Offshore Traning Module PDF

Design of Offshore Structures
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Module - 06
Lecture - 01
Design against Accidental Loads 1
So, today we are going to see a new topic basically the design for accidental loads as you
can see you know whether it is onshore or offshore structures the normal conventional
operating loads do exist as well accidental loads which the occurrence could be rare.
That is if it is frequently occurring then it should be included as part of the operational
loads. So, this accidental loads could occur either due to a natural hazards or may be due
to manmade hazards. So, we are going to see both of them and then see each one how to
deal with it.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:56)
So, if you look at this topic is going to be designed based on a slightly different
approach, so far we have been using allowable stress method and then empirical methods
for design of tubular joints and members, most of them are empirical, but the principle is
demand versus capacity limiting to you know yield point. That was the idea we were
looking at and also we learned about the LRFD method though it is limiting to yield, but
we are looking at you know the probability based design.
Whereas, when we went into design of tubular joints we were looking at slightly higher
than yield, but just below ultimate strength so we are just looking at first crack versus
yield and then safety slightly higher. So, all those things we were trying to do using
empirical methods. So, in this particular aspect of accidental loads though we call it
accidental loads they may occur at any time given the duration of the life time design of
the structures.
So, basically it is going to occur sometime only the frequency of occurrence could be
very low so that means depending on the higher that the amount of risk you would like to
take you could design the structure in a different manner. And also this this loads arising
from you know basically accidental needs it could be fire it could be natural hazards or
other forms of you know the impacts due to incoming ship is basically offshore sources
we are talking about.
And basically or can be a dropped object from somewhere from a crane you are lifting a
heavy weight that object falls down because failure of crane failure of structure failure of
rigging. So, it could cause substantial damage. When you are evaluating this accidental
loads if you are trying to design based on the similar allowable stress methods try to save
the structure that is what the idea. The most of our allowable stress design we were
looking at structural safety you do not want the structure to have you know at the end of
the load case or load occurrence you want to have structure intact with all requirements
for strength, serviceability and operability is not changed.
That means, even after the load occur you will be able to operate the structure or the
facility as normal. Whereas in case of accidental loads if you expect the same thing you
could do that, actually nobody is going to prevent it from doing that only thing is the
requirement will be so enormous that it might become impossible to invest so much of
effort in terms of design and operation. So, we need to find alternative idea. At the end of
the day I want to take a higher risk because it is a lower occurrence so I will take a
higher risk if it occurs let the structure collapse or let the structure fail, but at the same
time I will be able to save human life I can lose the structure, but I do not want to lose
the life.
So, that is the idea behind all the design based on accidental loads so we are going to
look at a slightly different approach rather than the design for saving the structure, all the
operational condition when we are designing a structure, we do not want to have the
structure having deformation excess ably in addition to what we can accept for operation.
So, while doing so we have to identify first what are the hazards what are the accidental
loads that is going to arise for offshore situations and basically apply that, these accident
does not cover you know. Basically purposeful hazards like somebody is going in like
twin tower hitting with air craft is not designed for such type of activities.
What we are looking at is a mostly the operational based hazards because you are having
a hydrocarbon facility and it explodes due to inefficient design or over pressure it is not
that somebody is going to make a bomb and plant it. You understand the idea know so
basically this is the hazards arising in either from nature because of storm because of
earthquake or because of the operational hazards because you are dealing with
hydrocarbons. So, we will only limit our discussions to that and that is the purpose of
this design and if you look at the whole arrangement of this is sequentially organised to
understand the hazard classification. And then will just look at the design approach
whether, we will actively design the structure or we will just do a prevention of hazard
from happening.
You know that is what we are just going to look at the you know event control we know
that fire is inherent if you have hydrocarbon facility with various other mechanical
devices even a small spark can create a fire. In fact, if you have read the newspaper few
days back in the newspaper the gas from a cylinder was leaking they did not even switch
on the gas cylinder actually a switch for electrical button had a small spark which cause
the whole cylinder to explode. There was no actually fire in the stove, but just the
electrical spark mixed with the gas has just exploded and few people got killed.
Same thing can happen in offshore facility you have got plenty of gas and if you have an
electrical spark arising out of any of this, so many facilities you have or even mechanical
spark rubbing of surfaces. For example, you have a large displacements of the structures
happening and you have a metal contact which can rub can create spark which can cause
immediate explosion. So, there is huge amount of possibility and that is where we need
to see how to control that event from happening which is potentially possible it is under
our control.
So, you can do that which is called the event control or you can look at the design
directly or indirectly. What it means basically further after the occurrence of such an
event how to stop it from propagating. You know there is a fire here that is not mean that
the whole structure to get burned out so you can actually isolate the areas in such a way
that the occurrence of event can be prevented from further propagating to other areas of
importance. So, you can actually reduce the impact and then the direct design though it
occurs we could we will try to control it, but if it is not feasible to control what we want
is the human life to be saved wherever they are.
That means you need to have the structure designed in such a way that immediate
collapse is prevented. So, that the people have enough time to escape from the facility so
that afterwards if the structure collapse not a major problem. So, that is basically the
direct design, indirect design is how much risk again you want to take. Basically, how
much money you want to invest against the risk.
So, in that we have 3 or 4 categories of loads one is fire I think all of you know fire
whether onshore offshore facility as long as you have the cause of fire and large
inventory of inflammable material that is where the problem. You know onshore facility
you may not have except may be refineries, oil storage tanks all other industrial
structures and buildings you may not have so much of problem because the inventory of
hydrocarbon is very limited, you may have one cylinder of gas not a big problem where
as in the offshore facility you have large volume of inventory and that is where the so
fire is inherent.
The next one is blast, the blast is nothing, but basically high pressure fluid explodes due
to fire it could either way can happen either the fire initiated blast or blast initiated fire it
could exactly the opposite way because one of the tank is exploding because of the
pressure and then can cause fire. So, you can have any situation. The third one is the you
know collision of ships with the offshore facilities whether it is a floating facility or fixed
facility you may have steering vessels.
For example, a ship is going across one country to other country across you may have
offshore structures, normally not normally we plan the facility in such a way that the
navigational channels are all away from the offshore installations and demarcated they
are not supposed to go there, but in case you might have heard 3-4 months back one of
the failed vessel from Dubai have drifted and just came to the coast of Mumbai I think
you might have read in the newspaper.
