cs loss%
5 5 483 – 600 7.79 600 - 830 25.25
7 5 405 – 600 7.8 600 - 830 29.6
Particle size Combustion Weight loss Combustion

mm Temper.
7 510 9.8 40
9 580 11.5 55
As shown above, for the temperature range, 385 - 600 0C, the weight loss in combustion at
constant heat up rate is the combustion of organic carbon. For a second temperature range, 600
- 830 0C the decomposition of carbonates into CO2 takes place. The time required for the
complete combustion of oil shale char even at lower temperatures such as 510 0C, is short.
The test showed that shale ash upon complete combustion of the oil shale char, appeared
greyish white, friable and easily disintegrating.
In the case of incomplete combustion, the shale ash appeared grey, carbonates in shale char
were not decomposed completely, organic carbon remained 0.84 %, and a considerable
strength was retained.
Determination of gasification performance of shale char as compared to oil shale of 3 - 6 mm
in size was made by low temperature carbonization. This was done in 3 L retort, at a heat - up
rate of 6 0C / mm, and kept at 550 0C for 30 mm. The shale char thus obtained was put into a
testing device and heated up quickly (from room temperature to 750 0C within 20 minutes);
then its gasification performance was tested up passing carbon dioxide, and determining the
reduction % of carbon dioxide in the range of 750 0C to 1050 0C. The exit gas was sampled and
analyzed every 50 0C
Gasification performance of shale char:

Temperature0 C02, reduction
C %
755 27.5
800 28.5
850 41.4
915 51.7
960 53.1
1012 19.8
1050 -
Yield from the initial organic matter % by wt.( the total organic matter content in raw shale
was 24.3 % by wt.).
Oil 54.7
Water 5.8
Gas 18.3
Residue (spent 21.2
shale)

This indicates that the energy in the spent shale can be used to generate heat.
CONCLUSIONS
• El - Lajjun oil shale has average moisture content of 4.5 %. No disintegration was
observed upon drying.
• No caking was found during pyrolysis testing of oil shale.
• The average oil yield by Fischer Assay is 10.5 %, and heating value is 1530 kcal / kg.
The yield of pyrolysis gas is 23 Nm 3 / ton of shale but its calculated heating value is
9810 kcal / NM 3. The pyrolysis gas has a high 112S content and a lower NH3 content.
• The organic carbon in the shale char is 5.4 % mineral carbon as (CO2 ), is 22.1 % ; and
the heating value 418 kcal /kg. The endothermic heat of the decomposition of carbonates
is 148 kcal I kg, and the net heating value 270 kcal I kg. The shale char has good
reactivity. In the case of incomplete combustion of shale char and incomplete
decomposition of carbonates, the shale ash appears gray and retains a considerable
strength.
• The ash content of the oil shale is 61.3 %. The deformation temperature T1, 12800C while
the softening temperature T2 and melting temperature T ~ are 1250 and 1260 0C
respectively. The calcium oxide content of the oil shale and shale ash is as high as 38.16
%. The phosphorous pentoxide has in average content of 2.77%.
• The organic carbon content is of an average 15 %, hydrogen content 1.54 %. The
carbon hydrogen ratio is 8.6 and the nitrogen content 0.31 %, however, the oil shale has
very high sulphur content, averaging 2.96 %, 67% of which goes into the F.A products,
causing a very high sulphur contents in these products. The sulphur left in shale char
accounts for 28 % of the sulphur in the oil shale, or 1.04 % of the char total.
• The crude shale oil obtained from a rotating retort has a high density, low pour point (-
14 0C ), high sulphur content (10 % ), lower nitrogen content, and higher content of
unsaturated hydrocarbons. It is also rich in light fractions. According to its key fractions
the shale oil is classified as high - sulphur aromatic - based oil. The gasoline, kerosene
and diesel fuel fractions have fairly high yields. These fractions have the common
features as of high density, high acidity, strong corrosion, high olefin and sulphur
content. They change color quickly on exposure with air and are rather unstable.
• The conducted analyses show that low moisture content, high F.A yields, and good
reactivity of shale char favor retorting. However owing to the high content of carbonates
in the shale char and high calcium oxide content in the shale ash, precautions should be
taken to control the decomposition of carbonates and dissolution of calcium oxide. The
high calcium oxide content in shale ash is favorable to making of cement, but the
presence of 2.77 % phosphorous pentoxide is harmful.
• El - Lajjun shale oil has the advantages of high density, more high fractions, low pour
point less nitrogen etc. but its high sulphur content of approximately 10 % is rare in
commercial production. In processing, such a shale oil many technical problems will be
encountered such as separation of water from oil, high hydrogen consumption in
hydrofining, serious corrosion of equipment etc. Therefore appropriate measures should
be taken in the processing of El - Lajjun shale oil.
• With the presence of sulphur in the oil shale and alkali metal compounds in the ash (K2O
+ Na2O) it can be expected that water walls of boiler furnace and other heating surfaces
may also be subject to intensive fouling Slag deposits may form on the furnace water
walls and on the super heater tubes. The high phosphorous content may also bring
fouling on the boiler’s heating surface and corrosion to the economizer tubes
Phosphorous also affects the operation of the electrostatic precipitators, bringing down

their efficiency.
• The grindability was evaluated according to the hard grove and VTI scale which revealed
indices of 20.1 - 43.6 and 0.61 - 0.97 respectively. This shows that El -Lajjun oil shale is
more difficult than the hardest coal to grind.
• The average value of explicability of the oil shale was found to be 0.29 which prove that
this oil shale belongs to the explosive types.
• The composition of the ash is most often expressed as the sum of oxides of the
constituent element. Essentially the constituents are: SiO2, AL2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, and MgO
as well as Na2O, K2O, SO3, P2O5, Ti02 and CO2.
• Generally speaking SiO2 plus AL2O3 are classed as acid constituents and the alkaline
earth oxides CaO and MgO as basic constituents. ( which are the main influence on
fusibility). Therefore, special attention should be paid to the fusibility of the ash, because
the behavior of the ash in the hot part of the burner is of great importance. The
temperature of the furnace is to be fixed at a figure sufficiently lower than the
temperature of initial deformation of the ash, ( and below that at which the formation of
slag can be expected). The high melting temperature impedes hydraulic slag removal of
the furnace.
• The El -Lajjun oil shale has favorable properties for the ignition and stability of
burning:
o High content of volatiles.
o High content of C/H ratio.
o High adiabatic combustion temperature (1580-15800 ) at an excess furnace air factor
of 1.2.
• The unfavorable properties of El - Lajjun oil shale are:
o High dead matter (ash) content. (76.2 - 81.1 %)
o High sulphur and, P2O5 content which result in sintering fouling, slagging and
smelting of the ash in the furnace as well as in the high SO2 emissions in the waste
gas. This does not only cause environmental pollution but also the corrosion of the
plant.
Exploitation And Utilization Of The El-Lajjun Oil Shale:
The El-Lajjun oil shale is one the promising fossil energy resources in Jordan. Therefore, its
utilization is of strategic importance.
This near surface deposit, with its favorable stripping ratio 1:1, is best mined by open pit
methods. The type of open - pit mining depends on the scale of intended utilization.
Open - pit mining has a shorter time of construction, lower cost. Less loss of raw materials,
higher productivity, safe in operation, and has easy production of associated minerals.
The economics of oil shale utilization are dominated by the fact that oil shales are low-grade
minerals and contain large quantities of useless material intimately bound up with the useful
organic material. Whether oil shale is used for power generation, for producing gas, or for
shale oil and chemicals: the oil shale industrial units are faced with large scale handling of
materials. The factors that enter into calculations of the economic feasibility can be divided
into three major groups:
a) The physical characteristics of the deposit.
b) The technology available for its utilization.
c) The economic environment.
The physical characteristics include:
• The location of the deposit.
• The overburden thickness.
• The richness of oil shale in terms of recoverable oil and thickness of layers.

• The calorific value.

• The recoverable by - products and utilization of ash.
These products determine the decision to be taken concerning plant size, mining processes,
feed preparation methods, technological processes and spent shale disposal.
Crushing:
In view of the difficult grindability, provisions in the conceptual design should be made for
additional power requirements in the preparation process, and for higher wear rates in mills and
transfer facilities.
Pre-drying of the raw shale is not necessary prior to retorting or direct combustion because of
the low moisture, content.
Utilization:
Three methods of utilization were suggested : Direct combustion retorting, and gasification
Direct Combustion:
Direct combustion is considered when the heating value of the oil shale exceeds 1000 kcal/kg,
or if the organic matter (total organic carbon) is more than 15 %.
The known processes for direct combustion are: dust - fired plants, classical fluidized bed and
circulating fluidized bed. The dust - fired plant operates at temperatures above 9000C with
short gas/oil shale reaction times. This method results in sintering and smelting of the ash in the
furnace and in high SO2 emissions in the waste gas, which does not only cause environmental
pollution but also the corrosion of the plant.
Desulphurization, even with the high Ca content in the oil shale, is insufficient. In contrast the
classical fluidized bed operates under low -temperatures (8000C), avoids melting of the ash,
and minimizes the sulphur problems.
The circulating fluidized bed combustion is essentially suited for the low combustion of all
fuels and characterized by intensive internal and external solid recycling. The circulating
fluidized bed is thus in the transition region between the classical fluidized bed and pneumatic
transport. The major advantages of the system, can be summarized as follows:
a) The temperature of combustion can be adjusted to any desired level below the fusion point
of the ashes.
b) The ashes after combustion do no suffer any fusion or other adverse effects, so that they
remain free flowing and do not form deposits.
c) The ashes act as a fluidizing medium and take a major part in the heat transfer of the system
d) A high heat transfer coefficient in the fluidized bed allow less metal surface area.
e) Uniform temperature in the whole reactor is present due to solids recirculation.
f) High desulphurization rates,( neutralization takes place with longer and better contact
between the particles.)
g) Low formation of harmful NOx gases in the reactor due to staged combustion at low
temperatures.
Retorting:
Retorting is applicable when the oil yield by Fischer Assay of the oil shale exceeds 7% or when
the organic matter is more than 25 %.
To this extent an economic process should fulfil the following requirements:
- High degree of reliability in operation.
- Low investment and operating costs.
- Oil production to attain 100 % of Fischer Assay yield.
- Thermally self-sufficient with the energy requirements supplied from the retorted

spent shale (residue).

- Low water requirements.
- Production of high-quality, low- temperature gas.
- Continuous operation.
- Very low level of environmental pollution.
Processes With Direct Heating:

In these processes the necessary heat is generated by feeding air into the retort and burning part
of the organic material contained in the shale. The oil yield reaches 85 % of Fischer Assay
yield, and a low calorific value gas (5000 kj / M3) is produced.
Processes Of Indirect Heating:

These processes are characterized by separation of the combustion gases from the retorts. Heat
carriers such as spent shale, sand, ceramic balls or hot gases are used. The process reaches 100
% of the Fischer Assay yield and produces high-grade gas (35000 - 38000 kjJM3). The thermal
efficiency is high if the residual energy of the retorted shale is used. Retorted products are oil,
gas, water and other by- products.
Shale Oil:
The crude shale oil is rich in sulphur and nitrogen. By upgrading (hydro-treating and distilling
the crude shale oil ) it is transformed to gasoline, kerosene, gas oil, fuel oil, etc.
Gas:
Depending on the retorting process the calorific values of the gas varies from 5000 to 38000
kjlm3. Hydrogen for hydrogenation can be also processed from this gas. This gas can also be
utilized for many purposes including power generation.
Residue (Spent Shale):

Spent shale in general can be used for soil stabilization, road construction and cement
production. However in the case of El-Lajjun oil shale, the spent shale may be considered as
undesired by- product and can only be dumped because of the high P2O5 content.
Water:
After the removal of phenols (which exist in significant quantities), this water can be used to
moisten, the dry and dusty oil shale to prevent it from being blown away by the wind, or in the
retorting plant itself (although it may increase the operating costs) in this case.
Gasification:
The complex transformation of the organic matter to gaseous hydrocarbons is theoretically
possible and it is economical if the oil shale has an elevated degree of maturity. Investigations
on hydro-gasification and steam gasification showed that gas produced by steam gasification is
characterized by high content of hydrogen and by carbonic oxides which after appropriate
cleaning can be used as initial synthesis gas to produce motor fuels or products of
petrochemical synthesis. While in the hydro-gasification process the yields are gas and shale
oil.
Water Requirements:
The most serious problem for the potential utilization of El-Lajjun oil shale is the availability
of sufficient amounts of water (since water is one of most serious problems in Jordan) required
by the retorting process, combustion of the residual carbon, refining the crude shale oil, for

consolidating the spent shale or the ash in the dumping areas, or for direct combusting the oil
shale to generate electric energy.
On these basis the retorting or direct combustion plants should require the minimum amount of
feed water and cooling should be largely done by air coolers.
The area of El-Lajjun forms part of large ground water basin. Ground water occurs in layers
underlying the bituminous formations. Evaluation of the ground water potential of the area will
be discussed later. The results obtained about ground water availability are encouraging.
The implementation of a pilot scheme for determining the potential of a commercial
exploitation of the oil shale involves substantial risks, both technical and financial. The
assessment of the technology would involve research and development studies with bench -
scale units, pilot plant testing and ultimately with commercial size retorts. The El-Lajjun
deposit offers very good and promising conditions since:
- The oil shale is of good quality and equally suitable for retorting and direct
combustion.
- The oil shale occurs near the surface.
- The overburden shale ratio is very low.
- Horizontal and undisturbed stratification
- The mineable oil shale presents no special difficulties for large operations.
- The deposit is located in a thinly populated area with good transport facilities
connected with the system of asphalted highways and the railway; larger settlements
e.g. Karak are not all that distant.
Review Of The Efforts Of Consultants In Exploitation Of El-Lajjun Oil Shale Deposit:
- The Cooperation With The German Federal Institute For Natural Resources And
Geological Sciences Bgr:
In 1979, N.R.A, resumed a program of investigations and studies of El-Lajjun. This program
consisted of core drilling, laboratory analysis and semi - industrial tests. This program was
assisted by the F.R. of Germany represented by the Federal Institute of Natural Resources and
Geosciences (BGR). These investigations indicated that El-Lajjun oil shale deposit shows
continuous hydrocarbon impregnations over an area of 18 sq. km, with about 1 billion tons of
oil shale reserves containing some 100 million tons of shale oil. It was suitable for open cast
mining and could support a 50,000 barrels/day oil shale retorting complex for 30 years.
The technical cooperation between N.R.A and BGR was continued in 1982 with the geological
investigations of the deposits at Jurf Ed-Darawish, El-Hasa and Sultani. Altogether 34
boreholes totaling 3053 m were drilled.
The Jurf Ed-Darawish, El-Hasa and Sultani oil shale deposits are situated in the desert (Central
Jordan) 150,130 and 100 km respectively south of Amman near the desert highway and the
Hijaz Railway.
The oil shale in this area is a bituminous, more or less calcareous marl of marine origin. It
occurs in the upper Cretaceous Chalk Marl Unit in depressions or graben - like structures.
The mineable reserves at Jurf Ed-Darawish are of bituminous marl with average oil content of
7.9% dry and an average overburden to oil shale ratio 2.5:1 as cut off limit for open cast
mining. The reserves amount to about 2.5x109 t oil shale with a content of 199 million tons of
oil.
The oil shale deposit at El-Hasa is not economic. The bituminous marl is relatively thin (7.2m)
and has very low oil content 5.3% dry. The deposit is limited in extent.
The Sultani oil shale deposit is situated in a NNW-SSE oriented graben structure 15 km long
and 5km wide. The thickness of the oil shale varies from 1.6 to 65 m. The over burden to oil
shale ratio ranges from 1. to 52:1.

The oil content varies from 3.3 to 17.2 % dry. The average oil content is 9.4 %. The gross
calorific value varies from 1930 to 8980 kj/kg with an average of 4940 kj/kg. The oil shale
from Sultani is of good quality and according to its petrographic and chemical properties is
comparable with El-Lajjun oil shale.
The indicated reserves amount 1.2x 10 9 t containing 111 million ton of shale oil from which 1
billion tons are exploitable by open cast mining with an overburden to oil shale ratio below 2.5:
1.
The oil shale deposits of Jurf Ed-Darawish and Sultani are sufficient in quantity and quality
and have suitable properties to be utilized by direct combustion for the generation of electricity
or by retorting for the production of liquid hydrocarbons.
- The Cooperation With The German Consortium Klockner -Lurgi:

In October 1980 N.R.A concluded a contract with Klockner Industries Anlagen, which
involves the following two studies:
• A technical and economical prefeasibility study for an oil shale retorting complex
using Lurgi Ruhrgas process with a capacity of 50,000 bbl/d of shale oil.
• A technical and commercial pre-feasibility study for a power generating complex
utilizing El-lajjoun oil shale by Lurgi’s circulating - fluidized - bed- process to
generate power with 300 MW capacity.
The study consisted of, geological evaluation, analytical results, mining, infrastructure and
environment, technical studies and economic evaluation.
The El-Lajjun oil shale deposit showed, by the geological evaluation, a continuous
hydrocarbon impregnation over an area of 18 sq/km. The oil shale reserves have been
calculated to be one (1) billion tons containing some 100 million tons of shale oil.
The area in the middle part of the deposit contains 55 % of the reserve. The area with a mean
thickness of the oil shale layer of 30 m (stripping ratio 0.75/1) was pre-selected for the first
mine planning. The projected lifetime of the deposit feeding the projected plants can be in the
range of 30 years.
- Lurgi - Ruhrgas Retorting Plant:

The preliminary design of the 50,000 bbl/d retorting plant was based on several bench scale
tests with different samples of El-Lajjun deposit. Based on recoverable oil content of 10.9 %
the plant has to be charged with 74000 t/d of crushed oil shale in order to produce:
1. 50000 bbl/day of crude - 48,800 bbl/d of oil
- 1,400 bbl/d of Naphtha
- 3,900 t/d product gas.
2. 21,000 t/d of high-pressure super heated steam.
3. 16,000 t/d of 1300C hot water.
The overall energy efficiency was calculated to be in the range of 90 % and 78 % related only
to liquid products and product gas.
The plant is designed to be constructed in two modules, each with 4 lines of Lurgi - Ruhrgas-
retorts and one condensation unit.
The power generation of the steam from waste heat recovery is on the order of 225 MW where
as the self-consumption of the Lurgi -Ruhrgas -plant amounts only to 96MW. The total
consumption of the project will be about 190 MW, so there will be surplus energy of about 35
MW that can be fed to the National Grid.
Shale Oil Upgrading Plant:

All of the LR-crude production will be treated in the upgrading plant in order to produce
syncrude products that can be refined in standard refineries. The main steps are:

• Dedusting
• Distillation
• Hydrotreating
• Product gas planning
• Hydrogen production
The upgraded liquid products are stabilized to a high crude quality. The heavy bottom product
of vacuum distillation will be recycled to the LRunit.
The saleable products out of the upgrading plant will be
- 4660 t/d of syncrude ( 380 API,0.5 % 5).
- 2020 t/d of Naphtha (SSOAPI, 0.3 % 5)
- 510 t/d of refinery gas as by – product
- 1690 t/d of pure sulfur as by- product.
The total output of liquid hydrocarbons of the up-grading plant amounts to some 50,000
bbl/day i.e there are no losses in the upgrading plant.
Feeding the up-grade products to Zarqa refinery will improve the quality of the refinery
products and reduce the amount of heavy fuel and residues, because the quality of syncrude is
better than that of the known Arabian light oils.
Oil Shale Mining And Preparation:

For the pre-selected mining area the overburden will be removed by shovels and trucked to
external dumps during the initial stage of mining. Oil shale will mined by drilling and blasting
operations. The oil shale is then trucked to a precrushing station at the entrance to the mine
from where it will be transported by conveyer belt to an intermediate stock pile or directly to
the preparation plants.
Here the oil shale will be crushed down in two stages by impact crushers to the final grain size
of minus 8 mm and directly fed to the retorting plant.
The humidified spent shale will be transported by conveyer belt to an external spent shale
dump or backfilled in the mined out area..
Infrastructure:
The infrastructure situation at El-Lajjun can be judged as favorable. The plant site can be
connected by a short road to the Qatrana Karak highway. Power is available during
construction time from the high tension line passing the deposit. Water can be made available
from underground sources by water wells to a certain extent.
Housing facilities for some 3750 employees have to be built. Adequate areas have been
recommended north - west of the plant site, taking into account environmental aspects and
distances to the plant.
Economic Evaluation:
In the economic evaluation the total investment outlay is 614 million J.D (1982 prices) equal to
about 1900 million U.S dollars that corresponds to 38000 U.S dollars per bbl/day of installed
capacity.
Based on 75 % utilization of capacity the cost per barrel of syncrude amounts to U.S 25 dollar.
Based on 100 % the cost amounts to U.S $ 20 per barrel.
The total sales revenue reaches nearly J.D 200 million annually based on a price of syncrude of
U.S $ 34 (J.D 11) per barrel and of U.S $ 80 (J.D. 25) for a ton of sulphur.
The internal rates of return on the total investment are estimated to be 16.5 % and the Internal
Rate of Return on equity as 21.5 %. The break even point is calculated as 49 %.
Possible ranges of main variables such as capital costs, price of syncrude, oil content of the
deposit and the build up of capacity give internal rates of return on the total investment

between 14 and 20 % where as changes in capital structure and the composition of loans give
values between 21 and 25 %.
With respect to the impacts of the project on the national economy the net foreign exchange
savings would enable Jordan to save more than 100 million J.D a year.
Power Plant Complex:

The preliminary design of the 300 MW power plant was based on bench scale tests in a
circulating fluidized bed combustor with 150 kg of oil shale. The test results showed stable
burning conditions at temperatures between 700 and 750 0C with a combustion efficiency of 95
% The power plant had been designed in 3 x 100 MW units.
The oil shale feed for the power plant to reach the rated capacity of 300 MW will be some 13
t/d. The internal consumption of electric energy will amount to 50 MW. The tests have shown
the advantages of the circulating fluidized bed combustion process that may be summarized as
follows:
• less grinding cost because no pulverization is needed.
• Complete combustion of the organic matter (99 %).
• Less thermal energy losses because of only partial dissociation (70 % ) of limestone at
low burning temperature.
• No slagging problems of the ash because of low burning temperature.
• No hydraulic ash removal.
• Less corrosion and erosion effects in the boiler because of two stages of gas cleaning.
The overall thermal efficiency of power generation reaches 30 %.
Oil Shale Mining:

For oil shale mining the same method is proposed as shown for the retorting plant.
The combustion ash will be transported to the external ash dumping site or back-filled in the
mined out area.
Infrastructure:
The same results and comments mentioned for the retorting plants apply to the power plant
with the exception that the whole operation will be smaller.
Concerning the utilization of spent shale or combustion ash for the production of building
materials, the initial tests are not encouraging.
Economic Evaluation:
In the economic evaluation the total investment outlay is estimated as J.D 227 million equal to
about 700 million U.S. (1982 $ ) which corresponds to U.S. $ 2300 per installed kw.
Based on an efficiency of 85 % (= normal capacity utilization ) the costs are amounting to 19
fils / kwh. Which is possibly below the cost of conventional power plants. The annual sales
revenue ranges between J.D41 million depending on the average price of power ex - plant in
Lajjun. The break even point is between 68 % and 83 %. Concerning the kind of operation, the
project is only feasible if operated as a base load power plant.
The I.R.R on total investment is estimated between 6.6 and 10.2 % and the I.R.R on equity
between 6.3 % and 12.19, depending on the price of power. Possible changes of main variables
such as capital cost or a change in the utilization of capacity give internal rates of return on the
total investment between 6.5 and 10 % ; variations in the capital structure or composition of
loan capital give rates of return on equity between 8.8 and
9.9 %.
With respect to the impact of the project on the national economy, the net foreign exchange
savings are favorable.