All the way it was actually failed engine could not control the whole ship was abundant
by the captain and crew and was just left in the open sea condition they just went back,
but the ship was just going here and there and finally, cost of Mumbai across crossing all
the oil facilities. Luckily, did not go across any of the existing installations so if it has
crossed across you might see that platforms could easily disappear because the size of
the ship is so large that the amount of impact force it could introduce it can destroy
instantaneously.
So, we try to prevent by making sure that this drifting vessel does not come because you
need to have enforcement loss. In this case it did not happen the other cause of ship
collision can also happen because you know all this software facilities needs supply.
They need food they need replenishment, supply of equipment’s, repair works tools and
tackles have to go come back, people have go and come back. So, this ships may go and
against offshore facility and then load unload. During this process if any of the engine
fail or human mistake you know when they are steering away you could see that they can
actually make mistake everybody can definitely make mistake.
So, they can go and hit the structure inadvertently with a higher speed could not control
because sea conditions are difficult to manure. So, there is a possibility that though you
have actually avoided larger ships going to the field, but also the smaller ships coming to
the your location can cause damage. That means we need to have fore thinking what
could be the possibility of a shipping impacting the vicinity, what could be the size of the
ship, what may be the velocity of arrival.
So, all those things you need to just look at it and evaluate the risk of and basically how
much risk you would like to take higher the risk you want to take lower the design
requirement, you do not want to take any risk that means you need a design for the
possible maximum ship that you would like to come across this vicinity and design for it.
That is exactly the problem the decision making is going to be very tough because
whenever you are locating an offshore facility you do not want to have very close to
fairway where the large commercial ships are going trade ships. So, you may be you
ignore no commercial ships, but the supply boats coming to the facility for sure you have
to include in your design.
So, API have certain requirements that if you are designing offshore facility design for
certain vessel size, but that is only based on the recommendations for their jurisdiction.
Whereas, when it comes to other countries you need not follow, but if you follow it will
be higher design. So, we are going to see that aspect of ship collision what exactly
happens and what you are supposed to do as a designer to protect the structure or not to
be decided by the owner. And for sure you need to decide to protect the human life when
there is a platform installed and when there is facility where people are living.
So, basically that is the idea behind. There are 2 scenarios one is during impact and the
post impact that means when the ship is impacting you suppose not to have immediate
collapse of the structure. That means you should absorb the energy and in such a way
that the structure deforms sustains and then not collapse that means there is a period of
time which allows the people to evacuate. So, that is exactly the design requirement we
are going to look at it.
But at the same time we need to have 2 cases one is conventional berthing of this ships to
the structure which is everyday going to happen, every day you are going to bring some
ships berth that is operational impact. That means you know note that there is no damage
to happen whereas, the accidental impact which could happen due to failure of engine,
sea conditions unfortunately higher than expected man made failures, errors. So, those
things may happen and that that cases structure may get damaged you may have to repair
it in the future to bring it back to service, but not necessary that it should collapse.
So, you need to have a redundancy in the system that the structure has got sufficient
research trend that it is not collapsing immediately. While doing all of them we will see
that we are not going to design based on allowable stress limiting our stresses to fraction
of yield, we are going to go beyond. So, that is where we have the so called elasto plastic
design I think few classes back we were looking at it in fact the difference between
elastic stress distribution versus elasto plastic and plastic and we were deriving the safe
factors for simple rectangular shapes, circular shape, hallow sections and so on.
And we define the safe factor how they actually behave and then we went down to define
the collapse for simple boundary conditions pin pin conditions fix fix conditions. So, for
a simple structure of single span you have boundary conditions influencing, cross
sections influencing, type of load influencing the collapse load. So, those things we
already had some idea we are going to use that concept rather than simply going for a
simple elastic beam theory, bending moment calculated, elastic section modulus,
allowable stress, applied stress.
So, those things we will not use it because that may prove to be too expensive so that is
why our idea has shifted from allowable stress to a stress based on ultimate strength of
the structure until failure. So, this whole subject is very important in terms of you know
the ultimate strength principles are going to be used in doing so we will also compare
every time when we are applying. For example, when we are going to look at the system
analysis we will look at what we have learned over last 20, 25 classes where we look at
actual stress actual and bending stress interaction and we just had a linear interaction you
know p by p a plus m by m a.
Here, we will look at it when you go to beyond yield how the linear interaction becomes
nonlinear and why we are actually using the linear conservatively I mentioned in that
day. So, will just look at comparisons all the time so that we could see what extra
strength available when you go to non-linear and when we design allowable stress we
actually go for conservatively taking the linear principle. So, I think this is a quite a
important subject in the design of offshore structures we are going to look at 3 aspects
fire blast and ship collision of course, the dropped object if you have time we will try to
do this because it was not part of the syllabus.
So, basically these are the accidental loads which I think I have spoken about enough
fire, blast, ship collision and then the dropped object. The dropped object is specifically
from you know the crane it is not the dropped object from air craft. You do not think
about that kind of ideas is basically we are handling equipment’s and basically supply
from onshore to offshore. So, when you are lifting from boat to the platform failure of
things can happen like rigging can fail, crane can fail because of overload you know
sometimes you know you try to lift slightly excess loads, but forgetting about the
dynamics associated.
You know you are lifting of a boat is moving up and down you may have a dynamic
amplification. So, when you are doing trying to do that the crane fail and it falls down.
So, all those things needs to taken into account. So, basically dropped object is a similar
problem to ship collision except that the impact is coming from falling object. Otherwise,
the principle of design is exactly same you are going to have a impact energy and you are
going to look at what type of damage happened how much energy is absorbed while the
structure is deforming whether it is a shipping or is a dropped object.
The idea behind in designing against this accidental loads is to implement active passive
mitigation measures is very important you could possibly think that I would design a
structure which is robust enough like. You know olden days you know even now some
sometimes people design in military bunkers I think you might have heard underground
bunkers possibly make it so strong, so thick concreate underground even a big bombs
can actually save the human life from them. You know because is buried underground
you have a very thick concrete I think some of you have might read in the newspaper
many countries have underground bombs shelters.
That is possible because enormous amount of energy can be absorbed by the earth and
the ground conditions. Imagine you want to build a bunker on offshore platform it is
impossible because the energy can cannot propagate down there and structure will
actually before the bunker fail the structure will fail. So, to make the structure bigger you
actually have to fill up earth. So, that is why the underground bunkers are different the
design aspect compared to a design for explosion in offshore you have to make it
flexible.
Once, you make it flexible what happens the energy is being absorbed by means of
deformation once large deformation is there then what happens the external impact is
absorbed by the internal work done by the structure as displacement times the force
introduced. So, the idea have to be slightly different rather than making a structure which
is so rigid, but the foundation is week because the structure will collapse.
So, what we are looking at is active and passive mitigation measures both in terms of
structural design as well as other forms of mitigation which can actually reduce the
impact ultimately. One important thing principle you need to remember there is
absolutely not possible to have a 0 risk nobody is able to come up with a design you
could you could come theoretically, but practically making a risk to 0 is impossible.
So, what we are trying to look at is minimize it as much minimize the risk so possible
practicable you could achieve the same amount of risk at excessively higher cost
impossible to implement, but that is not practicable. So, that is why you need to make
sure that whatever is possible today you should do it not think about 100 years later I did
may be not possible with the technology. If you look at this aspect 20 years back several
things what we are doing is impossible. You know basically because of the changes of
technology material changes of you know situation, changes of lot of other conditions
and basically you need to see what is possible today and implement. So, risk cannot be
implemented you need to minimize the risk.
So, before we go forward towards trying to design we need to identify the hazard.
Hazard is nothing but something that is going to create or generate is use to the design
activities what we have carried out. So, hazard identification and evaluate them not only
qualitatively you can say there is a fire what is the temperature of the fire, what is the
extent of duration, what is the extent of size and basically that gives you a feel that what
could be the damage that can be done by that fire to the structure.
So, basically you need to evaluate quantitatively not only that the frequency of occur
ration of occurring how fast how quick the repetitive nature of this fire can occur which
could actually give you a feel that you should include either in the general class of
loading or it should be the special class of loading. So, quantitative risk assessment is
part of any project whether it is onshore building, bridge, offshore platform you need to
evaluate the risk, quantify them and then take a call. For this risk we do not want to call
it a general class of loading we will exclude it from general design, but you can actually
go for a special design.
So, quantitative risk assessment normally done at the start of the project and then re-
evaluated at the end of the project you know once you have planned something and then
revisit the risk at the end of construction to see that whether all the possible things that
has been implemented or not, but the basis of the whole design process will be based on
this QRA study which will be done as early as you are thinking about the facility. Active
mitigation, passive mitigation I think you can see here planned control of hazard if it is a
manmade I think surely you have control over it, but if it is a natural hazard probably not
feasible to control for example, earthquake can we control the earth quake we may not be
able to do that similarly, storm, cyclonic storms or seasonal storms you may not be able
to control.
So, those kind of source control is not feasible for natural hazards, fire for sure you can
control you can make all the equipment’s fire safe so that no spark can be generated, no
leakage of gas even if there is a leakage automatic shutdown. So, lot of things that you
can implement in the system so that the planned control of hazard can be. While doing so
you evaluate the risk you have done whatever possible today whatever system control
you have done you have implemented. But after that you can go for each of the activity
at the end of your design I have implemented a flan proof instruments, spark proof
switches, liquid you know leakage proof all your pipes and vessels. But what is the
probability of that particular equipment or the facility failing. So, every one of them will
have a probability of failure.
So, you collectively call all those probability of failure of individual components and you
can just come up with a situation where what could be the probability of occurrence of a
particular hazard like fire. And for that you evaluate the structural strength if that
happens what could be the potential strength I require and design it. So, basically that is
the active parfait. Passive basically control of risk propagation you know you are not
having hydrocarbon facility everywhere only a hydrocarbon we will have facility for
living people are living for operating this equipment’s.
You may also have facility where you produce support system for human life for
example, you need drinking water isn’t it for sure they need water, they need definitely a
water making system, they need electrical power there will be a electrical power
producing system, they may require additional other facilities. So, you will actually
segregate this in a safer location, but the fire occurs on a hydrocarbon location where you
do not want that fire to propagate to the living facility. So, basically control of risk
propagation by means of additional things you incorporate.
For example, this is the hydrocarbon area where you have some equipment’s and
facilities the next room may be somebody is living there. So, you can make this barrier
stronger enough to resist fire isn’t it and stronger enough to resist the blast so you make a
blast proof barrier. By implementing this you are actually reducing the propagation of
the risk from this room to the next room so you can actually implement this, this is
basically a indirect means of reducing the risk.
Ultimately, what we look for is protecting the human life on that side basically the all
this passive requirements trying to save the people give them enough time if there is fire
at 0 time here give them half an hour. So, that they can escape that means you need to
have systems in such a way that when there is a fire alarm should go on automatically
that means that alarm should not get damaged during that fire. So, that alarms should be
fire proof alarms, so lot of things can be implemented. So, passive active in actual
industrial design we do not differentiate, actually we put few systems together multiple
layers of protection you may have active and passive mix with the structural design. So,
that one fail the next one will take over.
Typical example will be you have a fire barrier you will also have a fire sprinklers like
water sprinklers when the fire occurs immediately the sprinklers should get on and spray
water on top of the fire though we have a fire barrier where people are very safe does not
mean that this will not switch on the fire sprinklers automatically it will switch on. So,
you will have several layers of protection so that even one of them fail still can save the
human life.
So, the safety evaluation is a very serious business and is actually a very long large topic
I do not think we want to go in very in depth in this subject, but is itself is a discipline
health safety issues are very important and health safety issues can actually come out as a
design issue. You know we will talk about lot of health and safety issues, but then each
one of the health and safety issue could actually propagate as a load condition for the
design of the facility which will change the design that the way that you are making.
So, hazard what we require as a designer structural designer we require to know what is
the strengths you know fire can occur, but if it is only just a minor fire does not matter,
basically we need to know the strength and the frequency basically what is the frequency
of occurrence which will come out of the safety studies depending on type of facility.
And may cause unpredictable damage to property of human life all this hazard can create
such a trouble that you may not be able to design. For example, you possibly cannot
think of designing any facility for aircraft impact like what happened into twin tower,
possibly you think about design it makes, such a systems that it may not be feasible to
even construct and that is where you need to identify certain things that you can exclude.