Comparison Of The Results Of Both Projects:

For the purpose of a comparison of the results of both studies some main figures should be
indicated:
Retorting Power plant
Ultimate capacity 50000 bbl/day 300 MW
Oil shale feed 74000 t/d 13.000 t/d
Total investment 614 million 227 million
J.D J.D
Sales revenue (1986) 190 million 41 million J.D
J.D
Operating cost, annual 34 million J.D 14 million J.D
Available amount for Payment of 156 million 27 million J.D
interest J.D
Principal % of total investment 25% 11.9%
It is self evident that on the basis of these figures the I.R.R of the retorting complex give better
results than those of the power plant complex. There are some indications that a combination of
both projects may show more favorable results. It was proposed that a step - wise approach
should be taken to:
a) Collect additional basic technical data.
b) Further investigate additional water resources in view of the limited availability of water
from the present resources.
c) Update economic assessments for the installation of a 50000 bbl/d oil retorting complex and
a 350 MW power generation complex.
In March 1986 N.R.A contracted the West German Consortium Klockner - Lurgi to up -date
the previous studies with a view of assessing the technical and economic feasibility of a large
scale oil retorting complex for the production of 50000 bbl/d of shale oil This study consisted
of a revised geological study, up - dated prefeasibility study, performance of retorting pilot
tests, CFB combustion tests on 200 tons of El-Lajjun oil shale samples in Germany, and
hydrogeological studies for water resources. In addition Klockner - Lurgi also undertook an
assessment of the possibility of burning the spent shale in the electric power generation plant of
350 MW by adopting Lurgi’s Fluidized Bed Combustion process. The final report was
submitted to N.R.A in April 1988. The Klockner -Lurgi study found both the retorting process
to produce 50,000 b/d of shale oil and Lurgi Fluidized bed combustion process to burn the
spent shale in a 350 MW power plant to be technically viable. The consultants have also
concluded that the shale oil production project, even based on market price of crude oil of 15.6
$1 barrel, should generate a 10% IRR on an investment of J.D 628 million. The main findings
of Klockner-Lurgi‘s study are:
a) Using the LR oil shale retorting process at a rate of 74500 tons/day of oil shale feedstock by
hydro processing crude shale oil fraction, an almost stable and sulphur free syncrude could
be produced. The predicted results of the up-dated pre-feasibility study and the actual
performance tests are given below:
(cubic meters per year) Study Results Test Results
Naphtha 656,000 905,000
Kerosene 612,000 662,000
Diesel 690,000 674,000
Vacuum gas oil 482,000 264,000
Total 2,440,000 2,502,000

b) The performance test results indicated that the final naphtha, kerosene and diesel fractions
could be increased by 20 % representing 93 % of total up-graded products.
c) The high hydrogen sulphide content of the distillation gas and the oil fraction could yield up
to 340,000 tons I year of marketable sulphur.
D The combustion test performed with El-Lajjun spent shale (obtained from LR Retorting
plant) in the circulating fluidized bed pilot plant was done to generate all required data for
phase III of the full-fledged feasibility study. It demonstrated the technical feasibility of
effectively combusting the residual carbon from the spent shale for power generation, and
gained the required environmental data.
e) The test performed over one week proved almost total burn out (over 99 %) of residual
carbon in the spent shale.
f) The flue gases from LR oil retorting tests and from the combustion of spent shale met
international environmental standards without special tests
g) A 350 MW electric power would be generated in the complex. 135 MW of power would be
used for the internal consumption of the retorting complex and associated utilities and 215
MW would be sold to the national grid.
h) Based on the total investment of 628 million. J.D (all estimations of the cost were based on
an exchange rate of 1.U.S $ = 345 fils) and sales of (i) 138.6 million. J.D of petroleum
products and (ii) 45.5 mill. J.D for sulphur and electric power, an I.R.R of 10 % on total
investment would be realized at a mean average revenue of U.S $ 19.lfbbl of petroleum
products.
Water Resources:
Klockner-Lurgi made an assessment of the available water resources of El-Lajjun and
concluded that the water requirements of 22 million cubic meters per annum for oil shale
complex cannot be met from the existing shallow aquifer providing water for Amman and
other cities in Central Jordan, including irrigation. Klockner - Lurgi have also made some
preliminary investigations regarding availability of water from the deeper Kurnub formation
(about 1000 meters). In their estimates about 49 million cubic meter water /year could be
drawn from this aquifer. Further studies are needed for investigating this water resource. If this
is found technically feasible, the investments needed to produce Kurnub water for oil shale
projects should be included in the economic evaluation of these projects.
Air Cooling:
Klockner-Lurgi have indicated that air cooling could be utilized in the plant which would
reduce water requirements to about 5 million cubic meters /year. However, the application of
air cooling in such a plant and use in reducing the temperature of massive amounts of spent
shale have not been analyzed. Furthermore, the availability of even 5 mil. cubic meters /year of
water is not certain.
Economic Viability:
The economic assessments made by the consultants are very preliminary. These need to be
carefully analyzed, taking into consideration basic plant design, operating costs, cost of raw
shale and water resources. In addition, the cost estimates need to be revised to reflect the
depreciation of the J.D against foreign currencies.
Demonstration Plant:
N.R.A reviewed the results of the studies made by the consultants Klockner-Lurgi in order to
prove accurately the viability of the LR process on site after resolving detailed techno-
economic issues i.e:
i) Lower the operating temperature in the oil retorting complex and the fluidized bed

power generation plant.

ii) Viability of the stationary fluidized system versus circulating fluidized bed system.
iii) Minimizing the use of the scarce water resources and revised economic assessment of
the whole project including capital costs for the development of adequate water
resources.
The NRA considered the possibility of installing a 1500 tons/day (oil shale feed) pilot plant at
El-Lajjun based on the results of previous Klockner-Lurgi studies prior to building a full
commercial complex. The pilot plant was estimated to cost J.D 20 million.
Cooperation With The Federal Institute For Geosciences And Natural Resources
(Bgr)On Ground Water Development For The Water Supply of ElLajjoun Oil Shale
Complex:
The aim of the project was to study the possibilities of supplying an envisaged oil shale
processing plant at El-Lajjun with water. For the optimal functioning of the plant a demand of
2 MCM /year for a period of 30 years (the life time of the oil shale resource under exploitation)
was indicated by the consultant Klockner and Lurgi.
Surface water is not available in the area that offers almost no possible dam sites. Thus the
water supply has to rely entirely on ground water resources which were thought to be available
in the upper Cretaceous limestone chert complex (A7 - B2). The A7-B2 is the main aquifer of
Jordan for its productivity and extent. It forms essentially the western highlands and underlies
the area east of the rift valley.
The total thickness of the aquifer is of about 2000m and ranges in age from Cambrian to Upper
Cretaceous. It can be divided into four groups (from bottom to top):
1. Kurnub and Disi formation.
2. The A1 - A6 a series of marls and claystones forming an aquitard.
3. A7 - B2 comprise the upper aquifer zone.
4. The B3 (the upper aquitard in the area) causes confined conditions where its base
reaches into the hydraulic head of the A7 - B2.
The results of the study show that only the amount of 5 MCM / year can be withdrawn from the
A7 & B2 aquifer.
Even this small quantity will not be fully replenished and its extraction will create a mining
situation. However, it is considered that the ground water resources of the A7 - B2 can supply
the oil processing plant for a period of 30 years (with a pumping rate of the named 5 MCW
year).
Negative effects by the withdrawal on other ground-water users are expected to be small
though not negligible in all cases.
After the results were known which indicated the rather meager possibility of ground - water
extraction from the A7 - B2 it was decided to extend the model work in order to stimulate the
extraction of the originally envisaged quantity of 22 MCM/year from the lower part of the
system, the Kurnub aquifer.
The hydraulic conductance of the Kurnub sandstone is much larger than that of the A7 & B2
(by a factor of 10 to 100) and its thickness is 3 times larger than that of the A7 - B2 so that one
can expect a much higher productivity in the lower part of the aquifer system.
The Kurnub aquifer offers seemingly no problems in respect to ground water quantity. From
recent hydrogeological work it is concluded that the study area has ground - water through put
of approx. 47 MCM/year.
On the other hand water production costs for a ground - water withdrawal from the Kurnub
aquifer will be considerably higher than pumping from the upper aquifer due to the great depth
of the formation in the El-Lajjun area and extremely great pumping lifts of more than 500 m.

The Cooperation With The Soviet Technoprom Export:
In 1980 N.R.A commissioned a prefeasibility study with TECHNOPROM EXPORT to assess

the potential for direct burning oil shale in a 300 - 400 MW power plant. In 1981, the phase I
report of the full - fledged feasibility study, comprising the investigation data on the
characteristics of El-Lajjun oil shale was submitted to N.R.A. The report reflected the main
analysis, data, configurations of the boiler unit and boiler auxiliary equipment and conclusions.
The study concluded that all analyzed samples are similar to each other and that the principal
properties characterizing the El-Lajjun oil shale are : high ash content, high yield of volatiles
and comparatively low heat value.
The ash content is high and amounts to 52.29 - 57.29 %. The bulk of the ash is attributed to
carbonates which account for 16.6 -21.1 % of the shale. With the presence of alkali metal
compounds in the ash (K2O + Na20 = 1.2 - 1.5 % ) and sulfur in the oil shale from 2.6 - 3.5 %
it can be expected that water walls of the furnace and other heating surfaces will be subject to
intensive fouling. There fore, intensive slag deposits may form on the furnace water walls,
especially in the high - temperature zone.
Deposits of dense slag may occur on super heater tubes. These deposits can be formed from
softened ash particles.
Economizer tubes in the zone of gas temperature from 650 - 7500C can also be covered with
dense slag. Abrasive wear of economizer tubes in the process of burning is quite possible since
the ash contains large amounts of silicon and aluminum oxides.
A high percentage of calcium compounds in the ash is an indication of the ash susceptibility to
cementation. This may lead to serious difficulties in the operation of the ash disposal unit. The
high phosphorous content in the ash (4.75 - 7.7 %) promotes intensive fouling of the boiler
heating surfaces. The phosphorous brings about corrosion of the economizer tubes,
phosphorous affects the operation of electrostatic precipitators, bringing down their efficiency.
The ash is high melting (t1 = 1215 - 14100C) which impedes hydraulic slag removal from the
furnace.
The yield of volatiles was 81.7 - 88.6 % which proves the fairly easy flammability of the
pulverized fuel.
The heat value is sufficiently high ( 1400 - 1700 kcal 1kg). The C/H ratio ranges from 8.8 - 9.6.
Moisture content is not high (3.4 - 5.8%).
Generalizing the study results, the following points were made:
• The El-Lajjun oil shale possesses a number of properties
• Favorable for ignition and stability of burning. Such properties include:
• High contents of volatiles (81.7 - 88.6 %).
• High content of carbon and hydrogen 75.1 - 78.1 % and comparatively low C/H ratio
8.8 - 9.6.
• High adiabatic combustion temperature (15600C - 16800C) at an excess air factor of 1.2.
The analyses of the oil shale samples have shown a possibility of using the oil shale as a power
generating fuel for direct combustion in the form of pulverized fuel in sub-critical boiler units
through out the range of characteristics of the analyzed samples.
El-Lajjun oil shale belongs to the class of oil shales that are hard to grind, abrasive and prone to
slagging of heating surfaces.
On the basis of phase I studies it was recommended the immediate construction of an
experimental demonstration plant of 200 MW, which is similar to the operating plants in the
USSR using the Estonian oil shale. However, the results contained in the report were not
conclusive as to the harmful impact of some of the oil properties. Technoprom export disagreed
with the Jordanian proposal of proving the technology in a 20/30 MW demonstration plant, so
N.R.A decided to defer the implementation of both I and phase II.

APPENDIX
CHARACTERISTICS OF EL-LAJJUN SAMPLES
Content B.H. B.H. B.H. B.H.
107 109 110 111
Moisture 3.36 5.50 5.00 4.97
Ash 55.5 54.11 53.75 53.01
CO2 19.7 18.00 19.50 21.13
Sulphate S 0.15 0.10 0.17 0.13
Pyrite S 0.53 0.51 0.56 0.60
Organic S 2.37 2.70 2.77 2.33
C 14.5 15.6 17.76 14.6
H 1.58 1.71 0.35 0.36
O 1.69 2.78 1.75 1.34
Yield of Volatiles 84.80 82.85 85.10 86.73
Highest heat value 7980 7982 8078 8053
Kcal/kg
T1 (I.D) 1265 1347 1265 1410
T2 (S.t) 1277 1353 1292 1415
T 3 (L.M.S) 1290 1365 1305 1420
SiO2 28.86 41.83 34.06 25.24
Al2O3 7.43 4.72 6.11 8.07
Fe2O3 3.70 2.07 3.28 3.28
CaO 52.79 41.90 44.88 54.55
MgO 1.30 3.40 5.24 2.32
P2O5 5.02 5.35 5.17 5.36
Na2O 0.65 0.55 0.55 0.55
K2O 0.65 0.66 0.66 0.77
Cooperation With Sinopec International:

In December 1985 N.R.A contracted China Petro-Chemical International Company (SINOPEC
INTL) to perform tests on the ElLajjoun oil shale using the existing Chinese process ( Fushun
type Retort). SINOPEC completed the evaluation studies on a 500kg sample provided by
N.R.A. Later, N.R.A supplied SINOPEC INTL with 1200 tons of oil shale in order to
determine the technical suitability of processing El-Lajjun oil shale in a single Fushun Type
Retort.
Crushed and screened El-Lajjun oil shale sample was tested with the existing single Fushun
Retort upon the completion of the technical modifications with the capacity of 100 MTD in
order to determine whether Fushun Type Retort is technically feasible.
In accordance with the agreement, the scope of work was as follows:
1. Crushing and screening was performed in order to determine the percentage of the fraction
lesss the 8 mm which is not applicable for use in the Fushun type retort.
2. To determine heat stability of the oil shale after retorting and gasification.
• Internal pressure drop of the retort.
• Temperature distribution.
• Ash removal by wet method
• Amount of water to be added into the water pan and the minimum water
consumption level.
3. To determine:
• Ash composition.

• Content of fixed carbon and carbonates in the ash.

• Utilization ratio of fixed carbon.
• Decomposition ratio of carbonates.
• Harmful elements composition.
4. To carry out chemical analysis of product gas and to determine H2S concentration and its
influence on the environment.
5. To determine the properties of the shale ash by conventional analysis.
The proving test was performed on the commercial No: 7 retort of the 4th group in the refinery
No: 1 under Fushun Petrochemical Co.
The formal test with El-Lajjun oil shale feed ran from oct.18 to Oct.
The operation was conducted continuously for 225 hours. From the proving tests the following
conclusions were made:
1. Fushun - Type retort was quite suitable for processing the El- Lajjun oil shale. During the
testing period the retorting operation was successful; the pressure drop across the retort
itself was not high and difficulty encountered on the ash removal and separation of water
from shale oil was overcome. The whole system could be steadily operated for a long time.
2. Approximately 86 - 88 % of the oil shale sample with the size of 8 - 75 mm could be used
with Fushun Type Retort, while the less than 8 mm fraction (14 - 12 % ) could be used
directly as fuel for the fluidized - bed combustion unit with promising results. Therefore,
from the standpoint of complex utilization, El- Lajjun oil shale could be wholly used
without any loss. The shale ash could be considered as construction raw material.
3. The oil yield, while processing oil shale with Fushun type Retort accounted 83.6 %
(including the light oil contained in the gas) and 72.73 % (excluding the light oil contained
in the gas).
4. The gas produced from the Fushun Retort is partly used as heating circulating gas. The
surface gas is used in the form of steam and power required for the system (retorting and
condensation) itself.
5. The specific gravity of the shale oil is high (0.98); the separation of water from the shale oil
did not encounter any difficulty. Water content in the shale oil was less than 1.1 % ash
content in the shale oil was less than 0.028 % and the mechanical impurities were less than
0.049 %.
The performed tests proved the viability of extracting shale oil from ElLajjoun oil shale. The
Chinese SINOPEC INTL submitted a technical and financial outline on the Fushun -Type
retort with a capacity of 100 t/d of raw shale. The capital investment for this retort was
estimated at about 6 million J.D. The cooperation between N.R.A and SINOPEC INTL stopped
at this point due to the high investment cost of this small unit
Gasification Of El-Lajjun Oil Shale:

Research on catalytic gasification of El-Lajjun oil shale samples was carried out in laboratory
and pilot scale plants. The catalytic system used proved to be highly selective for the yield of
gas containing 80% methane.
Results of the investigations using steam gasification have shown that it is possible to obtain
synthetic gas which is used in motor (transportation) fuel production. The gas obtained has
high hydrogen content (10.5 %) and carbon oxides in the sum of 64.9 %.
Hydro gasification (Hydromethanization)Of El-Lajjoun Oil Shale:

A sample of El-Lajjun oil shale with 24.3 wt. % organic matter had the following elemental
composition of the organic material:
C 75.4%
H 10.%

S 7.0%
N+O 7.6%
It was tested in the laboratory for hydro gasification reaction.
One and two kilograms. Samples were loaded into the reactor of the lab-scale plant. The tests
were carried out with and without catalysts. Temperature was varied from 300 - 1000 0C at
atmospheric pressure. The hydrogen feed rate was 1.2 liters per hour, catalyst I feed ratio was
2:1 and 1:1. Gaseous products were analyzed by gas chromatography and the solid products
were analyzed by infra - red spectroscopy.
S.N Weight Temp Time Conversion organic matter

kg . min methane resin
1 1 1000 60 13.5 3
2 1 1000 55 15.5 1.8
Results of oil shale gasification test on a pilot scale plant (P 5 MPa, H2 = 50L/hr).
wt Feed/cat, T 0C Time Conversion resin
Kg. ratio hr. Methane
1 100 without cat 600 6 65.5 7.7
2 150 2:1 600 6 80.6 -
Another sample with 28.62 % by wt. organic matter was subjected to steam gasification that
was carried out at a temperature of 9000C. The organic matter was converted completely to gas
and the composition of the obtained gas is given below:
Components Composition % of gas % wt

vol.
O2 0.09 0.22
N2 0.37 0.81
CO 5.42 11.6
Co 16.16 56.35
H2 68.76 10.51
CH4 1.01 1.23
H2S 0.19 21.28
The gas produced by this process is characterized by high hydrogen content and carbonic
oxides that after appropriate cleaning can be used as initial synthesis gas to produce
transportation fuel or products for petrochemical synthesis. Steam gasification is highly
selective; it yields synthesis gas. A prefeasibility study is recommended to carry out in this
promising area of oil shale processing.
Cooperation With Mitsubishi Corporation:

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd prepared a report in Oct. 1985, for the preliminary
characterization test of a typical El-Lajjun oil shale sample (20 kg) and also preliminary design
of a Mitsubishi circular grate type retorting process.
According to the report, the sulfur content of the shale oil is very high and the oil content is
also high (12 - 13 %). Based on the results of the characterization it was concluded that the test
by Mitsubishi Circular Grate type retorting process is suitable for El-Lajjun oil shale.