Among, the hazards basically the natural hazards are very easy to identify so far
earthquake storm, storm includes all the propagation of sea conditions it could be
cyclonic storms or it could be seasonal storms or it could be tsunami induced wave
motion. So, all related to the ozone conditions earth quake I think all of you know the
reason for the earthquake is basically the plate tectonic changes. So, basic problem is we
got identified when it will occur what could be the magnitude.
Similarly, the storm at least storm we have a reasonable idea now a days at least in the
modern times we have some amount of knowledge that we could predict the storm can
happen in a reasonable time period next few days, next three days, four days at least
some predictability is there. Whereas, the earth quake unfortunately have no means of
identification when and where and how much will be the going to happen.
The man made hazard I think we have seen all 4 of them is very easy to identify if you
know what you are designing for then you will be able to come up with whether fire will
occur or fire will not occur similarly, blast and collision of ships. So, all this are under
our control to some extend not to the 100 percent extend that you could say day after
tomorrow there is a fire going to be happening for sure you could not predict, but at least
the extent to which it may actually damage you could predict to some extent. So, that
your design can be implemented accordingly in many cases we do that, but beyond our
control sometimes the expected things may not happen it go beyond you know the
destruction could be higher than what we have estimated.
So, in earthquake hazard what we are looking at is basically the design life of the
structure, seismic activity in the locality. Wherever you are constructing your structure,
historical data of what was happening over last few 100 years because this will give idea
what needs to be designed. Because this is an unknown hazard very difficult to design
for, site specific seismic study, which should you know several specialist engineers are
available. You can give them a chance to evaluate based on the tectonic plate
arrangement at the locality and come up with the possible probability that when, and how
much could be the potential the seismic acceleration, depending on the locality of the
structure from the past data, what you have collected over the last several 100 years.
So, this seismic study is basically again a kind of prediction means of using old data and
using the geological features of the earth’s crust and they will come up with this could be
potential and that is how if you look at several countries every country has got their own
seismic codes. They come up with predicted values benchmark by previous history what
has happened in that locality and every time when new earthquakes comes you change
the codes because every time it comes something new because it is so unpredictable.
And then we look at this 2 things, strength versus probability, probability versus your
return period you link it and you know what is the design life, if you are designed life of
the structure is 100 years for possibility of definitely we need to look at previous few 100
years and just predict for next few 100 years and use that information to decide what
strength of the earthquake I should use it for the design. If it shorter the duration the
probability of that bigger earthquake happening will be small, longer the duration of
structure design life the possibility of occurrence of that earthquake within the designed
life is higher.
So, you could you could actually see the link between designed life versus the risk of an
particular event to happen. So, that is why very important once you decide that designed
life immediately linked with the strength of the hazard that is going to happen. If the
structure is very temporary for example, you are only having the structure for 1 year then
you could possibly reduce the strength of the earthquake because that maximum
earthquake happening in this particular year you can calculate the probability will be
very small so you can reduce.
And then finally, once you have all that analysis done to arrive at the strength of the
earthquake which is nothing, but the ground acceleration then possibly you can design
the structure for that particular. So, every structure in built in the earth possibly designed
for this kind of condition depending on the strength of the earthquake in that particular
locality depending on the country, depending on the location.
So, I think most of you might have studied in our country we have code IS code which
classify the whole country into several zones, zone 1, zone 2, zone 3 and so on. So,
higher the zone number will be the higher the ground acceleration happening and you
take that ground acceleration design the structure which I think we have look at it in the
design load case time. Those I think in module 2 we were looking at how to calculate the
acceleration forces basically mass times the ground acceleration including the dynamic
effect. So, basically that design is done and you have a probability of non-failure of the
structure because you have designed for it.
Storm hazard exactly similar we have done exactly calculation of wave heights, wave
periods, return period’s, maximum wave heights calculate the wave loads and design for
it.
So, strength and stability has been achieved by means of predicted value of hazard as
long as they do not exceed your structure is safe.
Fire hazard basically what we need to look at is the source of fire important is a layout
of the facility very important that you organise yourself do not put your kitchen in the
middle of the house isn’t it you put it there. In case of fire, the fire spread in all directions
so that is why you will see most of the layouts, whether it is due to technical reasons or
due to vasthu you can see the fire or the source of the fire, or the kitchen is kept in one
particular location at the one corner so that the fire does not.
Similar, idea when you are building a hydrocarbon facility you need to make sure that
safe zones, unsafe zones unsafe does not mean that the location is not unsafe is basically
the chances the probability of such event happening is higher because of the dealing with
hydrocarbons. So, you just segregate so the layout of the facility is very very important
that you organise yourself that the propagation becomes less risk to human life.
And then the safety study is basically to find out the probabilities and the risk. This the
idea of HAZOP basically hazard and operability in a basically very simple step when
you are getting a gas cylinder at your home you must make sure that it is leak proof
number one. The seal is intact and you should know how to operate if you do not know
any one of them can happen for sure you are going to have fire isn’t it, you do not know
how to open how to connect. That means you have not been having sufficient experience
to connect it you have not been trained or you do not know how the valve works.
So, basically that hazard and operability is highly linked the safe equipment can become
unsafe because this particular operation was done in a unsafe manner or the
inexperienced person has been operating that particular equipment. From nowhere a
hazard can be created that is why this hazard and operability study for each of the
activity that is going to be performed in the facility needs to be carried out. So, every one
of them needs to be documented so the next time when this guy goes to operate a valve
you should know which is the close position which is a open position. Instead of closing
he can actually open it and make the fire happen and that is what had happened in the
past. Several accident in offshore is actually due to human error because things were
going wrong.
Mitigation required I think we spoke about it early on active passive which we will
elaborate it later on, and then means of escape to the personnel in case of fire they should
have sufficient time number 1 sufficient strength of the structure along which, they are
running around should actually be there. You know they should not be running towards
the fire to reach a boat if there is a boat on the other side and there is a fire in the middle
they should have a boat on the safe side of the facility.
If you ask them to run across fire they will die before they reach the boat. So, basically
you need a planning in such a way that the means of escapes should be safe path so that
they can reach either a life boat or a other means of safe locations. Sometimes we do
have safe locations where they can stay for a longer period of time prior to external help
arriving, do not expect them to jump on to water all the time that will not be a very safe
especially in cold climate like if you go to Narsi if they are on the platform, they will live
if they jump out of the platform for sure they will not be able to survive because the
temperature are sub 0. So, it will be impossible for them to survive for few minutes.