Industrial Analysis:
Total moisture, wt % 2.35
Volatile matter wt % 41
Ash wt% 53
Calorific value kcal/kg 2070
Ultimate analysis
Total 22.65
C Organic 18.2
Inorganic
Inorganic 4.45
H 2.17.
N 0.68
S 4.14
Results of Fischer Assay

Oil content% Water content Spent shale% Gas &
% Loss%
12.61 2.49 80.61 4.29
Analysis of shale oil

Specific gravity 0.970
4
Pour point 0C 20.
Ash content, < 0.01
Water content 0.35
C 77.8
H 9.64
N 0.49
V (ppm) < 0.05
Calorific value 900
kcal/kg
Initial boiling point 65
0
C
S 10.2
0 1.87
Ni 0.1
As (ppm) 23.
Fraction Yields
Naphth Kerosene Gas oil Residual
a oil
160 ‘150-250 250-350 >350
10.7 20.5 26 42.8

Analysis of Fischer Assay gas

H2 19.4
CO 26.9
CO2 10.4
H2S 25.4
CH4 9.22
C2H6 3.11
C2 H4 0.91
C 3H8 1.42
C3116 1.16
C4+ 2.17
Molecular weight of product 25.3
gas
Gas volume produced m3/ton 36.7
Calorific value kcal/M3 5390
Analysis of spent shale

Total 13.6
C Organic 8.45
Inorganic 5.15
Calorific kcal 740
/kg
H 0.59
N 0.30
S 1.87
Ash analysis
SiO2 27.7
Al2O3 3.55
Fe2O3 1.61
CaO 29.8
MgO 0.36
MnO <
0.01
TiO2 0.16
Na2O 0.17
K2O 0.52
ZnO 0.1
As2O3 16.8
(ppm)
Analysis of retorted water

pH at 250C - 8.95
COD Mn mg/I 21
Specific gravity (40/40C ) 1.008
The oil content of the El-Lajjun oil shale is comparatively high and the hale oil is aromatically
rich. The specific gravity of the oil shale is high mainly because of the high sulfur content (10
% ). Arsenic in the oil is high, and thus may cause catalyst poisoning by ash. The 112S and CO
form 52 vol. of the product gas. Due to the high 1125 content, desulfurization of the product
gas is needed. The preliminary design of Mitsubishi circular grate type retorting process for

Jordanian oil shale was proposed as follows

Design conditions:
Raw shale feed 10,000 t/d
Fischer Assay 129 l/t
Moisture cont. % 2.354
Oil production 7,300 bbl /day
The indirect heating mode of the circular grate type retorting process was recommended for El-
Lajjun oil shale because the residue organic carbon content is comparatively high for satisfying
the required heat of the process. There are two gas lines: one is the retoring circulating gas line
and the other is the carbon recovery gas line. The composition of the by product gas is as
follow:
H20 7.24
H2 16.91
Co 23.33
CO2 12.03
H2 20.43
C1 9.95
C2 4.07
C3+ 2.47
C4 3.57
Carbon Recovery Gas Line:

Air is introduced to the cooling zone to be heated with the sensible heat of the shale then to the
combustion zone to burn the residual carbon contained in the shale.
Environment:
Treatment is necessary to get rid of arsenic, and desulphurization of the gas is needed.
Cooperation With Hycrude:

Hycrude carried out laboratory scale testing on a composite sample of ElLajjoun oil shale. The
“standardized “ El-Lajjun oil shale sample responded favorably to hydro retorting with oil
yields of 40 gallons/ton and 43.9 gals /ton from two splits. The product oil API was in the
range of 25 to 28. Levels of conversion of raw shale organic carbon to product gas and oil in
the 92 % to 95 % range were achieved. This indicates a very high utilization of the El-Lajjun
oil shale resource would be possible with Hytort processing.
Ultimate analysis of standardized El-Lajjun oil shale % wt-dry basis:

A Raw spent shale Raw Spent
shale (B) shale shale
Ash % wt. 61.78 80.2 62.36 78.82
Cor. % wt. 14.91 0.90 14.92 1.59
Hydrogen % 1.93 0.24 1.92 0.29
wt.
Sulfur % wt. 3.66 0.98 3.65 0.96
C02% wt. 14.11 16.46 14.33 17.23

Hdroretorting of Standardized El-Lajjun Oil Shale:

Fischer Assay gaI/ton (A)26.7 (B)26.7
Hdroretorting Assay. 40
gals/ton 150
% of F.A 95.4
(OCC’I organic carbon 15.1
conversion
Organic carbon to oil. Wt 87.3
Organic carbon to oil. wt 83.3 89.7
to gas 12.1 2.
to spent shale 4.6 8.3
These results indicate high total organic carbon conversions. Selectivity to oil values of 87.8 %
were noted.
Cooperation With C. Itoh & Co. Ltd - Joseco.

Samples from El-Lajjun were analyzed by Japan oil shale Engineering Co. Ltd. (JOSECO)
and the results of analysis are given below.
Analysis of Oil Shale samnles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Water 1.02 1.54 1.76 1.75 1.66 1.86 1.18 1 1.04 1.93
Ash con% 54.9 61.01 57.25 56.69 58.38 72.64 64.7 56.16 60.48 56.19
Clorific 1664 1684 2102 2063 2102 1658 862 2475 1981 2102
Total C 21.96 19.36 22.91 23.03 22.85 15.66 14.17 25.34 21.52 23.1
Organic C% 14.7 14.11 17.83 17.71 17.928 13.9 7.45 20.39 17.12 17.66
Hwt% 1.82 2.24 2.24 2.23 26 1.82 0.98 2.49 2.13 2.13
N%wt 0.22 0.16 .28 0.3 0.28 0.14 0.04 0.3 0.27 0.38
S%wt 2.47 3.38 3.81 3.9 3.84 2.86 1.68 4.28 3.46 3.71
Analysis on crude oil obtained by Fischer Assay. % wt
oil 12 5.9 13.2 12.6 13.6 10.5 5.7 16.1 11.2 13.1
Water 1.2 1.1 2.1 2.1 1.9 1.4 1.3 1.8 2.6 2.6
S.G 0.964 0.964 0.967 0.971 0.966 0.954 0.952 0.962 0.963 0.953
4 2
Ultimate analysis % wt:

C% 79. 77.9 78.2 78.2 77.6 76.5 76.7 78.3 77.9 78.8
H% 9.6 9.6 9.5 9.4 9.6 9.7 9.7 9.5 9.7 9.9
N% 0.62 0.73 0.69 0.7 0.62 0.53 0.52 0.67 0.69 0.77
S% 9.8 10.56 10.37 10.48 10.42 10.44 10.25 10.04 909 9.32
On the basis of the above-mentioned analysis a pilot testing was carried out. The raw shale
delivered from the storage yard was crushed and screened to the size between 6 - 70 mm. The
crushed and screened oil shale was then divided into two sizes fraction by a vibrating screen.
The raw shale was fed onto the circular grate retort so that the fine particles from a lower bed
and the coarse particles from an under bed are fed there by ensuring uniform drying. The
circular grate drying machine is separated into four zones and the temperature of oil passing
through each zone can he controlled independently.
The raw dried shale is screened to remove fines generated during handling. Screened shale is
weighed and charred to the shaft type retort. The retort is composed of two chambers
connected with two nines. The under chamber serves as a retorting zone where the kerogen in
the oil shale is pyrolvzed by hot gas at 550 - 6oo~C injected into the lower part of the retorting
zone. The retorted shale inter into the lower chamber through the seal zone. The lower chamber

is the gasifying zone. Here residual carbon of the retorted shale is combusted and gasified by
injected gas added with air and steam. The spent shale is discharged from the retort by a screw
conveyor type discharging device.
The product gas generated in the retorting zone leaves the retort from the top. After removing
the dust from the gas by a wet cyclone the gas is introduced to the gas cooling process. Heavy
oil and sludge are recovered by the primary cooler and light oil and retort water by the
secondary cooler and electrostatic precipitator.
After oil recovery some of the gas is sent to the flue gas treatment facilities. The remainder is
heated and re-circulated to the lower part of the retorting zone to provide necessary heat for
pyrolysis.
Fluidized combustion facilities are able to burn exclusively raw shale or retorted shale. Air
preheated to 500 0C is blown to the bottom of the combustor so that the carbon in the shale is
combusted. The hot spent shale discharged from the combustor is fed to fluidized bed type
cooler. Air is injected to this cooler where it is heated to 500 0C by the hot spent shale. This
heated air is blown to the combustor.
Gases are dedusted, devitrified, desulfurized, and then released to the atmosphere.
The pilot plant was currently operating efficiently and provided good results 100 % oil yield
compared with Fischer Assay and the preliminary cost to the barrel of oil was 23 U.S.$.
JOSECO is confident of success in early establishment of its own technology.
Other Activities:
Representative samples of EI-Lajjun oil shale were analyzed in Estonia by the Institute of
Chemistry of the Estonian Academy of Science, also by U.S.G.S, the B.G.R of Germany, and
at last in the British Petroleum Laboratories. The results of analysis on El-Lajjun samples are
summarized as follows:
1 M.C% Ash CaCO3 Cor. % C. value
Bitumen kcal/kg
JOS- 1 59.7 1 29.64 2-6 2600
6(C02)
Inst. Of Chemist 1-2 63.1 1 22.25 2.34-5.9 2340
Estonia. 8(CO2)
B.G.R 0.7-2.2 60.7- 47.7- 15- 1.5-2.2 1865-2080
63.3 60.8 17.2
U.S.G.S 0.8-2.2 54.5- 34-93 13.2- 986-5 2345
67.8 22
Brit.Petr. 1-4.1 14.8- 11 – 0.9-347 3500-3650
54. 16.1 31 BTU/LG
6 (Co2)
Fischer Assay Results.

OiI% Water Spent Gas
% shale%
JOs-1 14.2 2 79.5 4.3
Eston. 13.6 1.44 80.39 4.57
BGR 11.1- 0.7-1.8 79.5-81.3 4.463
14.1
U.S.G. 7.9-16.7 1.5-3.3 76.5-88.1 2.5-
S 3.5
BP 7 - 13.5 1 -6.5 80-92 1.50

2.2. Sultani Oil Shale Deposit:
The area was first geologically mapped at a scale of 1:25.000 by Heimbach (1962 & 1964) and
was included also in the phosphate project carried out by the N.R.A and United Nations
(Suna’a 1974). Haddadin (1975) made a compilation of occurrences of bituminous rocks in the
area.
The oil shale in the chalk marl unit was first discovered in water well the Sultani East No 2
well north west of Mahattat Al Manzil.
The rocks which occur in the area are: limestone, phosphates chalk marl, cherts, basalts, wadi
and mud flat sediments of Campanian Maestrichtian, Paleocene and Holocene ages.
The deposit is situated in a NNW - SSE oriented graben structure 15 km long and 5 km wide
bounded and transected by faults mostly of the same orientation.
Thickness of Oil Shale m 2 -65

Entire sequence from to mean, m 31.6
Thickness of sterile overburden 44 – 99
from to, m
mean, m 69.3
Oil cont., %wt 3.2 -
17.2
Entire sequence from to mean, %wt. 9.7
Oil density (150C) 0.964
API 15
The calcareous bituminous marl of Sultani is generally gray, gray brown, and brown. It is thin
bedded and laminated and has a distinct bituminous smell, phosphatic material is always
present.
The bituminous marl is overlain by the barren rock of Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary
formations.
The oil shale is petrographically a calcareous marl with calcite as main component and varying
amounts of quartz, clay and occasionally phosphatic material.
The thickness of oil shale varies from 1.6 to 65 meters. The overburden to oil shale ratio ranges
from 1 to 52:1.
The oil content of the bituminous marl ranges from 3.3 to 17.2%. The mean oil content is
9.3%.
The content of organic carbon in sediments depends on the amount type and maturity of the
organic matter. The correlation between the amount of organic carbon to oil content (Huffnagel
1985)is r = 0.978.
% oil = 0.802 x % Corg - 0.682
The calorific value vary from 460 to 2145 kcal/kg, with an average of 1180 kcal/kg.
Oil content of bituminous marl in the Sultani area

Borehole mean%
0S-8 9.8
OS - 9 7.3
OS - 11 9.8
OS-14 9.3
OS-16 8.7
OS-17 10.0
OS-18 9.8
OS – 19 8.7
OS – 24 9.6
Average moisture content 2.6
Average Ash content 55.5
Average CO2 content 19.2
Average S content 2.4
Average organic matter 2.5
Bulk density (gI/m3) 1.96
Reserves Proved geological (mit. 942.1
Oil (million tons) 91.4
(million barrels) 597.4
Reserves exploitable by open- pit mining

Oil shale mill /tons 942.1
Oil mill. tons 91.4
Oil mill. barrels 597.4
Number of drilled boreholes 57.0
Location: Sultani oil shale deposit is located 130 kms. to the south of Amman east of the desert
Highway.
Chemical Composition
Component.% Mean Minimum Maximum
SiO2 26.26 6.31 60.45
TiO2 0.13 0.04 0.26
Al2O3 2.87 1.10 6.48
Fe2O3 1.12 0.53 2.33
MgO 0.95 0.09 7.54
CaO 26.3 10.81 43.34
Na2O 0.27 0.04 0.93
K2O 0.37 0.17 0.62
P2O5 3.48 1.37 8.42
SO3 4.38 2.05 6.27
LOI 33.0 15.95 42.66
As (ppm) 17 15 34
Cu 115 59 319
Mo 94 12 217
Ni 139 55 252
Pb 11 <5 143
Rb 14 8 25
Sn 22 20 27
Sr 707 404 1131
Th 10 5 17
U 25 14 40
W 10 5 49
Y 27 150 1339

Zr 46 29 94
Ba 46 29 94
Co 15 2 32
Cr 267 120 385
La 28 2 173
V 268 78 596
Chemical Composition Of Phosphorite Unit
Compone Mean Minimu Maximu Compone Mean Minimu Maximu

SiO2 15.23 3.68 25.51 Ni” 119. 33. 169.
TiO2 0.04 0.02 0.08 Pb 6. <5. 10.
AL2O3 0.68 0.42 0.94 Sn - - <20.
Fe203 0.34 0.22 0.47 Sr 786 504 111
MnO 0.00 0.00 0.01 Th 9 5 17
MnO 0.18 0.03 0.47 U 67 32 135
CaO 39.55 34.38 44.8 W 64 7 143
Na2O 0.14 0.06 0.25 Y 50 22 129
K2O 0.08 0.05 0.18 Zn 552 163 822
P2O5 11.82 6.26 16.76 Zr 35 15 80
SO3 3.31 1.14 4.27 Ba 18 0.00 37
L.O.I 27.87 17.63 32.51 Co 13 7 23
As (ppm) 5. < 5. 15. Cr 202 123 309
Cu 80. 22. 151. La 22 7 54
M 47. 19. 94. V 375 144 642
Chemical Composition Of Overburden
Compone Mean Minimu Maximu Compone Mean Minimu Maximu

Si02 19.16 6.02 45.01 Pb 7. 5 13.
Ti020 0.12 0.05 0.22 Rh 10. 5 17.
AL20 3 2.86 1.17 4.62 Sn 22 22.
Fe2 3 1.29 0.74 2.02 Sr 661. 497 661.
MnO 0.00 0.00 0..01 Th 9. 5 13.
CaO 39.2 23.18 49.59 U 23. 11 34.
Na2O 0.23 0.07 0.91 W 25. 5 161.
K2 O 0.22 0.07 0.47 Y 29. 15 45.
P2O5 2.79 0.52 4.99 Zn 489. 113 998.
SO3 1.83 19.56 8.92 Zr 40. 26 59.
L.O.I “ 31.27 8 40.19 Ba 124. 34 266.
As nnm 21. 45 37- Co 12. 0 32.
Cu 98. 7 159. Cr 280. 108 474.
Mo 67. 54 217. La 35. 2 63.
Ni 142. 5 207. V 251. 77 700.
The loss on ignition in oil shales depends on the content of moisture organic matter, carbonate
(dissociation above 5000C ) and volatile components mainly sulphur. These different factors
may influence each other in a complicated and unpredictable manner during L.O.I
determination. In bituminous rocks of homogenous composition, highly significant statistical
relationship exists.
Positive correlation of L.O.I exist with oil and calcium and negative with phosphorous, silicon
and vanadium.
Elemental Composition of Sultani shale oil.

C H N 0 S AS
mean, % 78.59 9.98 0.71 1.04 9.78 n.d

Fischer Assay yield of OS - 14

Moist, content % Oil % Water % Spent shale % Gas + Loss%
2.4 9.3 3.8 82.6 4.3
Mineralogical composition of overburden. Major Calcite, Gypsum in trace Quartz, Kaolinite

and Apatite.
Reserves of oil shale and shale oil from Sultani:

Area volume mill . Oil shale mit Shale oil mil.bb
sq.km cub.m tons mil.t l
Reserve 19.2 655.7 1180.23 111.18 722
s
Mineabl 16.64 591.63 1064.9 100.31 652
e
Reserves : Exploitable by open pit mining. Overburden to oil shale ratio is less than 2.5: 1.
Sultani deposit was selected by N.R.A to be utilized by direct combustion, because the deposit
is shallow with essentially horizontal beds, and is exploitable by open cast mining. The
overburden is in consolidated sedimentary rock consisting of gravels and silt with some marl
and limestone stringers. The thickness of overburden is from 2 to 65 meters. At the Sultani
deposit the oil shale is underlain with phosphate beds whose thickness and quality are yet to be
exploited.
Review Of Efforts In Exploitation And Development Of Sultani Oil Shale Deposit

Natural Resources Authority N.R.A has done extensive geological studies to determine the oil
shale reserves in Sultani area. Since 1986, JEAINRA with the assistance of US, Canadian aid
organizations (USAID and CIDA ) Swiss B.B.C (1987 - 1989 ) has been investigating the
possibility of exploiting Sultani oil shale for direct combustion for power generation utilizing
the state-of-the art Circulating Fluidized Bed technology (CFB). The studies are detailed as
follows:
Cooperation with Combustion Engineering /(CE) Lummus Canada Inc. feasibility study for
Direct Combustion of Jordanian oil shale for Electricity Generation 25 MW Demonstrations
plant.
Under the funding provided by CIDA, JEA asked the consultant to study the feasibility of
establishing a 25 MW demonstration power plant adjacent to Sultani oil shale deposit and to
investigate the technical and economical aspects of CFB technology for burning Sultani oil
shales. N.R.A / JEA provided 70 tons of Sultani oil shale for conducting combustion tests in
U.S.A. The consultants commenced the study in 1987 and submitted its report in 1988. The
salient figures of this study are received below:
• The major combustion test on 70 tons from Sultani oil shale were conducted by Lurgi in
Germany in June 1988. The test results demonstrated that combustion of oil shale at 700
c was satisfactory with carbon burn out up to 98 %.
• With the crushing of oil shale to appropriate feed particle size, the combustion of oil
shale did not poze any problems and flew gas emission did not poze any problems and
they were within the acceptable environmental standards.
• With the results of burn tests, the consultants are confident in designing the 25 MW
power plant to operate optimally under design parameters.
• The consultants have satisfactorily addressed the mining crushing and transport of the
oil shale feed to the pilot plant.

• The proven geological reserves at the Sultani oil shale deposit are sufficient to provide
2000 t/d of oil shale to the pilot plant. However, additional delineation core drilling and
reserve analysis will be required when installing a commercial scale power plant.
• Circulating fluidized bed had been proven to generate steam for power units using low-
grade fuels as low as 1200 BTU/lb (2300 kj/kg). CE NATCO / Lummus Canada have
built 9 plants in U.S.A / Canada, Lurgi has built 14 plants in Germany. Both groups
have used Lurgi, CFB technology. In addition since 1979 Ahlstrom / Pyropower have
built over 60 CFB power units located in Europe U.S.A, Japan and Korea.
• However, none of the above plants have utilized oil shales similar to Sultani. Further
none of the plants have so far been built and operated in the desert, with ambient
conditions similar to those obtained in Jordan, particularly when no plant operated on
oil shale has been built any where.
• There is no doubt that CFB technology for power generation could be a technologically
viable option for Jordan with the calorific value of Sultani oil shale at about 2400
BTU/lb. (5581 kj/kg)
• The consultants have mentioned the use of air cooling and have assumed availability of
water for wetting the ash and for other utilities
• The consultants have estimated capital costs of U.S $ 69 million for a 25 MW plant (i.e.
$ 2700 per MW gross out put).
The capital costs for 50 MW and 100MW plants were projected at U.S $ 100 million and 140
mil U.S $ respectively. The operating costs for 25 MW plant and estimated at 9.39 fils/kwh, are
projected to be reduced to 8.02 fils/kwh for 50 MW and 6.98 fils (kwh for 100 MW plant.
These figures appear to be preliminary and do not take into account the cost of infrastructure
and water resources development.
The main data is summarized as follows:
Capacity MW 25 50 100
Capital cost ($Ikw 2737 1970 1390
Inst)
Maint & oper cost 0.012 0.008 0.006
(S/kwh)
Feed prep. (S/kwh) 0.01 0.01 0.01
Invest. (S/kwh) 0.037 0.027 0.019
Total prod. cost 0.059 0.045 0.034
(S/kwh)
Since none of the CFB based power plants currently operating are based on air cooling, and the
use of oil shale as fuel, with the relating hot ash dumping and disposal problems, the issue of
efficient operation of such a power plant under air cooling and ambient conditions with dust
storms etc. in Jordan should be carefully investigated by NRA/JEA.
As discussed earlier before any decision is made on the exploitation of oil shales, water
availability over the life-time of the project needs to be assessed:
Careful analysis is needed by the relevant officials of MEMRINRA, JEA for the evaluation of
the capital costs in order to economically run a 25 MW plant. Particular attention should be
paid on the assumptions made by the consultant in technical and economic parameters prior to
making investment decisions.
Bechtel / Pyropower Study:
The salient features of the study are reviewed as follows:

In 1987 USAID / Bureau of Science and Technology and the GOJ agreed to jointly sponsor a

prefeasibility study aimed at assessing the technical and economical prospects of oil shale
power generation project based on CFB technology in Jordan.
Bechtel acted as project manager for this pre-feasibility study. Bechtel also created conceptual
designs for all balance of pilot facilities beyond the CFB boiler and developed the estimated
capital and operating costs for all the integrated project facilities. N.R.A provided 75 tons of
Sultani oil shale sample to be used in pilot test program. Pyropower, a subsidiary of Ahlstrom
Finlt and created conceptual design and performed pilot tests in Finland, which established the
technical feasibility of burning Sultani oil shale. Oak Ridge National Laboratory provided an
independent review of forecasted power demand growth in Jordan, an assessment of existing
power generation capacity, evaluation of the CFB combustion technology, environmental
considerations and the economic assessment of three project alternatives i. g. 20MW, 50 MW
and 400MW power plants.
The Pyropower burn tests confirmed that Sultani oil shale could be burnt under stable condition
with low SO2INO2/CO emission levels which are acceptable in accordance with the
environmental standards. Therefore the use of Sultani oil shale as boiler fuel was technically
feasible.
The water demand for 20MW power plant was only 538.000 cubic meters/year and for 400
MW units at 1.2 million cubic meters/year. These demand figures are relatively lower than
given in CE/Lummus Study. However, air-cooling is considered for heat exchange. The
remarks made earlier regarding air-cooling in such plants are also valid for this study and
further investigations are needed.
Capital and operating costs are based on two scenarios for project financing i. e Debt/Equity
ratio of (a)80/20 (b) 50/50.
The key capital estimates and operating costs are summarized below. These are based on:
Installed capital costs 20 MW 50 MW 400 MW

U.S mill.$ including 107.3 164.6 1,001.2
infrastructure
Cost Electr. mill /kwh based on Equity ratio
80/20 128 92 71
50/50 146 102 78
In consultant estimates 20 and 50MW power plants will not be economical and therefore will
need to be subsidized. The consultants have compared the economics of an international
investment of 400 million dollars for a 400 MW oil shale based project compared to a coal
fueled power project. The consultant economic evaluation is very preliminary. It needs careful
analysis. Additional capital investments that may needed to be considered even without taking
into consideration such investments. Further, 400 MW unit proposal is very speculative, as
infrastructure, transmission, and other relevant factors have not been taken into account.
The proposal regarding 400 MW is premature. First the techno-economic viability of oil shale
based power plants need to be proven in Jordan. Secondly scale commercial CFB power plant
needed to be examined as part of the long term least cost power generation expansion plan for
Jordan.

The main data of the study is summarized as follows:

Capacity MW 23.4 59x4 119x4
Capital cost ($/kw Inst.) 2820 1900 1600
Ash disposal and fuel del. (S- 0.051 0.039 0.024
Kwh)
Operation and maint. (S/Kwh) 0.018 0.012 0.009
Invest, cost (5 (Kwh) 0.075 0.051 0.045
Total production cost 1.146 0.102 0.078
(S/Kwh)
Total production cost (fits 98.6 68.9 52.7
[Kwh)
Cooperation With Brown Boveri & Company Ltd, Switzerland:

In 1987 BBC conducted a prefeasibility study for a power generation plant using Jordanian oil
shale with a capacity of 3 x 58 MW.
Sultani oil shale El-Lajjun oil shale
Capital cost 2500 US $/kw Inst. 625 2500 US$/kw Inst520
m.SFr. mil.SFr
Gross out put 3x58 MW 3x58 MW
Net out put 152.5 MW 154.6 MW
Water require. 0.65 mil.Cu.M/year 0.65 Cu.m/year
Sales price to 0.072 J.D/Kwh 0.064 J.D/kwh
JEA
Conclusions
• Jordan Electricity Authority (JEA) estimates that an expansion of additional 790 MW of
generation capacity will be needed between 1995-2005. Therefore, JEA would like to see a
significant portion of this new capacity provided by stations burning domestic oil shale. As
a first step towards the achievement of this goal, JEA favors the installation of a
demonstration unit (25-50 MW) close to one of the oil shale deposits in Central Jordan.
• The feasibility studies were carried out in cooperation with international specialized
agencies to assess and define an implementation plan for electricity generation utilizing
Sultani oil shale by circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFB). The studies have also
covered all aspects of complete power plant starting from the mine, including overburden
removal, mining, storing, crushing and handling to power plant.
• One key element for the oil shale feasibility studies was to establish the technical viability
of oil shale to generate steam through this new technology (CFB). The Sultani deposit was
selected for the power generation studies and the NRA opened an open pit mine in Sultani
for sampling in 1987.
• Two different samples of 75 tons each of oil shale were collected and shipped to Germany
and Finland for testing. Both test reports have concluded that Jordanian oil shale can be
combusted in CFB boilers very efficiently with good stability and very low gaseous
pollutant emissions:
• Both test reports concluded that this oil shale is a suitable fuel for power generation.
• The results of combustion tests which were carried out in the CFB pilot plants in Germany
and Finland and the feasibility studies conducted can be summarized as follows:
o There were no problems with the fluidized behavior of the circulating material and br
in plant operation.
o Combustion of oil shale was self sustain.
o With a particle size of 3-5 mm, combustion of oil shale does not pose any problems.

o Carbon burn out reaches 98 %.

o In view of the high CaCO3 in the ash it was not necessary to add limestone for
desulphurization.
o In view of the low combustion temperature the SO2~ NO~ and CO emissions did not
exceed international standards.
o The cost of electricity generated from the commercial plant (100 MW) is still high as
compared with the cost of
o Electricity generated from the conventional plants in Jordan; and it is expected to
come to a competing figure when the
o Capacity of the plants is more than 500 MW or when the oil
o Prices would rise in the range of 27-30 S /bbl.
• Those studies have also considered the necessity of constructing a demonstration plant
with a capacity of 25-50 MW to be followed by 4 x 100 MW commercial plants. The
design and size of the demonstration plant was to be based on the state - of - the - art CFB
technology to minimize the scaling up problems in the 100 MW commercial size units.
• A demonstration unit of this size, which will be part of the commercial units, would make
a power contribution to the national grid demonstrates the technical feasibility of
commercial scale electricity generation using domestic oil shale resources and provide
important technical data which will be necessary for the selection of optimum design
parameters of the commercial plant and a training facility for personnel in operation and
maintenance.
• However, the cost of high due to its small size and reach the optimum conditions electricity
generated from this demo-plant is additional cost needed for its modification to is
expected.
• The Jordanian commitment to the use of oil shale is demonstrated by the completion of
different feasibility studies as well as developing an open pit mine at a cost of one million
US S at Sultani.
• The main objective of JEA is to achieve power generation from local oil shale resources at
a cost competitive with other sources of electricity generation (fuel oil, coal and natural
gas). JEA feels that the construction of a demo-plant is a necessary step towards building
commercial scale units. The main constraint to utilize these resources is the lack of
financial resources. Unfortunately, the government of Jordan for many reasons is not able
to finance the cost of the demonstration plant due to the high capital and running costs of
such a plant that is a research unit rather than a commercial producing facility.
• Therefore, the government of Jordan is looking for possible financing arrangements to
cover the foreign cost of the demo-plant and has advised that the participation of the
manufacturers in this field is essential in order to realize and investigate the development
of commercial oil shale utilization as well as improving the application of CFB technology
to handle oil shale combustion.
• Based on these facts we believe that oil shale utilization for power generation would be
pursued because it will result in significant savings in Jordan foreign exchange, improve
Jordan ‘s energy supply security and create new jobs in the country. JEA is prepared to
cooperate with any private company willing to invest in such power projects utilizing oil
shale as a fuel. In order to keep the dialogue open, MEMR, JEA and N.R.A are extending
an invitation to private companies to visit Jordan to discuss and review the contribution
that could be made regarding the development and implementation of an oil shale power
project in Jordan.
• Since oil shale has not been used directly as a fuel in any CFB based power plant, JEA
should carefully watch if such plants are being put in the near future in other countries with

conditions as in Jordan e.g Israel. For the commercial development of oil shale based
power plants, the detailed feasibility studies based on the lessons learnt based in world
wide experience should be made. The major technical issues regarding, handling of oil
shale feed, disposal and utilization of oil shale, water availability, comparative efficiency
of air-cooling versus water cooling, should be further investigated. Since all the proposals
(German, Canadian, and USA) have been prepared by vendors with a bias towards utilizing
their technology and over all plant design, it would be advisable to conduct an integrated
evaluation of all proposals and compare the relative benefits and the issues that need to be
resolved in each proposal. Such a study would include both technical and economic
parameters. Based on such evaluations JEA can formulate its strategy of exploiting oil
shale as a fuel in the long term power generation plan in Jordan.
• The progress made in the development of oil shale technologies and monitoring of the
experience world wide, together with the analysis performed in addressing the water
resources availability, ash disposal, environmental and other operational issues, should be
utilized to formulate the strategy for economic exploitation of oil shale to meet the
country’s energy requirements: Such a strategy should include:
a. Preparation of regulatory framework to encourage private sector participation including
the option of build, operate & turnover (BOAT) both in oil shale mining and power
plant investments.
b. Formulating of guidelines and codes for oil shale mining, ash disposal and water
resources availability.
c. Reassessment of the economics of oil shale exploitation reflecting the changing
alignment of Jordan Dinar against foreign currencies on investments and uncertainty of
world oil prices.
d. Preparation of a long - term least cost investment plan for power generation evaluating
alternative technologies which would optimally meet the country’s long-term power
needs at least cost.
2.3. Jurf Ed-Darawish Oil Shale Deposit

The previous drilling activities that were carried out by N.R.A in central Jordan indicated the
possibility of finding oil shale in good quality and quantity that could be of economic value. In
1982 an agreement was signed between N.R.A and BGR. According to this agreement N.R.A
and BGR mutually agreed to cooperate together to implement drilling program in the area
between Jurf Ed - Darawish and Siwaqa. Sixty boreholes were drilled. The purpose of the work
was to conduct an exploration program in an effort to locate the oil shale occurrences in the
area of Jurf Ed-Darawish to prepare geological maps of an appropriate scale, and to carry out
the necessary laboratory analysis.
Jurf Ed - Darawish is located 115 km south of Amman near the desert highway in and around
the town of Jurf Ed - Darawish. The area is traversed by main road in the central part of the
country where reasonable infrastructure exists. The Jurf Ed-Darawish is Upper Cretaceous
(Ghareb formation deposit) of an immature (vitrinite reflectance 0.22 - 0.31 %) calcareous
bituminous marl (oil shale).
This deposit is part of a larger system since similar type deposits with respect to facies and age
are found in many localities in Jordan and Israel (Wehner, Huffnagel 1987, Spirs et al 1983,
Abed and Amireh (1983) who investigated some oil shale deposits in North Jordan including
El-Lajjun deposit, have postulated that these bituminous limestone are deposited in an
oxygenated shallow marine environment where H2S/02 interface is below the sediment /water
interface (“gyttja “ type of environment). Spiro and Aizenshtat (1977) presented evidence that
the lowermost beds of the oil shales (Ghareb formation) from Nabi Musa (Israel) were
deposited in a hyper saline stratified Iagoonal environment. Bein and amit (1982) studied the

upper sequence of the Negeb bituminous limestone and proposed that after phosphorite
deposition synderpositional tectonic activity resulted in the introduction of fresh water,
restriction of bottom water circulation and the establishment of a density stratification in the
water body, which consequently favored the preservation of the organic matter (bituminous
limestone).
Jurf Ed-Darawish has been studied in somewhat more detail in respect to geology and
geochemistry (Huffnagel 1984 and Wehner, Huffnagel 1987). The deposit is developed at the
base of the so-called chalk marl unit (marine marls of Upper Maastrichtian age Ghareb
formation) and is overlain by barren chalk -marl and Quaternary sediments (50-60m). The
underlying Cenomanian phosphatic limestone and cherts (phosphorite unit), all bituminous
Limestone are found in the upper l0m. It is postulated by Wehner and Huffnagel (1987) that the
lower member of the sequence is deposited in a sapropelic type of environment (anoxic water
column) and that the upper member is deposited in a guttja type of environment. This
postulation is mainly based on crossplots of trace elements (Ni, Co, Cu,V and Cr). Rosier et al
(1977) conclusions on the presence or absence of bioturbated sediments was based on
microscopical observations (Wehner, Huffnagel 1987).
Stratigraphy:
The rocks that occur in the area are:
Mud-flat sediments Holocene

Younger Wadi sediments Holocene
Older Wadi lacustrine Pleistocene to Holocene
sediments
Basalt Tertiary to Holocene
Chert limestone Paleocene to Eocene
Chalk-Marl Unit Maastrichtian
Phosphorite Unit Campanian-
Maastrichtian
Silicified Limestone Unit Campanian
Structure:
The deposit is undisturbed structurally, and the oil shale show horizontal bedding. The oil shale
deposit is situated in a wide depression bounded in the west and north by faults.
Distribution and Thickness:

The bituminous marl of Jurf Ed-Darawish occurs in an area of 200 Km2 east of the desert
highway around Jebel Umm Rijam. The thickness of the whole sequence varies between 18.6m
and more than 128m. The average thickness 68.5m and the stripping ratio is 2.5 to 1 and occurs
along the margin of the deposit.
Mineralogical Composition:
The oil shale is calcareous marl with calcite as main component and varying amounts of quartz,
clay and occasionally of phosphatic material.
The carbonate content of Jurf Ed-Darawish ranges from 32 to 81% mostly between 35 and
60%.
Field studies and lab, analysis provides the following results.

Area 115
~2
Average thickness, in 68.5
Average oil cont. % 5.7
Geological Reserves 457.
106t.
Oil ( mill. tons ) 8056.
3
Oil million barrels 2939.
1
Reserves exploitable by open - cast mining.
Oil shale (mu, tons) 2489.3
Oil (million tons) 194.3
Oil (million barrels) 1243.2
Number of drilled boreholes 50.0
Moisture content, % 2.8
Ash content, % 58.4
CO2 content,% 20.2
S% 2.2
Gross Calorific value kj/kg 4630.
Organic matter % 3 18.
Bulk density (g/cm ) 2.1
Mean P2O5 content % w 1.53
Oil density, API 0.978
API 13
Mean thickness of 47.3 m
Mean oil content and thickness of bituminous marl in the deposit

B.H Mean Oil Thickness
12 4.2 114
14 4. 76
16 3.6 98
17 4.1 128
19 4,3 52
20 3.9 50
23 4.2 34
24 4.0 76
25 4.4 57
2 9.2 22
9 8.7 28
14 9. 24
15 7.5 30
182 7.7 54
19 8.4 53
20 7.6 36
21 9.0 36
23 8.0 43
24 7.7 47
25 7.9 45
27 5.8 49
28 7.4 49
29 7.3 46

Chemical Composition of Jurf Ed -Darawish Oil Shale:

Si02 9.3 Rb 10
TiO2 0.16 Sn 22
MgO 0.19 Sr 1187
CaO 38.37 Th 12
Na2O 0.10 U 17
K2O 0.18 W 19
P2O5 1.53 Y 34
SO3 4.73 Zn 46
LOI 39.5 Ba 35
As 10 Co 15
(ppm)
Cu 68 Cr 226
Mo 20 La 33
Ni 102 V 101
Pb 9
Mean Elemental Composition of Jurf Ed-Darawish Shale Oil:

C 78.85
H 9.81
N 0.89
O 2.1
S 8.4
As Trace
Utilization:
Oil shale of this deposit can be utilized by direct combustion for the generation of electricity. It
is suitable for open -pit mining. The scale and method of open -pit mining depends on the type
and capacity of the direct combustion project. Since water consumption in this process is
comparatively high, the water requirements must be carefully studied.
2.4. El-Hasa Oil Shale Deposit

The El-Hasa deposit is a south east-north west oriented triangular depression. The oil shale
does not appear to have a wide distribution.
The rocks which occur in the area are: Limestone, phosphates, chalk mans, cherts, basalts, wadi
and mud flat sediments of: Campanian, Maestrichtian, Paleocene to Holocene ages.
The El-Hasa oil shale occurrence is situated in a NW-SE oriented graben of triangular shape
with a WNW -ESE oriented fault.
The bituminous marl of E1-Hasa is of gray - brown slightly greenish in color and is rich in
fossils and phosphatic material. The quality of bituminous marl might increase to the east.
The bituminous portion of the Chalk -Marl Unit was only penetrated in one drill-hole. The
thickness amounts to 7 meters. The oil shale distribution further to the east is not known yet,
but if the data from the old water wells are correct, the oil shale does not reach far to the east.
The overburden to oil shale ratio of the completed drill hole at El-Hasa is 5.5 :1 which is too
high to be advantageous for economic exploitation.
The oil shale in El-Hasa (bituminous chalk -marl) was analyzed only in one borehole. The oil
content ranges from 3.9 to 6.2% dry, with an average of 5.3%. These results and the other
geological data are not encouraging and suggest that this oil shale occurrence should be

classified as uneconomic (Huffnagel 1985)

Fischer Assay yield for BH OH - 1 & 2
Depth Moisture Oil Water Spent Gas and
yield shale loss
41.2-42 8.2 5.0 9.0 83.2 3.2
42- 43 9.0 6.2 9.2 79.8 5.4
43-44 11.3 6.1 13.2 77. 4.4
44- 45 12. 6.1 12.4 77.8 4.4
45- 46 11. 4.9 11.8 80.2 3.6
46 - 47 9.8 4.7 11.6 80.2 4.0
47 - 48 2.5 3.9 3.6 90. 2.6
BH-OH-2
29.7-30.6 10. 1.6 11.2 85. 2.4
2.5. Attarat Umm Ghudran Oil Shale Deposit:

First attempt to explore the oil shale deposit was made during the activities of the geological
mapping project carried out by N.R.A A report about this deposit was prepared by Suna’a
(1985). In (1988) Haddadin prepared a detailed report about this deposit.
This large oil shale deposit is located 35 km east of Qatrana. An asphalted road (27) km
branching off the desert highway from a point at a distance 40 km from Amman reaches the
western border of the ore body.
The area is located with in the Upper Cretaceous chalk marl belt. The rocks forming the
overburden and the deposit are: Marl chalk, limestone and chert.
The thickness of oil shale varies from 10 to 60 in and the thickness of overburden varies from
45 to 62m.
The deposit quarantines low mining costs and it is suitable for open -pit mining : This shallow
deposit render favorable conditions for further exploitation both for retorting and direct
combustion.
The estimation of the reserves was based on the information derived from the cuttings of 41
drill boles.
The depth of the drill holes varies from 85 to 110.5 meters. None of the drilled boreholes
penetrated the whole chalk-marl sequence to prospect the occurrence of bituminous rocks in
the underlying formation. The spacing between the boreholes ranges between 6-8 kms
throughout the investigated area that is of about 226 sq. km.
The chemical analysis was carried out on the core and cutting samples. The oil content varies
between 9-13% with average oil content of about 11%. The sulphur content varies from 1.93 to
5.3% and the moisture content varies from 0.4 to 2.3%. X-Ray analysis indicates that the main
components of the oil shale are; calcite and quartz and the secondary mineral is apatite. The
calcium carbonate content ranges from 21 to 55%. The organic carbon ranges from 9 to 19 %.
The characteristics of the Attarat Um Ghudran oil shale deposit are summarized as follows:
Area of the deposit, sq.km 226