So, basically means of escape needs to be designed not only in terms of location also the
structural strength while they are running the beam should not collapse they will go
together with the. So, that means even if there is a fire along that particular escape path
structural strength and integrity should be maintained for the duration of the escape
required. So, if you are expecting this people to reach that location by say 20 minutes, 30
minutes the structure should not fail even if there is a fire or other form of hazard exist.
So, that means the strength and the stability becomes very important in this particular
case of issues.
I think we have discussed about this aims of design the first priority is given to loss of
life to avoid loss of life not making them to die. So, the idea is not the structure and the
property that is the secondary. The second one is significant pollution you know now a
days this pollution control is very, very essential compared to 30 or 40 years back now if
you have a pollution you have a serious damage to your property also to your
organisations. So, you have to make sure that in case of fire pollution is under control or
you could control afterwards without spreading to larger area of extent you know that is
very important.
Then finally, you come to a situation where try to make reduction in the economic losses.
So, basically implement system in such a way that your system is not going to collapse
totally you can actually come back and then rebuild it with a minimum amount of
economic losses so that is the idea. That will be the last one and basically the design
approach we have seen even control indirect and direct design I think we will see one of
them one by one.
Even control basically working procedures, selection of equipment, active protection

devices like alarms and systems, arrangement of the platform from safe to unsafe in the
decreasing order of the risk and then structural system configurations, design in such a
way that even if one area is under fire, even that part of that structure collapses the
reminder part of the structure is stable. Imagine you have only one leg what will happen
if one leg is falling down the structure is no more, but if you have several columns even
one part of the column or one leg is failing the remainder of the systems will be able to
sustain for some more time. So, basically the structural design is very important the
configuration of arrangement.
Personnel training that is the most important one, even a safe system can be made very
easy to unsafe by the human practice. So, that means you need to train them to make sure
that they are able to operate it safely. Indirect design we are going to do that in terms of
selection of material, selection of you know basically the system design implement
indirect messes in the structural configuration that even such incident happen it may not
collapse, I think we will stop there you have class know.
Prof Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Module - 06
Lecture - 02
Design againts Accidental Loads 2
So, today we will continue with the even control, I think yesterday we were looking at.
So, the indirect design means by provision of additional system implementation.
Basically like, for example, typically ductile of the material to make the structure fail by
ductile instead of brittle failure. So, that is idea behind, though it is not the direct design,
you have not actually provided additional strength or additional messes, but by selecting
suitable material, we have made the structure to the failing by ductile nature. The other
method is providing redundancy for example, you take a photo frame and if one of the
column fails, the system fails.
So, instead if you provide a ((Refer time: 1:01)) with the photo frame, probably you have
a additional braising, which make even if one of the braise fails, the other braise will take
over and provide stability for certain amount of loading. So, that is exactly, the indirect
design means provision of system where, those facilities will cause the structure to fail,
either slightly later that means additional load can be taken or fail by ductile nature, that
means immediately it will not collapse. That is the idea behind the indirect design, these
are some of the provisions actually if you read many of the codes, whether its highest
score for a concrete designs, steel designs or other codes. You have several provisions by
means of this kind of ideas, making the structure to have ductile behavior, during taking
the load as well as to the ultimate capacity.
Provide connections of primary members, which I think I emphasis to do during our

design of tubular connections always have the crust, the joint design having extra
strength or extra margin compared to members. You can have one member fail, the
system does not collapse, but if one joint fails, you look at the joint that we have had
look at for jacket structures, one joint carries 7, 8 member, if one of the joint goes almost
the system becomes unstable. So, that is why provide connection of primary members
with a strength exceeding that of the parent member, wherever the members are. Provide
redundancy in the structure, which typical example will be over x braise, two legs with
an x braise of this kind, if one of the braise fails, the other braise will take the load by
redistribution.
So, that is exactly the idea that though it is not a direct design method, but these are some
of the recommendations, you will read actually if you go through API, these are the
recommendations given in there indirectly. So, when you satisfy this automatically the
structure has the sufficient strength for ductile nature of failure, avoid dependence on
energy absorption in struts with a sharply decreasing post buckling capacity. In a
basically for example, you have one member which later on we will design it, which is
going to be designed for a energy absorbent for I say ship impact. But the support
members are so small, if one of that member fails for example, the hole system fails. So,
do not depend on such kind of design, what you need to have is additional members to
support that same energy absorption capacity.
Select material with sufficient fracture toughness, this is what we were looking at in fact
during our phatic design, phatic is directly proportional to the toughness of the material
or the characteristics of material against fracture, which use your idea that there is no
direct relations to strength. So, toughness makes so much importance because initiation
of crack depends on the material, the crystal structure to open and propagate. So,
basically that you normally selects sufficient toughness, especially for a materials
serving, low temperature service. For example, in substructures, always going to be
temperature less than 20 degrees, some areas can be less than 0 degrees, like if you go to
North Sea.
Select materials such that the ultimate tensile strength is higher than the yield strength,
for sure you might have learn your, you know the tensile test always you will be strength
and then you have the ultimate tensile strength. Now, if you see the difference between
the yield strength and the tensile strength larger is a good material, isn't it? Because, even
after yielding you have larger redistribution to happen or else, if you have yield strength
and just a horizontal curve.
For example, a typical elastic perfectly plastic material. So, this is your strain, this, your
stress you might have seen this stress strain curve for typical steel material, if you have
something like this, elastic but perfectly plastic not very good. You have something, you
will see most of the steel that is your ultimate failure point isn’t it? If you see something
like this, the larger the different between the ultimate point are the so called the tensile
strength, breaking load strength to a yield strength. That means even after yielding, you
see particular location in the connection or in the member yielding starts, but still does
not fail because, you still have the sufficient strength before it breaks away and that is
where.
So, you need see that ultimate strength is larger value, design of joints in members
through inelastic deformation to meet the compact ((Refer time: 5:53)) that means, it
should fail by you know basically yielding, rather than buckling. So, indirect design
means you have provisions in the design procedure, which automatically satisfy most of
them are actually if you read the codes. You really do not have to make any effort in
designing, these are the guide lines you must follow, most of the boats are mandatory.
Direct design is very simple, this where we were we were going to spend some time.