Thickness of oil shale 10-60
Thickness of over burden 45 –
62
Mean thickness of over burden 53.3
Geological reserves million, tons 11,300
Exploitable reserves by open -pit mining 10.700
Oil content of exploitable reserves of shale 1170

oil mu.ton
Number of drilled boreholes 41
Average oil yield 11
Moisture content, 3.25
Ash content 53.2
CO2 18.9
S 2.6
The thickness of over burden ranges from 32.5 to 50 m. The rocks forming the overburden and
the deposit are: Marl, chalk, limestone and chert. The estimation of the reserves was based on
the information derived from cuttings of boreholes covering an area of 29 sq.km. The proved
geological reserves:
Oil shale million tons 31600
Shale oil mill, tons 2000
Reserves exploitable by open - cast mining:
Oil shale mm, tons. 21500
Shale oil mm, tons. 1500
The sulphur cont.,%wt 0.9-3.5
Quality of Oil Shale:

Oil yield by F.A 6.8 %
Moisture content 2.7 %
Ash content 57.5 %
CO2 19.9%
S 2.4%
2.6. Wadi Maghar Oil Shale Deposit:

The deposit is located approximately 40 km south east of Amman. This deposit is the extension
of Attarat Umm Ghudran to the south. This deposit shows even larger reserves of oil shale, but
rather of lower quality than Attarat Umm Ghudran.
The area is located within the Upper Cretaceous Chalk Marl Unit. This oil shale was explored
during the geological mapping activities that were reflected in the report of Suna’a (1985).
Haddadin Musa (1986), made further and detailed investigations of the deposit. The thickness
of the oil shale varies from 10 - 61 m.
2.7. Khan Ez-Zabib Oil Shale Deposit:

This deposit was discovered in 1985. Khan Ez-Zabib oil shale deposit is located approximately
45 km south - south east of Amman, 15 km of Khan Ez-Zabib abandoned Hijaz railway station.
Only two boreholes were drilled in the area. In the borehole Khz-1 39.5 m of oil shale were
penetrated beneath a 66 in of over burden. The oil shale has an oil content of 6.8 % by weight.
In borehole KhZ-2, forty five meters of oil shale was encountered beneath an overburden of 75
m. The oil shale has an oil content of 7.4 % by wt.
This oil shale deposit bear a chance for its development to an exploitable one.
Exploration for water resources in the area must be carried out with more details
2.8. Oil Shale Deposits In Northern Jordan

In Northern Jordan the exposures of oil shale are generally easily seen along the railway. In the
Yarmouk triangle and the Syrian frontier they form deposits 100 meters in thickness and with
considerable variation in bituminous content. These deposits extend under the chert beds that
cover North Jordan and are exposed again in Wadi El-Arab on the south and Wadi Shallala on

the east. In the Wadi El-Arab there occur a very black variety (Blake 1939) resembling the
Nabi Musa quality that contains over 20% organic matter and 9% oil. Oil shale crop out in
Wadi Shallala, Wadi El-Arab, Mukheiba and near the Maqarin abandoned station on the
Yarmouk Valley. Southward of Yarmouk, these rocks occur at about 500 in depth as shown on
ground water exploratory holes near ElShajara.
The oil shale in North Jordan attains a thickness of about 250 in. It overlies the Amman
Formation which is made up of interbeded chert (Abed 1982) Phosphorite and oil shale.
Upwards, organic matter decreases until it completely disappears without any change in the
rock type or break in sedimentation.
The oil shales of the North Jordan are calcareous. The average
content is 68%. The following rock units which were established by
Weisemann (1963) have been distinguished:
soil, gravel Holocene -Pleistocene
Basalt Pleistocene
Upper chalky limestone unit Lower and Middle Eocene
Chert Unit (appr. 35 m) Lower Middle Eocene
Lower chalky limestone unit Lower and Middle Eocene
(approx. 180 in) Paleocene
Bituminous Marl Unit Paleocene, Danian
(more than 120 m) Maestrichtian
The rock units from (1 to 4) have been deposited in open marine, warm water, and deep neritic
conditions. Two different horizons of bituminous bearing marl are present. The first horizon
belongs to the Bituminous Marl Unit and the others to the” Lower Chalky Limestone Unit “.
The results of investigations indicate the possibility of utilizing these oil shales for retorting or
direct combustion. The area is certainly worth prospecting.
The Oil Shale Deposit In Wadi Shallala Area:

Wadi Shallala area is located at the Northern part of Jordan about 15-20 km N and NE of Irbid.
The area forms a part of Irbid peneplain that has been deeply cut by the northward drainage of
Wadi Shallala and by its numerous tributaries. The main level of Irbid peneplain is about 450
in above sea level. The elevation of the bottom of Wadi Shallala ranges between 70 rn. above
sea level near the bridge of Maqarin and 350 m above S.L (sea level ) east of Mghair village.
The wadis are mostly V-shaped.
The area was situated in littoral, marine environment of the Tethys - Geosynclines (Abbasi
1968). The exposed sedimentary rocks are mainly of Eocene and Paleocene age. The rock
sequence that consists mainly of mans, limestone, chalky limestone and chert layers is exposed
in the Wadis or is covered by soil, gravel or basalt flows. The rocks were not subjected to any
tectonic intensive forces. The strata dip gently to the north, and so large faults of folds were
observed.
Geology Of Shallala Area:

The northern region of Jordan was geologically mapped on the scale of 1 : 250.000 by
Quennell (1964),1 : 25000 by Macdonald and Partners (1965) and 1: 50.000 by Weisemann
(1966). 1: 10.000, geological mapping have carried out for the Yarmouk valley by Weisemann
and Abdul -Latif (1963), A. Abed (1983).
The Bituminous Marl Unit which is the oldest rock unit is exposed in several localities and
underlain the lower chalky limestone unit.
Previous geological investigations have been undertaken by Noetling (1887) near El-Hammeh
and in Wadi El-Arab by (Blanckenhorn 1914), Quennell ( 1951), Burdon (1952), Baker and

Ilarza (1965), Weisemann (1963) Futyan (1968), Yassini (1980), Bender (1975), Amirah
(1979), Abed (1982), Mustafa, Jarrar (1995).
The exposed portion of the Bituminous Marl Unit consists of marl, partly bituminous soft to
medium hard intercalated by thin layers of hard limestone beds and clayey chalk. The
bituminous content varies both laterally and vertically. Concretions of chert are common in the
upper 30 in Locally fissures in this unit are filled with calcite.
The fresh color of the bituminous marl is ranging from grey to brown according to bitumen
content; the weathered surface is bluish gray.
The Upper Limit of the Bituminous Marl Unit has been established at the base of massive 10 -
15 in thick chalky limestone.
The thickness of the exposed portion of the Bituminous Marl Unit is approx. 40 in. According
to Weisemann (1963) the thickness of this unit is more than 120 in. From borehole drilled near
Maqarin station the total thickness could reach 200 in.
According to BAKER & Harza (1955) the thickness of the bituminous chalks and marls is at
least 210 in thick.
Geological Age:
Baker and Harza (1955) considered the bituminous chalk and marl series as Lower
Cenomanian. According to Weisemann (1963) and Heimbach (1962) this unit was correlated
with the “ chalk - marl unit in south Jordan (Ma’an and Qatrana area) which has a
Maestrichtian - Danian and Paleocene age. Futyan (1968) believed that the northern localities
are Danian (Paleocene). Yassini (1980) claims this locality as Maestrichtian. Thus this unit is
believed to be of Danian age (Abed 1982).
The following rocks have been distinguished:
Soil, gravel, basalt, upper chalky limestone, chert, lower chalky limestone and bituminous marl
unit from Maestrichtian, Danian, Paleocene to Holocene and Pleistocene.
Structure
In the area the strata generally show gently dipping towards the north. Here and there some
faults different in directions and intensity were observed. The main direction of such faults is
NW/SE and WNWJESE rarely SWINE to NNE/SSW. South of Deneibe village appears E/W
fault. Its displacement is approx. 30 in with a down thrown towards the north.
All over the area, the sediments which dip gently towards the north, show undulations, which
consist of anticline and syncline like structures and have probably not caused by depression but
perhaps (Abbasi 1968) by synsedimentary movements of the sediments at the time when these
sediments were in plastic form. To the south of Maqarin Station the succession represented by
the Lower Chalky Limestone Unit, chert and the upper chalky limestone units, are forming a
depression. On both sides of Wadi Shallala they dip steeply towards the Wadi course.
Land Slides:
Previous investigations have been undertaken by Burdon (1952), Baker and Harza (1955),
Weisemann (1963), Abed (1982) and (Mustafa, Jarrar 1995).
In the area of Maqarin Station and south of Deneibe two landslides were observed. They are
situated high above Yarmouk River and Wadi Shallala and directed towards north, respectively
towards south-west.
The land-slide occurs in the Lower Chalky Limestone and in the Chert Unit and are probably
caused by undercutting of the Wadi Shallala and the Yarmouk River.
Bituminous Bearing Rocks:

The exposure of bituminous rocks in Shallala are restricted to two horizons: In the strata which

belong to the Bituminous Marl Unit and in the other horizon which appears as semi-shaped
lenses different in size and extension and occur in the Lower Chalky Limestone Unit. All
through Wadi Ash- Shallala area semi shaped lenses of bituminous marl different in size and
extension occur in the Lower Chalky Limestone Unit.
In general the lenses consist of thin alternation of light grey bituminous marl with yellowish -
whitish limestone and thin chert beds, black in color. The light grey to grey color of the
bituminous marl points to different elements of organic matter.
Olexon Intt-1 (1967) analyzed samples from:

1. wadi Ash-Shallala fault zone
2. Deneibe Section
3. Rahoub Section
4. Lime Quarries
Sections 1 and 2 represent the Bituminous Marl Unit while samples 3&4 represent the Lower
Chalky Marl Unit.
Sample Moisture Carbonates N Cor. Organic
matter
WSF 22.35 36 0.35 13.2 16.4
WSD 1.73 25.1 0.44 13.4 16.35
R 1.7 24.1 0.25 4.25 5.1
LQ 1.14 29.4 0.39 9.3 11.5
Gardener (1955) gave the following analysis of a sample of bituminous chalk from north east
of Irbid which was composed of dark grey to black chalk. About 60 % of the rock was calcium
carbonate with little or no magnesium carbonate. The light mineral fraction consisted of quartz
and the heavy mineral fraction consisted of: Zircon, topaz, illmanite, malachite, grossularite,
epidotic and traces of green biotite.
Total porosity 35.7 %
3
Sp. gravity g/cm 1.82
Permeability 8. millidarcies
Oil content, % wt 10.4
Percent of pore space filled with fluid 28.6 %
Oil gal / ton 30.
Blake (1939) analyzed a sample from Yarmouk Valley and gave the following results.
Moisture at 1000 0.9 %
Chloroform extract 1.1 %
Pyridine extract 2.8 %
Loss on ignition 23. %
CaO calculated to CaCO3 54. %
By careful beating under reduced pressure to about 10 cm of mercury and subsequent
extraction with chloroform 17 % crude oily extract was obtained.
Origin and Occurrence of Bitumen Bearing Rocks:
The bituminous material is rich in carbon, hydrogen and poor in oxygen. It is originally a
carbonaceous matter. The transformation of it into bitumen is a function of both temperature
and time.
It is believed that the bitumen bearing rock has been formed under stagnant conditions i.e the
environment of sedimentation should be marine euxinic, where abundant organic matter is
rapidly burned and preserved before it is decomposed.
It is believed that the fertile growth of the kelp like algae may stop emulation near the bottom

of some ancient shallow areas: The algae and floating organisms on the water surface
accumulate down as rich organic mud.
Micropalaentological analysis of the bitumen bearing rocks in North Jordan (Futyan 1968)
showed that the bitumen occurs in different stratigarphical horizons of Maestrichtian Paleocene
and Lower Eocene age and the rocks are very rich in foraminiferal assemblages of deep
neurotic open ocean environment of deposition and the same assemblages occur in the rocks of
equivalent age either bituminized or not.
Uses of Oil Shale in Wadi Shallala:

The oil shale of this area is utilized locally for domestic purposes in producing quick lime.
These oil shales can be used for retorting, direct combustion and gasification. The following
investigations must be conducted in the deposit:
- Detailed drilling, sampling and chemical analysis of the bituminous rocks in Wadi Esh-
Shallala and SW of Maqarin Station and SW of Deneibe village.
- Detailed hydrogeological studies of the area.
- Prefeasibility studies for complex utilization of the deposits.
Fischer Assay Results of Maqarin Oil Shale

Moistur Total water Decompositi Oil Spent Gas &Loss
e %wt on water wt% shale% wt%
%wt
Q2 0.05 0.5 0.45 6.3 91.2 2.0
M1 0.2 1.2 1. 7.6 88.6 2.6
M2 0.1 0.9 0.8 7.3 89.6 2.2
Si 0.3 1.0 0.7 6 91. 2.
S2 0.02 0.8 0.78 6. 90. 3.2
X1 0.2 1.4 1.2 6.6 89. 3.
F1 0.1 0.8 0.7 8.6 88.2 2.4
FS-32 0.2 0.9 0.7 7.1 89.8 2.2
F4 0.06 0.4 00.34 7.4 89 3.2
The Mineralogical Composition Of the Maqarin Oil Shale is as follows:
Calcite > 20
Kaolinit 20 - 5
e
Gypsum <5
Pyrite <5
Chemical composition of Maqarin oil shale:
T.O.C 5.4-7 P2O5 2.9

CaO 46.2 Ba ppm 200-
300
Si03 0.3 Vppm 120-
250
MgO 1.0 Cu ppm 80-100

K2O 0.03 Co ppm 3-4

Na20 0.01 Pb ppm 67-174
F2O3 0.3 Mn 86
ppm
SO3 1.1 Zn ppm 60-200
Chemical composition of Wadi Shallala oil shale:

T.0.C 12.2-15.3 Cd 16 -32
CaO 36.8-43.1 Co 21 -58
Si02 5.7-8 Cr 192 -270
A12O 2.2-2.5 Cu 47 - 145
3
Fe203 0.64-0.72 Li 5.5 - 11
TiO2 0.11-0.12 Mn 37. - 144
MgO 0.15-0.41 Mo 133
Na20 0.05- Ni 1157
0.051
K20 0.03-0.06 Pb 15-16
ppm
P2O5 0.88-6.65 Sr ppm 441
SO3 1.36 - V PPM 107
1.53
Ba 105 - 592 Zn 324-358
ppm
Geochemical studies carried by Amireh (1974), Jarrar and Mustafa (1995) and Darwish and
Mustafa (1995) showed that the lower part of the exposed rocks in Wadi Shallala consists
mainly of two types: Carbonates and non-carbonates. The non -carbonates consists of organic
matter and of the main minerals: calcites, quartz, kaolinite, phosphates, pyrite and minor Illite.
The following phases can be categorized:
- Carbonate phases in association to Ca., CO2 Mn
- Clay minerals phase in association with Al, Mg, K, Ti, Pb, Cr, Na and Si.
- Sulphide phase in association with Fe, S, Zn.
- Phosphate phase in association with P, Li.
- Organic matter in association with C, Co, V, Cd, Ba.
In (1993) Darwish and Mustafa studied the oil shale in Amman Formation (Campanian -
Maastrichtian), in NW Jordan (Wadi Haufa, Deir Abu Saed, and Kufr Asad). The
investigations demonstrated the richness of the oil shale in organic matter 22.2 % by weight,
and in some other trace elements such as Ba, Cr, Mo, Ni, Pb, V and Zn.
Total organic carbon reaches 8.5 % in average. Organic carbon is consisted mainly of kerogen
(type I & II).
Bitumen is rich in hetero -compounds.

Gas chromatograms show predominance of isoprenoid especially phytane over n-alkenes and
low carbon preference index. Vitrinite reflectance values are less than 0.3 - Oil shale of the
studied areas is deposited in shallow restricted marine water under reducing conditions.
Khoury in 1994 in his study” temperature metamorphism and low temperature retrograde
alteration of spontaneously combusted marl concluded that there is unusual assemblage of high
and low temperature metamorphism in the Maqarin area of northern Jordan. Here the

bituminous host (chalk marl) unit and its stratigraphic equivalents have been thermally
metamorphosed by In-Situ spontaneous combustion of the bitumen that represents up to 20 %
by wt. of the unaltered rock. The minerals in the Maqarin area lie in two assemblages:
1. A univarient progressive reaction series was established under high temperature, low
pressure conditions (isochemical decarbonation -dehydration) normally characteristic of
contact metamorphic rock. The minerals suite includes among others Iarnite,
wollastonite, diopside brown millerite, spurrite and graphite, plus garnet anorthite,
ferrite, fluorapatite and recrystallized calcite, consistent with In -Situ combustion of
impure limestone and marls. Textural and structural analysis (porphyroblastic, poikilo-
blastic and granulated textures broken and cracked crystals, columnar structures)
suggests a relatively rapid heating where maximum temperatures were achieved early.
2. A secondary retrograde (hydration, carbonation sulphatization) metamorphic
assemblage developed including among others: calcium silicate hydrates (tobermorite,
Jennite, afurllite apophyllite) Sulphate (ettringite, hashimites, barites, thaumasite, and
gypsum) and stable and metastable carbonates (calcite, vaterite, aragonite kutanahorite)
oxides and hydroxides (hematite, portlandite, gibbsite).
Most interesting however is that the metamorphic fluid is still present at Maqarin. Highly
alkaline ground waters discharge from these zones with Ph 12.5 supported by the solubility of
portlandite and calcium silica hydroxide (CSH) mineral phases.
2.9. Eth-Thamad Oil Shale Deposit (Madaba District):

Most of the information about this deposit are preliminary and were collected from water
boreholes which were drilled previously by Central
Water Authority and from N.R.A drilled boreholes for oil shale exploration (AL. Hunjul, 1988,
1992, 1995).
El-Thamad oil shale deposit is situated 45 km south of Amman and is defined by an E-West
faulting system that forms E-W graben. The boundary of Eth- Thamad graben is bounded by
the Zarqa - Main’s strike -slip fault, set. The eastern boundary is bounded by the Wadi Al-
Hammam fault, while the western boundaries are bounded by the Rumail and Dabaa faults
system.
The ore body covers about 150 sq.km. Eth-Thamad oil shale deposit can be reached either by
the Desert highway or by Madaba Um-Resas via Netil asphalted road. In addition many tracks
from both roads make all parts of the ore body accessible.
The area drained mainly by wadi Za’afaran, wadi Eth-Thamad, wadi Esh -Shabik, wadi AI-
Halg and wadi Al-Khurayyim.
Stratigraphy
The main rock formations and sediments exposed in the area are as follows from top to bottom:
- Alluvium and wadi sediments (Al) (Recent-Holocene).
- Umm Rijam Chert Limestone Formation URCLF (L-Eocene -U- Eocene).
- Muwaqqar Chalk Marl Formation. (MCMF) (Maastrichtian - L - Eocene).
- AL - Hasa Phosphate Formation (AIIPF) Campanian -Maastrichtian)
- Amman Silicified Limestone Formation (ASLF) Santonian -Campanian.
Faults and lineaments:

The prominent structural features of the area are faults striking east-west, NE-SW and NW-SE.
Lineaments in the area are NW-SE trend.
Folds.
There are two types of folding

a. EW direction fold.
b. NNW-S.SE direction
The following boreholes were drilled by N.R.A to the west of Hijaz railway
Tb - El El - Hunjul 1991
GSLBII 002/MB Abu Hammour 1990
GS/BH 003/MB Shawabkeh 1990
GSJBH 004/MB Abu Hammour 1991
Eth - Thamad oil shale deposit is divided into two ore bodies; the eastern and western
Thickness, Distribution and Stripping Ratio:

The thickness of oil shale within the western ore body varies from 72 to less than 200 in. The
stripping ratio ranges from 1.54 to 0.34 while in the eastern part, the thickness of oil shale in
the ore body varies from 57 to 190 in and the stripping ratio varies from 1.62 to less than 0.002.
BH NO. Overburde Thickness of oil Total Stripping

n shale M depth Ratio
M M
A 43 57 205 > 0.75
B 64 190 259 0.34
C 151 100 250 > 1.51
D 170 100 280 > 1.51
TH-EL 53 104.5 158.5 > 1.54
GS/BH 61 160 221 0.507
002/MB
GSJBH 48 188 255 0.381
003/MB
G 5 200 300 0.255
S 210 130 383 0.002
T 60 76 345 0.8
U 136 161 297 0.8
Q 63 72 297 0.875
BH NO. Moistur CaCO Ct St CINOR Corg Oil%

e 3 G % wt
QS/BH Thel 1.6 55.2 22 4.3 7.2 16.4 12
BH 1.6 55.2 24 4.3 7.2 17.4 13
Eth1/14/MD
GH/KH/MB 1.5 55.2 16 2.14 7.1 8.77 7
GS/IIA/MB 0.8 52.1 19.2 5.93 5 13.6 11
It can be concluded from the above-mentioned data that oil shale is present in all drilled
boreholes with sufficient thickness and good quality.
The geological reserves are calculated to be not less than 10 billion tons within the eastern ore
body and 1.4 billion metric tons within the western ore body. The calculations of mineable
reserves needs more drilling in the area and more detailed geological investigations. However,
Eth-Thamad oil shale deposit offers very good conditions for an evaluation project in the future
depending on the following:

•The oil shale is found in thick sedimentary basins.