Basically, look at the fire as a design load or a scenario that creates additional load to the
structure and then evaluate the strength, go back to the original design principal of design
versus capacity. In this particular case what is going to happen is, when the fire occurs in
the particular location in a structure, the structure gets heated up and the structure is part
of a bigger frame, where it is trying to expand. Because, you know very well the steel
thermal expansion co efficient so, it is going to expand, as long as long as you allow the
expansive into happen, there may not be much problem actually. But the main issue here
is, it is connected to another part of the structure, you may not actually permit expansion,
when the expansion is restricted what will happen?
The induced stresses and forces will be so enormous that, the supporter members will
fail, that is the idea behind, it is just trying to expand and the supported members will
deform excessively, either by bending or by shear or whichever the weakest means. So,
that is way this direct design approach is to evaluate the resistance of the members,
against the thermal induced process and that means we need to find out what is the
temperature and what is the duration. Because, steel is not going to just one minute you
have a 1000 degrees and then just come to 0, it is not going to expand so fast. So,
basically we need to see how long the persistence of the fire is happening.
So, this characteristics of the fire is as important as the characteristic of material so that,
you can actually superimpose both of them and find out how the behavior, we are going
to see that. Of course, absolute means of direct design is also not so good because, you
may actually spend a lot of money on that. So, we need to find out how much direct
design you would like to make and how much indirect means of enhancing the structural
capability against fire, then you just provide.
So, design for fire as a loading condition is to be evaluated quickly.

So, just look at the sources of fire, hydro carbon direct fire which is basically ignition by
means of direct on to the hydro carbon or you could have blast initiated, collision
initiated or drop object initiated, all are them are making spark and you have the fuel to
burn. So, main idea is the fire to continue and to persist for a longer duration of time, you
need supply of fuel for sure without which you will be, the temperature will come down
and also the supply of oxygen, very important otherwise, you will not able to be burn any
fuel. So, basically fuel and oxygen is very essential requirements for a fire to persist for a
longer duration and of course, sources of ignition you could have purpose full ignition,
which is normally not there in the such kind of facilities ((Refer time: 9:27)).
Whereas, you have indirect means of ignition like blast or kind of a collision or electrical
faults can cause, you know basically ignition there. Dropped object, most of these three
things are actually just a rubbing surfaces, in fact if you look at one of the fire happened
in 2005. I did not know, I do not whether I have mention to you earlier, this fire caused
by a simple boat, you know collision with the structure, which cause the rubbing surface
and that surface is created spark and that spark together with the damage on a raiser land
is the gas, got into fire and blast. So, basically you can see there is no ignition by
somebody, there is no machine which is actually having fire just a cold gas, but which is
the rubbing surfaces impact has come out and that spark created the fire and then
explosion.
So, you could see that the ignition is not a very difficult thing to happen, as long has you
have huge amount of fuel and the oxygen presence, fire is imminent, as long as any of
such things like these three things happen, you will be having fire. So, that means the
facilities having large inventory of hydro carbon fuel is potentially, high probability of
fire occurrence, unless all the safety precautions are strictly followed. Now, you could
see that is why we need to see the platform should be divided into, segregated into zones
of different safety. It is not that basically unsafe or safe zone, notation basis we can call it
all are safe zones, you know only thing is in terms of presence of higher, you know the
hydro carbon because, the potential fire is more.
So, we should not actually call it safe zone or unsafe zone basically, process zone, living
zone and utility zone basically, different amounts of safety levels. Of course, during the
normal working condition all areas are safe, only thing is the practice will be different,
when you, when you reach a process zone you need to have sufficient safety equipments.
Whereas in the living zone for example, you live in inside a living facility you do not
need any of the safety kits with you. For example, if you go into a process area some of
the platforms handle sulphur, you know when you enter into that area you need a mask,
otherwise a colorless gas can kill you instantaneously.
So, basically you need go there, you need have your safety kits, if you go into open area
you need a helmet. So, the idea is to identify these zones to make sure that whenever you
go there, you need to have such equipments with you. Living zone always will be very,
made very safe because, you are going to live there, you cannot live with all, all the time
the safety equipments, which is why you make the barrier so safe that, you if you are
inside you do not need to have much worry. Of course, you still need to follow certain
you know the principles, when you are in off shore.
Utility zone is basically have equipments very similar to answer facilities, you may have
a power plan, you may have water treatment plan, all of them are safe zones. Only thing
is, still you have potential of propagation of fire from process zone to utility zone
because, you still have fuel for these machines. For example, if you have a power
generator, power cannot be generated to that of fuel. So, you have limited amount of
hydro carbon and which can also cause potential fire.
So, you look at these two typical platforms, basically just give your idea that there is no
absolute term called the right or the wrong layouts. I think this goes to not only to off
shore platform, for any facility there will always be multiple arrangements, which could
be a either called safe or unsafe. Now if you look at this left side one, you can see here
on the left most side you have the living facility, which is basically somewhere here
accommodations facility. And then, followed by several equipments and facilities for
protection, utilities whatever we see there. On the right hand side you see a drilling rig,
something like this drilling mask and below which you see the, I think most of you are
able to understand what is this conductors, basically is the drill casing.
So, you see here on the right side, you have the drill facility associated well platform
connected to production cum living facility, all of them are together, but one thing what
they have done, they have segregated in a nicer manner. The extreme right side you have
the well facility, extreme left side you the living facility. So, they are kept apart so that,
in case of an accident or in case of a fire, the drilling or the well facility will not cause
much problem to the living facility.
So, the idea little bit of thinking has been done instead of putting a living facility at the
middle, which will be very safe because, at the center column. But in terms of safely
levels of fire and safety it is not very good because, is too close to the well facility or else
if you come to the next option, you see here the well facility is at the middle and there
are some other facility like ((Refer time: 15:20)) on the right side and living facility and
the left side.
Together at the bottom, you have several production facility. You can see here
sometimes people have done left side or the, the, the option 1, say let us call it, these
option two. So, you do not see here some logic is missing, why? The well has been
placed at the center, why the well has been placed at the right? All depends on the
configuration of the sub structure and the arrangement, but both of them can be made
safe, you cannot call them one of them is safe, one of them is unsafe. In this particular
one what you see here, the black color or the barriers are kept in place in such a way that
propagation.
So, the inherent safety is not achieved, but the safety is achieved by means of additional
safety features you incorporate in the system layout so, that is the idea behind. So,
basically the best way of dealing with this kind of things. For example, if I want to have
this well separately, instead of having in the same platform, I have well platform
separately, I have a living platform separately kept up apart say few 100 meters, that is
the best design, isn't it? And keep the central processing platform separately. So, three
jackets, three top sides which you will be the good design, but you will be spending three
times your, your requirement for design and analysis, three times.
So, you can see here the cause of the facility goes as biggest two and a half to three
times. So, that is why you try to combine, at same time you to provide safety which is
built in the system that, in case of a fire either in this well platform area or process area
does not affect are to minimize the risk, isn't it? Even if you go for three well platform,
three platform with one living one process one well, you would not be able to conclude
that there is zero risk, you still will have a risk of some other means of fire.
So, basically that is where kept minimizing the risk, at same time looking at the overall
implementation cost. So, in here also we will see that, the reason why they have kept the
well at the middle is just for convenience, you know if you have the well at the center,
you know the drilling becomes easier. Whereas the, keeping the well on the right side
you will see that there is potential problem of designing the jacket because the well, the
drilling rig is quite heavy.
You see here this particular project where, the well plat form is on the right side kept
separately because, this is a gas field and the potentially most of the time or 99 percent of
the time, gas well platform will not be combined with the process plat form. If it is the
oil platform, there may be potential chances of combining this with this, but never if it is
a gas plat form, because of high potential of fire.
So, you see here in this particular case well is separated process utility and then the
living, logically organized so that, you have the least hydro carbon coming on to the
living facility area. So, you could see that this is one of the design, but if it is just not gas,
if it is an oil platform you will see that they are combined together, all of them everyone
of them, all these four.
So, you will see the next facility is something similar, is actually a oil platform and you
see everything is scattered together in a bigger space and basically, have saved one
jacket. That means cost economical, but you could, you could not do this because here it
is a gas type of oil, you know plat form. So, basically we have no choice.
You can also see in this particular case FPSO well and process together, but well is kept
exactly at the middle. You can see here the reason why we cannot do this drilling at the
either on the stern side or both side of the ship is very difficult, the stability becomes by
troublesome, in fact the motion becomes very large. So, if you keep at the center motions
are very minimum. So, that is why we keep at the center and you have probably utilities
on one side and a kind of living and then, the remaining of the process facility on the
other side just a arrangement there.
Semis up, you can see the drilling is exactly at the center, but surrounded by all the
facilities. Because, that is what is possible by this type of floating structures, you would
not be able to keep the drilling mast on one side and can have a very serious stability
problem. So, you could see that idea what you want to learn from this few pictures, there
is no fixed rule, you can make your own arrangements as long as you follow and
evaluate and minimize the risk of fire safety to the human. So, that is the idea that we
need to work out.
So, what we need to look at you know basically, designed against fire basically, you
need to find out whether what type of fire? Whether it is a pool fire or a jet fire? That I
think we will just quickly look at, pool fire basically after the fire if there is a spillage on
the floor of a particular location large amount of fuel then, the fire will be almost like a
spread fire, you know just over a larger area. So, you have the fuel spillage on the ground
or on the floor somewhere. Whereas the jet fire, fire is occurring, but then there is a high
pressure fluid, hydro carbon oozing out of a pipe, oozing out of a bigger tank or a, or a
process equipment.
So, basically it will come like a high speed jet and which can go for a longer distance
number one and destroy several things which are, you know secondary in nature. For
example, cables and facilities of course, may not be able to destroy structures unless the
structure is so weak, but combined with this speed and the fire effect can even destroy
smaller structures. So, that is the potential of the jet fire and the pool fire, pool fire is just
the flame formation for the larger area on the ground or on the floor. So, we need to see
what type of fire occurs because, the effect is going to be slightly different. Location for
sure we need to know, size basically the extent and the intensity, basically the time
duration.
So, these are the effects which we will put on to steel structure and see what exactly is
going to happen. Heat flow characteristics basically the type of flame, properties of skill
are elevated temperature because, using this information you can simply go and look at
the steel, when you heat the steel how restriction characteristics. Basically, that is what
we are interested as a designer, you want to find out how the designed steam curve
changes, whether it goes higher or lower, whether the slope changes downwards or
upwards, which is a very much important for us. And which can be definitely simulated
or you can do a testing, heat the steel and then go on to a tensile testing and then, we will
also look at alternate means of protecting the steel from obtaining this temperature.
For example, there is a fire as long as you can provide a barrier between the fire and the
steel, then you can actually make the steel to feel only a particular temperature, this
temperature outside can be 900, 1000 degrees. But if you have a barrier, which can only
conduct 400 degrees, not more than that, then it is, you only need to design the steel for
400, though the outside temperature is 1000 or 1200. So, basically this fire protection
several means that is why you see, now a days many of the buildings are built, you know
basically steel because, steel we can make the construction faster, but not very good in
fire safety reasons.
So, what normally these done now, you have the steel structure, but completely protected
by concreter surfaces. So, in case these steel structures you will see many places like
conventionally we go for which takes longer time for construction, you know you have
to go sequence. Whereas, if we make the steel building and just cladding with the
concrete or grouting, which is very fast compare to. So, this far protection you should get
to out to your mind, concrete is very good against for surely fire protection mechanism.
Fire can be classified into cellulose fire and hydrocarbon fire, basically I think cellulose
is an organic material and that happens like fire in the forest, fire at your home. So,
cellulose fire is not directly related to any of the hydrocarbon material, which has got
certain characteristics. We can compare how it temperature raise and what kind of
temperature raise it happens, which is, what is our importance.
How fast the temperature can reach say 900 degrees, you can compare a conventional
stove with the gas stove, you know you can see the time taken to raise the temperature to
900 degrees. You could easily find, it will take a longer time when we use the fire wood,
when we use the gas you will able to reach in few minutes. So, that makes the different.
So, the organic material the fire rating is very very low and what we are interested is,
because we definitely do not have this problem in the after platform at least because, we
do not have any organic material in construction.
Whereas, if you have houses or other facilities you may have such type of fire. In any
case it is not a big bothering because, the temperature, the raise, the rate and the duration
will be quite small. Hydro carbon fire, as I mentioned earlier on pool fire, jet fire is the
typical classification depending on where the fire occurs and the amount of fuel coming
out basically is important.