•The investigated area is perspective for oil shale exploration.
•The oil shale is of good quality.
•The overburden / oil ratio is very low.
•The oil shale contains no thick intercalations.
•The oil shale is overlain directly by carrying water horizon.
•The overburden is mainly chalk with chert and limestone intercalations that does not present
any difficulties for large operations.
•The deposit is accessed and connected from the east with the desert highway and from the
west with Madaba - Umm- Resas via Netil road with many branching. The railway crosses
also the eastern ore body.
It is recommended to begin an intensive drilling program to assess the oil shale distribution
with further laboratory investigations and prefeasibility studies for both methods of utilization,
direct combustion and retorting.
The ground water resources must be investigated in the area in the ASL/WSL aquifers. The
confined aquifer could be exploited for supplies to the Eth - Thamad (ore bodies) deposit if this
deposit will be exploited in the future.
2.10. Azraq and El-Jafr Basin Oil Shale Occurrences:

During the deep drilling program for ground water and oil exploration, oil shale occurrences
were found at depths reaching 500 meters below surface. Information about these deep deposits
is very limited.
At about 40 kin SE of Azraq (Faydat El-Dahikyia) and also in Wadi Ruweished SE of
Ruweished, some outcrops of oil shale were found.
It is recommended that a reconnaissance exploration program be prepared to cover more areas
where oil shale had been discovered. The study must consist of exploratory drilling with
laboratory analysis and industrial tests.

Chapter Three
3. Composition and Properties of Oil Shale -Laboratory Procedures:
3.1. Organic matter:

The organic in oil shale is predominately kerogen that is insoluble in common organic solvents.
The minor component is bitumen soluble in organic solvents (benzene, CCL4, Acetone
Alcohol, Alcohol benzene etc) generally not exceeding 1 - 2 %.
The pyrolysis of oil shale yields shale oil which consists mainly of liquid hydrocarbons (shale
oil ), gas and a smaller amount of nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen containing organic compounds.
3.1.1. Elemental composition of kerogen:

Organic matter is intimately associated with mineral matter in oil shale. In order to investigate
the composition and structure of kerogen it is usually necessary to separate the organic matter
from the mineral matter. Dilute HCL and HF acids are used to remove the mineral matter to
prepare a kerogen concentrate. The kerogen thus separated can preserve its original
composition and properties. Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Carbon, Sulfur and Oxygen are analyzed by
Leco apparatus.
3.1.2. Bitumen in oil shale:

Bitumen content in oil shale is very low. The yield of bitumen extracted (by cold or hot
methods soxhellet extraction) depends not only on the extracting conditions (temperature, time
and grain size) but also on the structure of organic matter.
Bitumen A is obtained when an oil shale sample is extracted with solvents. If the shale oil
residue is then treated with hydrochloric acid and extracted once more with the same solvent
bitumen C is obtained. The quantity of bitumen A or C is usually less than 1% of the sample.
Preheating of the oil shale before solvent extraction gives markedly increased extract yield that
is attributed to the partial decomposition of the organic matter in the oil shale into soluble
bitumen. The elemental composition of this bitumen extract (bitumen B ) is close to that of the
pyrobitumen from the pyrolysis of oil shale.
The solubility of bitumen in common solvents facilitates the study of the properties and
structure of kerogen. An elution chromatographic analysis of the Chloroform extracted bitumen
will help to determine the types of hydrocarbon consisted in the bitumen: Saturated
hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, resins and asphaltenes. The gas chromatography mass
spectrometry will help in stressing the presence of biomarkers such as isoprenoids, pentacyclic
triterpanes steranes etc. The saturated hydrocarbons in the chloroform-extracted bitumen when
further analyzed will help in identifying a variety of n-alkanes from C16 to C32 and the presence
of pristane, phytane and various isoprenoids in the iso-alkanes is confirmed.
3.1.3. Structure of Kerogen:

The Kerogen in oil shale is a mixture of compounds consisting mainly of carbon and hydrogen
and a small amount of heteroatons e.g. oxygen, nitrogen etc. Kerogen is not soluble in water,
acid, alkali and common organic solvents. It is generally believed that kerogen is a mixture of
macromolecular polymers with three dimensional structures. Oxidation of kerogen with
potassium permanganate solution gives mainly carbon dioxide, oxalic acid, a small amount of
volatile acids and non-volatile carboxylic acids. IR, 13CNMR and IHNMR spectral analysis
are used to study the kerogen structure.
3.2. Mineral Matter in Oil Shale:

The mineral matter in oil shale can be divided into three types. The first type is the mineral

matter originally existing in vegetables and planktons, the remnants of which became the
mineral matrix of oil shale such as Si02 from bacillariophyceae and CaO from shells. This type
is called intrinsic mineral matter. Under the influence of geological action mineral matter and
organic matter were associated so intimately that they cannot be separated by physical
beneficiation.
The second type is the mineral matter that is infiltrated into oil shale during its formation or
was carried out by rivers and underground water into the lakes and swamps where oil shale was
formed. In most cases this mineral matter is clay and sometimes sand sparingly soluble salts.
This type of organic matter is also rather closely associated with organic matter.
The third type is the mineral matter of the underlying bed and the overlying bed and
interbedding carried over during mining. The second and third type is regarded as extrinsic
mineral matter and the third type can be readily separated by physical benificiation.
The composition of the oil shale mineral matter is very complicated. There exists a variety of
minerals among them: Quartz clay minerals, carbonates (mainly the carbonates of calcium
magnesium and iron ), sulfates mainly (gypsum) sulfides (mainly pyrites) , ferrous compounds
and chlorides . In addition compounds containing copper, nickel, cobalt molybdenum, titanium,
vanadium etc. Sometimes the mineral matter contains rare metals and radioactive elements
such as germanium, thorium, uranium etc.
The mineralogical composition can be analyzed by X.R.D (X- Ray diffraction and the chemical
composition can be analyzed by X.R.F (XRay fluorescence, or ICP).
On heating oil shale the mineral matter undergoes a series of changes namely:
1) Loss of structural water in clay minerals.
2) Decomposition of carbonates (F2Co3, CaCo3, MgCo3 ) with Routine procedures for more
than half of the elements in the periodical table are performed by almost any suitable
analytical technique ranging from conventional rock analysis to the use of specific ion
electrodes. The elements are: Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Pb, Cr, Sr, Ba, Mn Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ag, Hg,
Cd, Ti, Sb, Sn. etc.
Conventional Rock Analysis:

The procedures used are based on classical methods of chemical analysis. The constituents
routinely determined are: L.O.I, SiO2, A12O3, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, Na20, K20, Ti02, P205, and
MnO. In addition to the above-mentioned analysis BaO, SO3, F, Cl and bulk and powdered
densities are determined.
Optical Emission Spectrographic Analysis:

Optical emission spectroscopy enables the determination of elements for samples as small as
one milligram for semi-quantitative methods Spectrograph is used for the determination of 31
elements.
X-Ray irradiation impinging on samples, generate secondary X-Ray characteristic of each
element in the sample. The characteristic lines of these elements may separate by selected
analyzing crystals and the elements can thus be determined.
X-Ray Diffraction Technique:

X-Ray diffraction can be used in a variety of ways to examine crystalline samples.
Atomic Absorption:
The atomic absorption units AAS cover a wide range of elements that can be detected in ppm
and ppb.
Induction Coupled Plasma I.C.P:

Fast sequential multi element determinator in geochemical exploration. Max. 32 elements can
be detected in ppm and ppb ranges.
3. 3. Physical Properties of Oil Shale:

The physical properties of oil shale have direct effect on mining, crushing and thermal
processing.
3. 3. 1 Color and Appearance:

The color of oil shale depends mainly on the color of its organic matter. The darker, the oil
shale, the higher is the Fischer Assay Yield. The newly mined oil shale, is dark, its color
becomes lighter (greyish white) on storage. This is the result of loss of adsorbed moisture and
oxidation.
3. 3. 2. Specific Gravity:
The specific gravity of oil shale depends primarily on the amount and specific gravity of
mineral matter entrapped and infiltrated during deposition.
The specific gravity is a property specifying the oil shale grade; the greater the specific gravity
the lower is the Fischer Assay. The grade of oil shale can be decided roughly by simply testing
its specific gravity.
3. 3. 3 Hardness and Strength:

Hardness and strength affect the power consumption and machinery wearing during mining
and crushing and are so related to the formation of small pieces and fines.
The hardness and strength of the oil shale depends on the properties of the mineral matter and
the geological conditions of its formation. The older the age the greater is the hardness. There
is rough correlation between the hardness and Fischer Assay; the oil shale of smaller hardness
often has higher Fischer Assay.
3. 3. 4. Thermal Strength:
Oil shale lumps were heated in an oven to pyrolysis temperature (5500C ) or to gasification
temperature 9000C, kept at these temperatures for 2 hrs cooled to room temperature then a free
falling strength test is made on a standard drop shatter testing machine. A screen analysis is
then made on screens with slotted or square openings. The thermal strength is expressed as
shale - on - screen weight percentage against initial shale weight.
3. 3. 5. Fusibility:
The fusibility is an important physical property of oil shale. Low fusing oil shale is liable to
clinkering, thus imparing normal operation of retorting. The fusing temperature of the oil shale
is closely related to its mineral composition. The fusibility is determined in microprocessor-
based instrument (LECO) for measuring the fusibility of the ash.
3. 4. Evaluation And Analysis Of Oil Shale:

The proximate analysis, Fischer Assay and the heating value of oil shale are usually determined
for the evaluation of its commercial utilization.
3. 4. 1. Proximate Analysis:
The proximate analysis of oil shale gives a general account of the oil shale composition and its
potential for commercial exploitation. It involves the determination of moisture, ash and
volatile matter content. Moisture content is determined by drying at 1050 and the proximate
analysis are carried out by Leco, C, H, N analyzer. The higher the moisture content the larger is

the heat needed to vaporize the moisture.

The volatile matter (which is determined by Leco instrument) is qualitative indication of the oil
shale grade as is essentially. The thermal decomposition product of the organic matter in oil
shale at a designated high temperature. However, a part of the inorganic matter decomposes
with evolution of gases and vapors that are also included in the volatile matter.
The ash in the proximate analysis is the oxidized mineral matter left after calcining of oil shale.
The ash content has some relation with the Fischer Assay where the oil content decreases with
the increasing of the ash content.
The fixed carbon in the proximate analysis is the difference in weight calculated from the
moisture, volatile matter, CO2 and ash content in oil shale.
3. 4. 2. Fischer Assay (ISO 647):

Fischer Assay is one of the most important items in oil shale evaluation. The Fischer Assay is
determined by retorting 50 gins of oil in an aluminium cast retort, where oil, moisture, spent
shale, gas and loss are recorded in percent by weight.
3. 4. 3. Heating Value:
The heating value is a vital parameter to be taken into consideration when the oil shale is used
for shale oil production gasification or direct combustion. It depends mainly on the amount of
and the composition of organic matter. The mineral matter in oil shale especially sulphates and
sulfides also effects the heating value of oil shale because exothermal and indothermal
reactions occur on decomposition, dehydration and oxidation of these samples.
The heating value is measured by automatic oxygen bomb calorimeter. The heating value can
only be determined after correction for the heat of conversion of carbonates, sulphates,
silicates, pyrite, and iron oxides in oil shale.
3. 5. Oxidation Of Oil Shale
The oxidation of oil shale is greatly affected by temperature. At a low temperature no
detectable oxidation occurs. As the temperature rises above 150 0C oxidation become
appreciable and vigorous oxidation takes place at 2500C. Time effects oxidation ; the more the
time is recorded, the more severe is the oxidation.
3. 6. Crushing and Screening:

Crushing and screening are necessary to meet demands of industrial utilization of oil shale. The
selection of the flow scheme of crushing and screening are related to the properties of oil shale
and the required oil shale size and it is also decided by the crushing ratio. The crushing ratio for
a single pass is the ratio of the average size of oil shale before crushing and average size after
crushing i.e n = D/d where D and d are the average size of oil shale entering and leaving a
crusher respectively.
In the crushing process, the smaller the crushing ratio, the less the time of crushing, the higher
is the yield of oil shale of the required size and the less is the portion of undersize shale.
Screening is used to avoid repeated crushing and to get the required size. Screening efficiency
can be expressed as follows:
N=C/CA *100%
Where: n - screening efficiency %
C - under screen oil shale wt., kg
G - charged oil shale wt., kg
A - percentage of under - screen shale in charge.
In the laboratory oil shale rocks submitted for analysis should be sufficient in weight. The
normal grinding procedure used is to pass the rock through a jaw crusher, pulverizer or if
needed for special analysis, the sample is then ground between plates made of tungsten carbide

to pass a 100 mesh nylon screen (for use in AAS, I.C.P, XRF and spectrographic analysis).
3. 7. Oil Shale Pyrolysis (Fischer Assay):

The pyrolysis of oil shale is the thermal processing by heating it without the presence of air to a
final temperature of 450 - 600 0C
Pyrolysis consists of three processes: The first is the heating of oil shale by which heat is
transferred from the heat carrier to oil shale surface and then from the surface to the interior of
oil shale. In an internal heating retort with gaseous heat carrier, heat transfer between the hot
gas of oil shale is mainly through convection, the smaller the shale size, the more easily is the
heat transferred to the center and the less time is needed. The second process is the pyrolysis of
organic matter. This is the main process of the formation of shale oil and gaseous products. The
last process is the diffusion and migration of decomposition products that first diffuse through
internal voids and capillaries to the shale surface, then through the inter-particle voids to the
outer space and finally escape out of the retort. These processes overlap and are related to each
other.
Drying of the oil shale takes place primarily until it is heated to 1050C. The temperature rise is
rather slow for a certain period on account of the amount of heat needed to vaporize the
moisture, and then the temperature rises gradually. At about 1800C the concluded gases are
released. With further rise in temperature, the pyrolysis of oil shale commences with liberation
of a vapor-gas mixture and a carbonaceous residue (spent shale) is left. The effluent vapor gas
mixture is cooled to room temperature and separated into gaseous and liquid phases. The liquid
phases usually consists of two immiscible layers of shale oil and water, the latter contains
soluble substances like ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide water soluble, phenols,
oxides, organic bases and emulsified oil.
It is generally accepted that the pyrolysis of organic matter in oil shale undergoes two stages.
The first stage is the formation of pyrobitumen soluble in common organic solvents. The
second stage is the further conversion of pyrobitumen into shale oil, gases and carbonaceous
residue.
Differential thermal analysis and thermal gravimetric analysis have been used to study the
pyrolysis kinetic of oil shale. In DTA (differential thermal analysis ) the reactions of the
material (oil shale) are continuously measured while heating the sample gradually to 100 c.
Detailed information is obtained this way about exothermic and endothermic substances
contained in the material (oil shale). Layers rich in energy can be distinguished from the poor
in energy since there are peaks in the curve in the case of a positive heat of reactions and
valleys in case of a negative heat of reaction. The intensity amplitudes is a measure of the loss
or gain of energy during thermal treatment. The heating range is 100C/min.
Thermal gravimetric analysis with this method; the sample is gradually heated to 1000 0C and
weighed at constant short intervals. The change in weight that is recorded as a function of
temperature can read in milligrams.
Valuable information for a possible industrial utilization of the oil shale can be obtained by the
evaluation of the results of these two different analyses. D.T. A allows conclusions as to the
optimum retorting temperature (energy balance) and T.G.A gives information about the actual
gravimetric yield (mass balance). The heating rate in T.G.A is 5.5 0C I mm. The retorting
temperature has to be selected according to the highest pyrolysis temperature of the organic
matter below 500 0C and in the same time helps to select a method which uses the residual
organic matter for the production of processed energy.
With further increase in pyrolysis temperature, pyrobitumen tends to be thermally unstable. It
undergoes further decomposition with evaluation of shale oil, water, coke and gases (CO2, CO,
1125, 112, CH4 and CnHm ). Hydrogen methane and unsaturated hydrocarbons increase
steadily with increasing temperature.

Oil shale contains a large amount of mineral matter that is intimately mingled with organic
matter. When the organic matter is converted into pyrobitumen, the mineral matter adsorbs the
resinous and oily compounds from pyrobitumen, the colloidal structure of pyrobitumen is
destroyed, and thus thermally unstable asphaltenes is set free with liberation of more gases. At
a higher temperature or longer heating time asphaltenes gradually changes into carboids and
finally into carbonaceous residue. The mineral matter possibly has some catalytic action to
various extents on these decomposition reactions. The pyrolysis mechanism of oil shale
containing a large amount of mineral matter is not identical with that of the organic matter
itself.
3. 7. 1. Effect Of Heating Temperature On Pyrolysis

The final heating temperature is an important factor affecting the pyrolysis yield and the
composition in oil shale retorting. The degree of decomposition of the organic matter and
secondary cracking of the products are related to the final temperature.
3. 7. 2. Effect of heating time:

The degree of isothermal pyrolysis of oil shale depends not only on final temperature but also
on heating time. The shale oil yield increases with time at a moderate temperature with a
further increase in temperature the time needed for completion of pyrolysis becomes less.
3. 7. 3. Effect Of Heat-up Rate:

The heat-up rate of oil shale affects the intensity of retorting. The shale oil yield tends to
increase when the heat-up rate is increased.
Intensification of pyrolysis lies primarily on heating oil shale at a faster heat-up rate to a
specified temperature in less time. The retorting time can be shortened and the retorting process
will be more effective. It is thus possible to upgrade the pyrolysis products by adjusting the
final temperature and residence time to cause pyrolysis reactions with different energy of
activation proceeds towards a favored direction. In the fluid bed retorting of shale fines the
heat-up rate greatly exceeds that in the retorts that use oil shale lumps, the residence time is
reduced from hours to minutes, resulting in more effective retorting and upgrading of shale oil.
3. 8. Ignition Point and Gasification Reactivity of Retorted Shale

The carbonaceous residue in oil shale retorting is called retorted shale (spent shale) of shale
semi-coke. The retorted shale (spent shale) contains about 4 to 6% fixed carbon depending on
the oil yield of the raw shale and the retorting conditions. Utilization of this fixed carbon to
provide heat for retorting is an important problem in successful retorting operation. The
ignition point and gasification reactivity of retorted shale are essential in considering its
utilization.
3. 9. Composition and Properties Of Shale Oil

Shale oil is a synthetic crude oil produced by retorting oil shale. It is similar to petroleum but
rich in unsaturated hydrocarbons and nitrogen -sulphur and oxygen containing organic
compounds.
3. 9. 1. Specific Gravity Of Shale Oil:

Shale oil has a rather high specific gravity approximately 0.9 - I owing to the presence of heavy
nitrogen - sulphur - oxygen components containing organic compounds and a less amount of
light hydrocarbon. The specific gravity of oil shale decreases with the rise in temperature.
Specific gravity is determined according to ASTM # D 1296-55.

3. 9. 2. Stability Of Shale Oil

Shale oil products are of poor stability owing to the presence of nitrogen -sulphur and oxygen
containing compounds that is easily affected by the oxygen in air and the catalytic action of
light and metals with the formation of gum. A proper treatment is needed to meet product
specifications. The elemental analysis are analyzed by Leco CHN-800, and Leco CS-244
according to ASTM D-1551. Oxidation of carbon residue is determined according to ASTM D
189-81. Distillation of shale oil is carried out according to ASTM -D-850, ASTM D 1087.
3. 9. 3. Sulphur Containing Compounds in Shale Oil

The sulphur content of Jordanian shale oil is generally very high. Hydrogen sulfide was tested
by cadmium chloride. Elemental S is analyzed by Leco CS 244 according to ASTM D 1551,
mercaptans by amperometric titration, carbon disulfide by zinc amalgam reduction and
amperometric titration, carbon disulpde by hexahydropyridine reaction and amperometric
titration thioethers by mercurous nitrate method or 450 0C AL203 selective desulphurization,
and thiophene sulfur by difference in selective desulphurization.
The following equipment is available at the N. R. A Oil Shale Laboratories Division.