Combined pool and jet effect also can happen in cases where, actually you have a
eruption in a vessel, which keeps on pumping out the oil and you form a pool. And that
continues supply from that particular equipment, keeps burning your, you know the, the
structure. So, many times you will have the pool fire combined with jet fire because, in
the vicinity if you have a equipment, it will just erupt. Cloud fire and fire ball, I will
show you some of the photographs, probably I might have a video, you could see that
especially gas type of platform, you know the fire balls comes out would be potentially
so large, bigger than the platform size, you know such eruption comes out. It is like a
huge cloud and full of fire.
Typical the temperature rise versus the time, you can see this graph. The bottom one is
basically a cellular fire is the, is the temperature reaches around 900 degrees at the time
duration of an hour, you can see here, if you just go around here almost about an hour to
reach a temperature of 900 degrees. Whereas, if you look at the hydrocarbon fluid or the
gas type of material probably I think I can conclude the same 900 degrees can be reached
in 7 minutes or 8 minutes. So, that is the type of, type of different we are talking about is
one-fifth, one-sixth quicker it reaches 900 degrees. Because, at 900 degrees no steel can
withstand its integrals strength, it will just fail by melting, you know.
So, basically that is the idea that if you look at 600, 700, 800 degrees, steel cannot be
stand, unless you have a protection around the surface. So, if you are able to, if you have
a normal fire you do not really have to worry because, it takes almost 30, 40 minutes to
reach such a state. So, that, by that time you can evacuate people and go away. Whereas,
the hydrocarbon fire is so quick, with in 10 minutes if you are unable evacuate, your
structure will become unstable. So, that means we need provide by means of making the
structure to reach temperature within the limits of stability, that is what we are going to
define, what temperature is that, whether its 200 degrees or 50 degrees.
We can define a temperature and make sure that we have the warier in place for all the
structural components, that we can limit the temperature to same few 100 degrees so
that, I will be able to safe human life. So, this graph is very important, but what we are
going to have is only the, this graph based on actually it is coming from department of
energy, they have done one joint industrial project, you see here DEN, department of
energy UK, guidance notes. This curve is based on actually the field testing, they have
made the few fire testing and also adopted by this, this curve is adopted by Norwegian
petroleum directorate, you know basically it is clear guidance notes. Of course, this is
coming from one of the ((Refer time: 29:40)) is design against the fire resistance
structures.
So, what are the fire protections basically we have are active, passive I think active, I
mentioned about water spray deluge system. I think every building nowadays is
mandatory to have especially, industrial buildings should be having fire deluge systems.
So, you will see, you go, if have gone to some of the factories you will see fire deluge
valves and spray nasals fitted on to the roof of the structure. So, in case of a fire you will
have a fire and smoke deducting devices, you will see two of them in the roof, if you had
fully looked at it. One of them is a deduction device, once fire or a smoke is deductive
what will happen? First thing is the alarm will come and the alarm will trigger the motor
system to start the pumping and open the valves.
So, automatically the water spray system will on. So, basically this water spray deluge is
nothing but network of pipes connected to the facility to a fire hydrant where, continuous
supply of water can be there. So, you need source of water and fully pressurized all time,
which is the main important thing. You cannot start the pump start pressurizing at the
time when the fire is occurring, there is no time. So, that means all the time the pressure
should be maintain on the pipe, the pipe is fully enclosed with valves everywhere, but
valves are closed and the pressure should be maintain means, whenever the pressure is
down the pump needs to switch on automatically.
And whenever there is a fire, the spray nozzle should open with the necessity pressure to
distribute the water to area designated. For example, if you have only one nozzle here,
you need to have larger spray distance that means, more pressure is required. Basically,
water deluge or water spray system is inherent for industrial structures and offshore
structures are definitely yes. But for the residential buildings, it is not made mandatory
so, what you may see actually will be a fire hydrant, but then the firefighting is done
manually, you know fire fighters will come and connect the hydrant and spray water.
Foam system basically is, is definitely a requirement for oil and gas terminals especially,
on land you will see a foam spray on top of the fire, which can put the fire very quickly.
So, it is a Halon system just basically does not spray water, for sure you know very well
electrical fires so, you will have a spray gas. So, Halon system will be there and then
carbon di oxide you might see in many places in bubbly buildings, you have the carbon
dioxide cylinders, small ones, handy. So, you know, you should know how to operate.
So, all of them is basically an active system to put the fire down at the starting point
itself.
So, you do not allow it to propagate, as long as this systems are automated you can
actually prevent from propagation or even from going into a higher temperature. Only
thing is automation becomes a difficult process, sometimes you do a manual, sometimes
you do a automation system. But for offshore we use this, we use this and both of them
are fully automated. So, there is no situation that somebody have to go on open a valve,
somebody have to go on open a or switch on a pump, which will become potentially not
good. So, everything is fully automated.
Passive systems basically to prevent so, though we cannot actually prevent the fire, fire
is occurring and then, we need protect the structure with a particular type of material
where in, it could observe the electrical energy and conduction is reduced. That means,
you need to see material which is not conducting that fast and basically, the temperature
on the steel surface is limited to a particular value. So, that is the barrier we are looking
at, the simplest barrier is very easy to identify as a cementious material, concrete skirt.
So, you have 100 mm of thick concrete on top of a steel surface, the concrete takes a
larger effort or energy of the temperature prior to transmit the temperature to the steel
surface. So, that is the exactly the idea.
So, cementious materials are very heavily used in on, on floor structures especially, if
you go to industry, factory, refinery you will find every structure is protected with
cementious coating. You know just 20 mm, 30 mm they will just have a coating on top,
which no problem because on, on floor structures we are not worried about weight, we
can keep on building whatever you want, isn't it? You just because, cementious materials
are very cheap, it is not very expensive of course, comparatively not. So, basically
barriers for steel structures the simplest means is encasement with concrete, which I
think very heavily practiced.
But for unfortunately for office structures, we cannot keep on increasing the weight
because, either it is a floating structure or the picture structure we have a problem in our
hand. If it is a picture structure design becomes too heavy transportation, insulation
becomes too difficult. If it is a floating structure payload increases then, it becomes a
serious problem of the design because, you need to make the floating system bigger and
bigger. So, that is why we need to find the alternate dissolutions where in, we can have a