• Fischer Assay Retort operating according to ISO 647 where oil shale is combusted and the
combustible products are recorded.
• Carbon dioxide determinator operating according to ASTM A 1750.
• Soxhellet extraction of cuttings and rock samples for the recovery of soluble organics.
• Chromatographic separation of extracted bitumen oil and condensates into: paraffin I
naphthenes (saturates ) aromatics and polar resins (NSO2) fractions.
• Gas chromatography I mass spectrometry (HP 5995) (GCJMS) where the compounds are
broken into characteristic ionized fragments and identified on the basis of masses and
relative concentrations of these ions.
• Ash fusion determination is a Leco AF-600 microprocessor based instrument for
measuring the fusibility of the ash.
• Automatic calorimeter used for measuring the calorific value of solid or liquid samples.
(LECO AC-400).
• Pyrolysis by Pyran FID level 1.
• Carbon sulfur determinator used for measuring the carbon sulfur contents in oil shale
LECO CS - 244.
• Volatiles determination apparatus (LECO MAC 400) used for the determination of
moisture, ash and volatiles content in oil shale.
• Elemental analysis determination apparatus LECO CHN -800) used for the determination
of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen.
• Total organic carbon determination apparatus LECO WR-12.
The following tests are also carried out in the oil shale labs for shale oil and shale oil products:
• Specific gravity according to ASTM D 1298-55.
• Water content according to ASTM D 45-58.
• Water and sediment according to ASTM D 96-74.
• Saybolt viscosity according to ASTM D 88-56.
• Pensky - Martens flash point ( closed cup ) according to ASTM 93-80.
• Pour point according to ASTM D97-66.
• Sulfur in oil according to ASTM D-1551.
• Salt in crude according to IP 77-66.

• Reid vapor pressure ( ASTM D 323-82).

• Carbon residue (ASTM D 189-81).
• Ash content determination (ASTM D 482-80).
• Color determination. ASTM D - 1500-82.
• Distillation of oil and its fractions according to ASTM D 850, ASTM D-1078.
Besides the oil shale lab is equipped to carry out the following determinations for water:
• Specific gravity by hydrometers.
• Total dissolved salts.
• Alkalinity.
• Chloride ions, sulfate ions.
• Total hardness.
• Ph.
• Conductivity.
• Chloride, Bromide, Iodide, Fluoride, Sodium, Silica, Trace elements and heavy metals etc.

Chapter Four
Environmental Considerations
Prior to the commencement of on - site operations, site specific environmental baseline studies
should be conducted to develop data in all environmental media areas. The key areas to be
addressed are:
• Development of protective measures for both surface and ground water supplies
• Determination of measures to mitigate surface and ground water due to mining.
• Further soil testing of the overburden for chemical properties and their suitability for
revegetation.
• Site specific air quality monitoring and modeling to ensure
• that models which are developed are predictive of the mining
• operation to aid in developing necessary mitigation practices.
• Development of protective measures for noise levels and the determination of measures to
mitigate noise levels due to
• mining for protecting the health and welfare of the miners and the general public.
The program should also develop specific plans and measures related to special conditions,
socioeconomic impacts, archeology, paleontology, historical, recreation and human health
effects.
In the mine development planning some of the measures to protect the surface and ground
water from contamination are to be proposed. Excavation of ditches around the pit area and out
of pit waste piles are measures to prevent rain water run - off from becoming contaminated
with disturbed areas. Rain water run - off from disturbed areas such as the waste pile, haul
roads and the pit must be collected in sedimentation pondsand must have zero discharge. This
will prevent any contamination due to mining from entering ground water.
Air pollution from the mine area will be mostly fugitive dust. The operation must be equipped
with water tankers and the haul roads and pit roads must be sprayed with water from these
tankers on a periodical basis.
The major noise level at the mine will occur at the time of blasting the over burden. The use of
delays and good blasting techniques will decrease the level of air blast. The use of blasting the
oil shale is not required since selective mining will accomplished by auger scrapper in the
smaller mines and surface mining will be accomplished for the large mine.
Another area of concern at the mine is the disposal of the spent shale (ash). Leachability tests
of the spent shale (ash) to evaluate its toxicity are required as well as the testing of the
overburden for its chemical properties. The reaction of spent shale with any constituent of the
overburden is unknown. Any modified measures for handling the disposal of the spent shale
(ash) must be studied. The use of 20% water by weight in pugging operation must be arbitrarily
selected and further determinations are required for its adequacy to prevent dusting when the
spent shale is dumped from a track or to conserve water if the mixture is too wet.
Environment considerations at the oil shale process crushing plant will be air pollution and
noise level. Dust collectors must be used to prevent air pollution at the process plant. Air ducts
must pick-up dust from all dust producing sources in the storage areas as well as the impact
crushers and the major sources of noise will occur at the impact crushers and the vibrating
screens. Enclosure of this equipment may be required if the noise level exceeds the allowable
level for workers exposed to the noise.
Boiler And Power Plant

In using oil shale as a fuel for power generation three potential air pollution emissions are of
primary interest: sulfur dioxide (SO2) nitrogen oxide (NOR) and particulate matter. Other
significant environmental concerns are: liquid effluents, solid water discharge, fuel trace

elements leachate and noise.

Jordan has no emission standards, or guidelines that would apply to the proposed project. The
international environmental protection regulations must be used to avoid hazards due to
emission of gases and contamination of underground water due to solid disposal.
In principle the pollutants in effluents from the power block can be controlled to values such
that when added to the pre - existing (back ground ) levels, the resulting concentrations will be
within recommended exposure guidelines. However, in order to set effluent limits for new
facilities with confidence that health effects or unacceptable environmental impacts will not
occur. It is necessary to know the existing levels of pollutants in the affected environment.
Gaseous Emissions:
Emission standards specify the maximum amount of a given pollutant that can be released into
the atmosphere from a given source. Emission standards are set in most countries on industry-
by-industry or plant-by-plant basis. Some countries have established nation wide “emission
guidelines “ which serve as a reference point for discussions between regulatory authorities and
the industry or plant concerned.
Sulfur Dioxide:
Sulfur dioxide presents some unusual problems. It is a common gaseous pollutant from many
fossil fuel burning sources, as well as ferrous and nonferrous smelting operations. As a
consequence, it is virtually ubiquitous and presents a back ground value practically every
where.
Sulfur Emission Guidelines

Background air Sulfur background levels mg/in3 Criterion I Criterion II
quality (S02
basis)
Annual average max. 24 hrs max. 502 max. allowable
emission TPD ground level
(a) increment to
ambian (mg/in3
one year aver.)
Unpolluted 50 200 500 50
moderately
polluted
low 50 200 500 50
high 100 400 100 10
Very polluted 100 400 100 10
3
* For intermediate value between 50 and 100 mg/rn linear interpolation should be used. No
projects with SO2 emissions are recommended in these areas (a) tons/day.
In the CFB process the SO2 released during combustion is retained by the ash in the combustor
itself through the limestone content of the oil shale. Desulphurizing action takes place directly
in the combustion zone and occurs through the following reactions:
a) Release of sulfur contained in the fuel. S + 0~ = SO2
b) The calcinations of the limestone ( CaCO3 calcium carbonate) to form calcium oxide.
CaCO3 = CaO+CO2
c) Calcium sulfate (gypsum formation): 2 CaO +2S02+ 02=2 CaSO4
Tests have shown that 90 % of the sulfur is absorbed and is charged in the ash through these
reactions. However, it should be noted that more than 95 % SO2 removal is required to meet the
emission requirements of a typical U.S or European plant. Actual 502 removals level to be
selected for design purposes should involve a thorough review of the background levels of SO2

that are thought to be low at Sultani and Lajjun.
Nitrogen Oxide:
Two types of standards are generally used for nitrogen oxides ambient and emission. Ambient
standards express the allowable concentration of a contaminant in the air surrounding the plant
site following discharge and mixing. Ambient levels are essential for determining possible
environmental damage and for evaluating adverse physical, health, and other effects upon the
surrounding medium (air).
Ambient concentrations of nitrogen oxides expressed as NO2 should not exceed the following:
Annual arithmatic mean: 100 mg/rn3 (0.05 ppm).
Nitrogen oxide from boilers of different CFB processes indicate acceptable N0~ emissions.
Dust and Particulates:
The plant should be operated and designed to provides actual dust level well below TLV.
Fuel handling at the power plant may need some controls for the protection of workers in the
immediate vicinity. Breathing masks can be effective for limited periods of time. The plant
should be designed below TLV values.
TLV for dusts (based on 8 hours work, day (a)mg Umm3 Substance
Bituminous Dusts
Respirable (b) fraction 5 % Si02 2.4
Respirable fraction 5 % Si02 10/(%Si + 2)
Inert or Nuisance Dusts (c)
Respirable 5
Total 15
Notes: a) For workdays other than 8 hrs, apply the following
correction factor:
Correction factors = 8 / workday hrs.
b) Respirable dust is less than 10/ Umm in size and is
measured by monitoring devices that correlate with
pulmonary deposition.
c) If quartz content is 1 % or greater use quartz formula
(10/Si % + 2).
General public:
The guideline for stack discharges of particulate matter (dust) is: 50 mg / m3(dry). This
guideline is applicable to total inert dust (1% SiO2) containing no carcenogenic compounds.
However, large variations exist from one project to another. As a rule the levels of particulate
emission regulations should not be exceeded.
Stack Emission:
When back levels of dust are high ; dust emissions from the stack should not be greater than
100 mg/rn3.
Ambient levels:
Annual geometric mean 100 mg/m3 max. 24-hrs concentration 500 mg/m3. If the dust under
consideration is affecting vegetation, the annual mean and 24 hrs figures should be adjusted
downwards.
The stack emissions are to be added to any fugitive emissions (uncontrolled or non-point
sources of dust) and other point sources in the plant such as from full processing. Modeling of
all plant emissions required when a facility is being designed in order to determine if
recommended ambient levels are exceeded.

The following table summarizes the particulate emissions limits of some countries for
comparison.
The dust emission from the stack is 003 IbsIBTU heat input. Particulate Emission Regulations
or Guidelines Applicable to Industrial Boilers.
Count Solid fuels

ry
Heat in put rate Emission Rate
MBtu/h Mwt Lb/hr Kg/hr Ib/m
r m
10 (2.9 ) 7.6 (3.4) (0.76)
100 (29.3) 45. (20) (0.45)
Engla 200 (58.6) 90. (41) (0.45)
nd 300 (87.9) 132. (60) (0.44)
500 (150) 218. (99) (0.44)
New power plants 450.00 lb steam /hr (approx. 150 Mw input) 115 mg/nm3
France 3000 lb/hr (41 Mwt) :100 mgflb/0.56 IbfMBtu

200
8000 lb/hr (108 Mwt) 200 mg/ib(0.11 Ib)MBtu
800 lb/hr (150 mhflb (0.08 IbfMBtu
Germany Particulate 10
250 mg/nm3 - 500 mg/nm3 - 70000. hr
lignite : 100 mg/rn3
bituminous : 150 mg/nm3
Spain 50 MW - 500 mg/nm3

50 -200MW 350 mg/nm3
New power plants
50MW - 200 mg/nm3
200MW 150
Sweden 300 MW 1.5 g/kg

300MW 1.0 g/
U.S.A 7.3 MWt (250 MBtu/hr heat

input)
0.03 lb (MBtu) (MBtu)
73 MW (0.1 IbfMBtu)
World Bank:
Total particulate in stack gas 100 mg/nm3 or 150 mg/nm3 in rural areas.
Source:
Journal of air pollution control Abs. vol. 31 No. 4 April 1981. Liquid and Solid Wastes

Liquid and Solid Waste

Combustion wastes consist of fly ash and bottom ash. About 99 % of the fly ash is assumed to
retain by pollution abatement equipment. Bottom ash is recovered from the bottom of the
boiler.
Disposal:
Mine - mouth plants can dispose of these wastes in portions of the mine from which the fuel
was removed where local conditions are favorable. Whatever, disposal techniques are used;
leaching of water -soluble constituents of the ash into the underlying soil, and perhaps into the
groundwater can occur. A liner of impervious material such as clay is effective in preventing
ground water contamination.
Sources of Hazardous Element contamination:

Trace elements in fuel can be quite mobile in water and the majority of our environmental
problems are ultimately associated with the contamination of surface and ground water. The
natural processes that control the behavior of elements in water are fundamental to the
understanding, prevention and correction of many environmental problems.
Natural sources of toxic substances include rocks, sediments and soils. These rocks
contaminate ground water with arsenic, chromium, selenium, zinc, cadmium, uranium and
thorium.
Many biogeochemical processes (biological transformations oxidation reduction reactions,
radioactive decay, scavenging or sorption, precipitation, transport of water, weathering of rocks
and atmospheric deposition ) influence the quantity and distribution of elements in the
environment.
Noise
Continuous noise levels above 90 dBA have detrimental effects on human performance
especially in so-called “noise - sensitive “function such as vigilance tasks in formation,
gathering and analytical processes. Noise levels below 90 dBA can be disruptive if they have
predominately high frequency components and are intermittent unexpected and uncontrollable.
Noises resulting from industrial operations are generally confined within the plant structure.
Machinery and equipment are the main sources of pollution and their effects are felt mostly by
individual workers.
Controls may be accomplished through measures at the source (relocation, vibration, control
etc ) installation of acoustical shields enclosures or other barriers to interrupt the path of the
sound or through limiting the duration of the exposure by the receiver. The 1st two of these
measures will help reduce the noise levels in the environment outside the plant. Around boilers,
limiting the duration of the exposure is common and simple earplugs are frequently used by
workers temporarly entering high noise areas.
In the absence of sensitive noise receptor such as schools and hospitals in the immediate
vicinity of a facility, noise suppression sufficient to protect the workers in the plant usually
result in acceptable noise levels outside the plant.
Retorting:
It is obvious that during mining and retorting of oil shale the following major environmental
effects can be expected testifying the feasibility of the removal of some negative environmental
consequences. Associated with oil shale mining and retorting:
a) Atmospheric emissions, water pollution, solid and liquid waste.
b) Potentially hazardous health effects.
c) Disruption of the land.

These effects can be kept at acceptable levels by careful advanced planning.
Atmospheric Emission and Air Pollution

The main source of airborne pollutions and major producers of contaminating emissions into
the atmosphere are:
• Oil shale mining, handling, crushing and transportation.
• Oil shale retorting units, upgrading and processing lines.
• Gas and liquid waste treatment cleaning units.
• Steam and power plants utilizing fine - grained spent shale.
• Vent gases from sulfur plants and other Hydrotreating sources and flue gases from retorts,
boilers and fired heaters.
These sources produce pollutants in the form of dust particulates, NON, SO,~, CO, CO2, and
light hydrocarbon vapors.
Airborne dust and larger particulates occur from blasting mining, crushing, and transporting the
processed oil shale.
Dust is produced also in hauling the spent shale from the retorting and direct combustion areas
to the mine reclamation area.
Water pollution
In the retorting operations there are two major potential sources of water pollution: solid and
liquid waste. The ground water and percolating water will be high alkaline and saturated with
gypsum after contact with the combustion ashes with high Sulphate content. After placement of
spent shale in the mine reclamation area, it will be exposed to some ground water flows.
Solid and Liquid Wastes:

• Oil shale processing will produce the following solid and liquid wastes:
• Fine particles produced in mining and crushing operations.
• Heavy tar products formed in condensers or as by - products after tar stripping from
mechanical impurities.
• Catalysts from refining, hydrogen treating and production processes.
• Spent shale that remain after the oil is removed.
Hazardous Chemical Wastes:

The wastes can be in : gaseous, liquid, solid and slurry forms. The hazardous waste is that
which presents either:
• Short term hazards such as acute toxicity by ingestion, inhalation, or skin absorption, or
eye contact hazards, or the risk of fire, or explosion or,
• Long - term environmental hazards including chronic toxity upon repeated exposure but
with long latent period, resistance to detoxification process such as biodegradation the
potential to pollute surface and underground waters or apsthetically objection able
properties such as offensive odors.
Organic Chemical Wastes:

The residues derived from shale oil refining may occur as liquid sludge or solids. The wastes
may contain unreacted feed stock, by -products, tars, filter cakes, precipitated materials,
solvents and acids or alkalis used in washing process streams. In addition the wastes may also
be made up off- specification products, spent catalysts, various spillages, or leakages
contaminated filter, acids, inorganic absorbent and contaminated containers.

Health Effect from Petro - Chemicals:

Exposure to chemicals and petroleum products can be direct: by skin contact, ingestion or
through environmental media such as air, water and food. A major concern lie with the possible
effect of low - level long term exposure, which may occur at work or in the general
environment and at present there is no known way to estimate the role of chemical agents to
human genetic diseases.
The danger of exposure to components of oil and spent shale which may contain organic
compounds with carcinogenic as well as toxic effects. These hazardous compounds could reach
the public via airborne particulates run off water as intake by plants and animals and as organic
vapors.
Reclamation of Disturbed Land:

Reclamation should be included as the concluding phase in the work cycle of mining operation.
Shale ash as well as limestone from the overburden can be used for leveling, reclamation and
vegetation of oil shale quarries. However, it is well known that high calcium ash is a valuable
material for agriculture. Many attempts were made to mix soil with spent shale so as to
overcome the poor yield of plant growth.
A complete soil cover (50 cm ) with screening material between the soil and spent shale to
reduce the upward movement of salinity is recommended where possible, particularly in low
rainfall areas (250 - 300 mm per annum).
Appendix - 1
Health Risk of Oil Shale Cycle.
Source Nature of Risk
Extraction Underground, surface Immediate,
1mm.
Processing Crushing, Retorting, Upgrading & Immediate
refining
Transport Rail Immediate
Power 1mm., delayed
generation
Public: main risk is from exposure to air pollutants from retorting and combustion
carcenogenic heavy metals (arsenic, cadmium and nickel) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
and radioactive nuclides. Contamination of drinking water by wastes from retorting or
leachates from spent shale storage piles (carcinogenic heavy metals; PAH, and radionuclides).
Synfuels Glossary
Activation Energy:
The energy barrier over which molecules must pass before a chemical reaction can occur. The
higher the barrier, the more energy the molecules must have. By rising the temperature, the
molecular energy increases and thus facilitates chemical reactions.
Activation energy can also be defined as” the energy that must be absorbed by molecule or
molecular complex to break the bonds and form new products”.
Aliphatic: Referring to saturated hydrocarbons.
Alkane: A saturated hydrocarbon. All carbon - carbon bonds in alkanes are single ones.
Alkene: An unsaturated hydrocarbon. At least one carbon - carbon double bond is present.
Anaerobe: A microorganism that functions under unaerobic conditions.
Anaerobic:
• A process that occurs in the absence of oxygen.

• A process that occurs, where very small amounts of oxygen are present.
• Bacteria which is active under conditions when oxygen is absent.
Aromatization: The process of converting an alicyclic system into an aromatic one
Aromatization is an oxidative process that occurs during catagenesis and metagenesis.
Asphaltene: Large organic molecules that are highly aromatic and often relatively high in
heteroatoms. They are found in crude oils and bitumen and are apparently formed during
diagenesis and catagenesis as well as in oil reservoirs as by products of cracking. Because of
their large molecules they are sparingly soluble in petroleum.
Asphalt: Black to dark brown solid or semisolid bitumen that gradually liquefy when heated.
The elemental composition of asphalts is: carbon, hydrogen, and appreciable quantities of
nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. They are largely soluble in carbon disulphide.
Biodegradation: Destruction or alteration of crude oil or gas by bacteria that consumes or
transforms certain chemical compounds as sources of energy.
Biogenic: Formed biologically by an organism or within an organism.
Biogenic Gas: Dry gas (virtually pure methane) formed by anaerobic microorganisms called
methanogenic.
Biomass: All-inclusive term covering the many materials and substances all having origin in
some living form which constitute now or could in the future, a source of energy. Included in
this category are wood and wood wastes, agricultural products and wastes - such as stocks,
stem shells, cogs or husks algae particularly large marine varieties such as kelp, animals and
municipal sewage.
Bitumen: Various mixtures of hydrocarbons (as tar) often with their non-metallic derivatives.
They either occur naturally or obtained residues after heat refining naturally occurring
substances such as: petroleum, asphalt or bituminous coal.
British Thermal Unit: (Btu) the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one pound
of water one degree Fahrenheit.
Calorific Value: See heating value.
Carbonates: Any chemical compound containing the carbonate structure CO3. Oil shale
typically contains 48 % by weight carbonates in the form of dolomite and calcite. When heated
for long time at high temperatures, these carbonates decompose and combine with other
mineral species to form insoluble silicates.
Catalyst: Any substance usually a solid used to accelerate or retard a chemical reaction that
does not by itself undergo change during the process. Clay minerals are probably the most
important catalysts for hydrocarbon transformation into the surface.
Catagenesis: Thermal decomposition of large kerogen or Asphaltene molecules into smaller
molecules which then become part of the bitumen fraction in the source rock. Catagenesis is
the stage of kerogen decomposition where oil generation occurs, (diagenesis, metagenesis).
Char: The carbonaceous material produced when oil shale or coal is heated and I or reacted at
temperatures sufficient to drive off its volatile matter. The major portion of the carbon does not
volatilize or react and the remaining coke -like material is termed out char.
Commercialization: The process during which a research and development project is
converted into a self-sustaining business.
Cracking:
1. Breakdown of large organic molecules into smaller ones. It is a process usually associated
with the formation of condensates, gasoline range hydrocarbons and gas oil.
2. Thermal decomposition of large organic molecules such kerogen and asphaltenes to yield
bitumen molecules of various sizes. In this usage it is similar to catagenesis.
Connate Water: Fossil reservoir water that has not been in contact with the atmosphere since
deposition. It is high in chloride and calcium and frequently contains more than 10000 ppm
dissolved total solids.

Crude Oil properties: The chemical and physical properties of petroleum crude and synthetic
oils. Principal properties include:
API (Gravity): A measure of the density of liquid products as defined by the American
Petroleum Institute. The higher API the greater the number of gallons per pound of liquid.
Viscosity: A measure of the internal or resistance of a liquid to flow. The higher the viscosity
the more difficult it is to pump and move the liquid.
Pour point: The lowest temperature at which oil will pour.
C/H Ratio: The ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon molecule.
Diagenesis: The process involving biological physical and chemical alteration of the organic
debris in sediment without pronounced effect from rising temperature.
It is low temperature transformation of organic matter in sedimentary environments. Ordinary
chemical reactions may also contribute, especially in the formation of kerogen and Asphaltene
molecules preceeding oil generation, but include the formation of biogenic gas.
Demonstration Scale Plant: A plant between pilot and commercial size built to demonstrate
commercial feasibility of a process. Size is purely arbitrary. It is not uncommon in conceptual
design to use single module of a larger commercial plant as the demonstration scale.
Elemental Analysis: A quantitative analysis of the various elements present in a sample. The
elements most commonly analyzed for oil shale and shale oil are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
sulphur and nitrogen.
Extraction: Removal of bitumen from a rock matrix. Extraction can be accomplished either by
solvents or by heat.
Entrained Bed Gasification: A gasification process in which gasification of the candidate fuel
takes place as it is carried along in a moving mix of fuel and the gasifying media.
Characteristic of this form of gasification is a finely divided fuel.
Entrained Bed Gasification: A gasification process in which gasification of the candidate fuel
takes place as it is carried along in a moving mix of fuel and the gasifying media.
Characteristic of this form of gasification is a finely divided fuel.
Fischer Assay: The standard method of estimating oil content in shale oil bearing rock. A
representative sample of oil shale is crushed, dried and heated according to the specifications
established by the U.S Bureau Of Mines. The quality of oil obtained is a measure of the gallons
per ton yield or assay value. The actual amount of shale in any particular recovery is expressed
as a percentage of this Fischer Assay value.
Fixed Bed Gasification: A gasification process in which the fuel is fed as sized lumps, and in
which the gas moves through a nearly stationary bed of reacting fuel.
Fluidized Bed Gasification: A gasification process In which hells suspended in a “boiling
bed” by the gasifying media.
Fixed Carbon: A parameter for measuring maturity. Higher fixed carbon values correspond to
higher maturity
Fulvic Acids: Humic substances of relatively low molecular weight which are soluble in
acqueous add and base (such as humic acids, hunk and kerogen).
Gasification: In fuel technology is the conversion of solid or liquid hydrocarbons into a fuel
gas.
Gasifier: The processing unit in a synthetic fuel process In which the fuel, (either solid or
liquid) Is converted Into a synthetic gas.
Gasifying Media: The agent or component used to effect gasification of a candidate fuel. For
example in hydro-gasification, hydrogen Is the gasifying media and in conventional steam
oxygen gasification, steam and oxygen are the gasifying media.
Heating Value: The energy released upon combustion oxidation of a fuel under standardized
test conditions.
Heavy Oil: Oil or tar that has a low API gravity (less than 15 or 20 depending on various

factors). Heavy oil can be formed in two distinct ways: by biodegradation (aided sometimes by
water washing or evaporation) of normal crude oils, and as oils generated early from sulphur -
rich kerogen (tar), or petroleum crude which is characterized by high viscosity and a high
carbon - to - hydrogen ratio. It is often difficult to recover by conventional techniques.
Heteroatoms: Any atoms other than carbon and hydrogen found in kerogen, petroleum,
bitumen, or natural gas. The most common heteroatoms are:
nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen.
Heterocompounds: Chemical compounds containing one or more heteroatoms
Heterocompounds are often called (NSO) nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen compounds because of
their three dominant heteroatoms.
High BTU Gas: A term used to designate fuel gases having heating values of pipeline
specifications i.e greater than about 900 Btu’s per standard cubic foot. Hot Raw Gas:
Hot Raw Gas: A manufactured gas that has not been cleaned and treated. It exists in the state
that it leaves the Gasifier.
Hot Raw Gas Efficiency: The chemical energy and sensible heat in the hot raw gas divided by
the sum of the higher heating value of oil shale or coal used plus the energy contents of the air
and water entering the process. Base temperature is usually 60 0F
Hydrocarbons: Any one of a very large class of chemical compounds composed of carbon and
hydrogen. The largest single source of hydrocarbons today is petroleum crude oil.
Hydro cracking: A process in which relatively heavy hydrocarbons are broken up by heat into
lighter products (such as gasoline) in the presence of hydrogen.
Hydrogenation: The addition of hydrogen to any chemical molecules.
Hydrotreating: A process in which petroleum products, or petroleum like products are treated
with hydrogen. Hydro treatment involves passing the oil over a metallic catalyst in the presence
of hydrogen; the sulfur and nitrogen are converted to hydrogen sulphide and ammonia while
the hydrogen content in the oil is increased.
Hydro gasification: The gasification of a suitable fuel by reacting it directly with hydrogen.
Temperatures greater than 1200 0F and pressures in excess of 500 psig are generally needed.
Hydropyrolysis: A method of affecting the pyrolysis of a fuel by contacting it with hot
hydrogen.
Hydrotreating: A step in the upgrading of liquid hydrocarbon fuels where they are contacted
with hydrogen under elevation of pressure and temperature.
Hydrophilic: Literally “ water - loving”. Hydrophobic compounds are non polar and miscible
with water.
Humic Acids: Humic substances of medium molecular weight that is soluble in acqueous
solutions but not acids.
Humic Substances: Organic matter with a relatively low H/C ratio, composed largely of
woody or cellulosic material of terrestrial origin Humic substances are generative capacities for
hydrocarbons.
Hydrophilic: Literally “ water - loving”. Hydrophobic compounds are non polar and miscible
with water.
Hydrophobic: Literally “water - fearing”. Hydrophobic compounds are nonpolar and thus
immisicible with water.
Heterocyclic Compounds: Ring compounds in which one or more of the carbon atoms in the
ring are replaced by an atom of another element such as: nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen.
Humic Organic Matter: The decomposition and polymerization products of the carbonized
organic matter decomposed in swamps and soils under aerobic conditions with partial
restriction of oxygen.
Illuminants: Ethane and heavier hydrocarbons contained in fuel gas. Indirect Liquefaction:
Indirect Liquefactions: The generation of liquid hydrocarbon products from solid

hydrocarbon fuels by first producing synthesis gas that is then further reacted to produce
liquids.
In Situ Extraction: A term used in oil shale technology to indicate the retorting of oil shale in
place, that is without bringing the shale to the surface of the ground. Shale is first rubblized
(broken up) in place. Alternately a portion of the shale is removed and the remaining shale
rubblized into the cavity. Rubblization is accomplished by explosives.
Isomerization: Conversion of one isomer into another.
Isomer: Molecules having the same empirical formula but differing in the way the atoms
bonded to each other.
Kerogen: The disseminated organic matter of sedimentary rocks that is insoluble in non
oxidizing acids, bases, and organic solvents. Or it is defined as :“ that portion of the organic
matter present in a sedimentary rock, which is not soluble in organic solvents, i.e formed by
polymerization of organic molecules derived from dead organisms. The organic matter initially
deposited with unconsolidated sediment which is not kerogen but a procursor, which is
converted into kerogen during diagnesis. Sapropelic kerogen yield oil and gas on heating, while
humic kerogen yield mainly gas. Kerogen includes both marine and land - derived organic
matter.
Lignite: Coals characterized by high moisture content and or I high volatiles from about 30 %
to about 50 %. Lignite may be considered as solid fuel more mature than peat but less mature
than bituminous coal or oil shale. Other characteristics are high oxygen contents and low
contents of fixed carbon. Maximum ASTM designation of heating value for lignite is 8300 Btu
on a moisture and mineral matter free basis.
Liquefaction: The production of hydrocarbon liquids from solid fuels.
Lipids: A broad term that includes all oil - soluble, water insoluble substances such as fats,
waxes, fatty acids, sterols, pigments and terpenoids which are mainly derived from organisms.
These compounds are similar to, identical with, or precursors, for many petroleum
hydrocarbons.
Leco Carbon Analyzer: An instrument in common use for measuring (TOC) total organic
carbon values, or carbon and sulfur values, by combustion of the organic carbon and sulfur,
and subsequent measurement of CO2& 503 produced.
Lurgi Ruhrgas Process: A method for retorting hydrocarbon - bearing solids by contacting a
recirculated hot solid recycle with the finely divided solid fuel at temperatures of 850 - 950 0F.
It can be used with oil shale, coal or diatomite.
Medium BTU Gas: A term used to designate fuel gases having heating values from about 250
to 325 BTU’s per standard cubic foot.
Mercaptans: Compounds contain the sulfydry (-SH) group. They are sulfur analogs of the
alcohols in that the oxygen in the alcohol (- OH) group is replaced by sulfur.
Metamorphism: The transformation of the preexisting rocks into new types by the action of
heat, pressure, stress, and chemically active migrating fluids. Metamorphain usually begins at
temperatures above 200 0C (3920F). At such temperatures, the organic matter is already
reduced to a low hydrogen carbon residue capable of yielding only small amounts of gas.
Mature: Having enough thermal maturity to be within the hydrocarbon generation window.
Maturity: The degree to which hydrocarbon generation has proceeded in a kerogen.
Metagenesis: The late stages of thermal maturity when gas generation and cracking
predominates.
Migration: Movement of bitumen, oil and gas, in the subsurface. Migration includes expulsion
(primary migration ), secondary migration accumulation, and leakage.
Naphtha:: A hydrocarbon distillate boiling in the range of about 140 to 420 0F. Napthas are
subdivided according to actual distillation range into: light, intermediate, heavy and very heavy
virgin naphtha.

Napthanic Acids: Petroleum acids containing a naphthane or cycloparaffin structure. The most
common naphthenic acids contain a cyclopentane (five carbon atoms) ring.
Naphtene: (cycloalkane, cycloparaffin ) a hydrocarbon ring with the molecular formula CII
cyclopentane (C5) and cyclohexane ( C6) ring structures are the most common in petroleun.
Condensed or polycyclic naphthenes contain rings in which two or more carbon atoms are
sharing. Tetracyclic and pentacyclic naphthanes contain four or five rings, respectively fused
together.
Natural Gas: A petroleum gas consisting of varying proportions of gaseous hydrocarbons such
as methane, ethane, propane, isobutane, and occasionally containing liquid hydrocarbons such
as: pentanes, hexanes, and non hydrocarbon gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium.
Naphtenes: Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons.
Napthenoaromatics: Compounds containing both saturated and aromatic rings.
Normal alkenes: Straight chain alkenes (those having no rings or branching). Also called n -
alkanes.
Oil shale: A layered sedimentary rock that contains abundant quantities of kerogen. When
heated to temperatures above 900 0F, the kerogen in the rock decomposes releasing shale oil,
gas and spent shale.
Overall Plant Thermal Efficiency: The Fraction of total energy input to a plant that is
exported as usable energy in the form of gas, by - products and electricity.
PDU (Process Development Unit): A small plant designed for development of the process.
PDU’S may also combine functions of process equipment development unit as well.
PEDU (Process Equipment Development Unit): A small plant assembled with the
development of particular process equipment units as its chief objective ; such plants are
sometimes necessary when chemical processes are first worked out in bench top or glass units
and are shown to be chemically feasible. PDU’S, PEDU’S provide information for scale up.
They differ from pilot plants in that pilot plants are normally used to provide information from
an already predetermined design, while PEDU’S contribute greatly to the shape and
configuration of final design.
Pipe Line Quality Gas: A term used to designate a fuel gas compatible with natural gas
pipelines. Such a gas can be substituted for methane. With respect to synthetic pipeline gas, a
gas that meets the specifications for methane interchangeability.
Pressure Gasification: The conversion of a solid or liquid hydrocarbon to a gas at pressures
greater than atmospheric.
Pour Point: The temperature at which crude oil will not flow when a tube containing it is
heated first in a bath to dessolve all wax and then cooled slowly. At cooling intervals of 30C the
tube is held a horizontal way until there is no flow for 5 seconds.
Primary Migration: The movement of oil and gas out of the fine grained source rock into the
permeable reservoir rocks.
PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
Phytoplankton: Unicellular photosynthetic organisms that mainly live in marine or lacustrine
waters. They are responsible for approximately half of the annual photosynthetic productivity
on the earth. They are also called algae and include cocolithophorids, diatoms and
dinoflagellates.
Polycyclic: Having many rings in its chemical structure.
Producer Gas: An industrial fuel made by processing air and steam continuously through the
hot fuel bed of a gas producer. Consists essentially of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (50 %)
and nitrogen (50 %).
Proximate Analysis: An ASTM test for fuels (D271) whose results are related to the
performance of a fuel upon heating and burning. Properties analyzed are moisture, volatile

matter, ash and fixed carbon. Usually used in connection with ultimate analysis to aid in the
evaluation of oil shales, coals, peat, lignite etc.
Pyrolysis: Chemical change brought about by the action of heat in the absence of air; or
heating the sample in the absence of oxygen to bring about thermal decomposition reactions.
Pyrolysis (e.g rock - Eval) is used to measure remaining hydrocarbon generative capacity of
sedimentary rocks
Resin: Petroleum resins are the fractions of residuum that is insoluble in liquid propane but
soluble in normal pentane.
Retort: Any closed vessel or facility for heating any material for purposes of chemical
reaction.
Retorting: Any of a variety of methods by which a carbonaceous material is heated, generally
above 700 0F to effect the decomposition of the material into gases, oils, tars and carbon. Heat
for retorting is obtained by combusting a portion of the raw feed and br fuels derived from the
process. Oil shale is processed by retorting.
Rubblization: The process of breaking large solid materials into rough, broken pieces. As
applied to oil shale technology the process in which oil shale within a given volume is
explosively fractured underground.
Sensible Heat: The heat absorbed or released when a substance undergoes a change in
temperature and does not undergo a phase change (i.e liquid to gas, solid to liquid etc).
Shale: A fine -grained clay rock with slate - like cleavage, sometimes containing an organic oil
yielding substance called kerogen.
Shale Oil: Oil derived by the pyrolysis of organic matter in oil shale.
Sapropel: An infrequently used term that is usually synonymous with amorphous material of
algal origin.
Saturated: Containing the maximum possible amount of hydrogen that can be accommodated
in the molecular structure without breaking single bonds.
Saturated Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons containing no double bonds.
Secondary Migration: Movement of hydrocarbons through permeable conduit from the edge
of a source rock to the site of accumulation.
Solvent Extraction: A means of separating mixed materials by dissolving one of them in a
solvent. A method of washing oil from diatomite ore was developed by Dravo Corporation.
Soxhellet: A device used for extracting bitumen from rock samples. Its design allows clean
solvent to reflex continually through the powdered rock sample while the extracted bitumen is
accumulating in the reserve pot.
Surface Retorting: In the oil shale industry is the processing of oil shale in aboveground retort
vessels.
Syncrude: A crude oil derived from processing a carbonaceous material. For example, oil
extracted from oil shale conversion plants is termed syncrude. Synthesis Gas or Syngas:
Synthesis Gas or Syngas: A mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen used in chemical
synthesis.
Synthetic Fuel: Fuels which exist in physical and chemical forms different from those in the
naturally occurring state. Strictly speaking, modern automobile gasoline and diesel fuel would
fall in this category. Any fuel made from oil shale, unconventional oil resources, or fermented
from products.
Tar: A thick black or dark brown viscous liquid obtained by the destructive distillation of coal
wood or peat. Tar is not a natural product and it is a misnomer to refer to asphalt deposits or
seeps as tars.
TOC: Total organic carbon.
Travelling Grate Retort: A machine composed of an endless chain of moving pallets and
continuous side walls. The pallets support ore, fuel agglomerates or other solid materials while

the material are subjected to various pyroprocesses. These processes include the retorting of oil
shale & Dravo proprietary process.
Two - Stage Fixed Bed Gasifier: A method of oil shale, coal gasification in which oil shale,
coal fed at the top of the gasifier is first devolatilized and produces a gas rich in tars (oils) and
low boiling materials with some methane. This stage is followed by steam and I or air
gasification of the resulting char (oil). Part of the gas produced in the lower stage is conducted
through passageways in the walls to supply heat needed to effect first or upper stage
gasification with the remainder passing the upper bed. In this process two gases: one of
relatively high heating value and high in tars, and another of lower heating value and no tars
are produced.
Two - Stage Liquefaction: A process in which an initial dissolution of the coal oil shale, at
mild reaction conditions, is followed by a more severe catalytic -hydrogenation - hydro
cracking step, for example Conoco ‘s CSF process.
Ultimate Analysis: A chemical analysis of a fuel with respect to carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
nitrogen, sulfur and ash. Under ultimate analysis ASTM specifies the determination of carbon,
hydrogen and nitrogen, and gives procedures for calculating oxygen by difference. Usually
used in connection with proximate analysis to aid in the evaluation of oil shales, coals, lignite,
peat etc.
Vitrinite Reflectance: A method of determining the maturity of organic material kerogen by
measuring the ability of tiny vitrinite particles in kerogen to reflect incident light.
Wet Gas: Natural gas consisting of methane and heavier hydrocarbons. The natural gas liquid
vapors amount to 4 liters or more per 100 m3 (0.3 or more gallons per 100 - ft). Wet gas
contains, propane and other hydrocarbons heavier than methane.
Water Washing: The removal of more soluble components (light hydrocarbons and aromatics
) of the crude oil by dissolution in waters that are in contact with oil. Water leaching often
occurs in conjunction with biodegradation and their effects are not easily distinguishable.
Zooplankton: Tiny unicellular animals that feed on phytoplankton for source of energy. They
are not photo synthetic organisms.

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THE HASHEMITE KINGDOM OF JORDAN

NATURAL RESOURCES AUTHORITY

OIL SHALE RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

DR. YOUSEF HAMARNEH

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 1

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 2

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 3

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 4

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 5

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 6

the further retorting of oil shale.

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 7

Drilled wells Moisture Ash S Density C. value (kj/kg)

Chemical Composition Of Bituminous Marl

Component Jurf Ed-Darawish Sultani El-Lajjun

Elemental Composition Of Shale OIL

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 8

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 9

5. Strategy For Oil Shale Exploitation:

5.1. Geological Assessment of Oil Shale:

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 10

5.3. TECHNICAL ISSUES:

Summary of Studies and Investigations on Oil Shale Deposits

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 11

2.1. EL-LAJJUN OIL SHALE:

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 12

Maestrichtian to Holocene ages, and is situated in a north -south trending graben.

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 13

content exceeds 7% as in sub-unit G.

2.2. The El-Lajjun Deposit Drilling Program:

2.3. Oil Shale Composition, Shale Oil Yields And Properties

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 14

2. 3. 2. Composition of EL-Lajjun Oil Shale:

Carbon, % Raw Shale

Calculated as total organic matter 27.5 13.2 22.1

Total Sulphur Distribution % in Raw Shale

Fractions of Shale Oil Obtained By Fischer Assay:

Soluble Bitumen from Raw Shale:

Organic Matter Distribution in low temperature carbonization:

Properties of Shale Oil produced by F.A

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 15

Nitrogen content % by wt. 0.66-0.9

Sulphur content In Shale Oil Fractions:

Identification of group chemical constituents tithe gas %by vol

Potential Heat Distribution:

Inorganic Chemical Analysis of Raw Shale:

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 16

El - Lajjun Oil Shale, Bore Hole Data

El - Lajjun Oil Shale, Bore Hole Data cont.

Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January 1998 17

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Calcite 20 - 80 main constituent

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SiO2 4.65-41.63 Na2O 0.00 - 0.32

Pyrolysis Of Oil Shale And Endothermic Heat Of Reaction:

Peak temp T max. Adsorbed H/C,S1 Pyrolysis H/C,S2

Potential CO2 S3 Organic matter

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absorption of energy results in a temporary temperature excursion

Thermal Gravimetric Tests (TGA):

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Oil Shale And Spent Shale Ignition Characteristics: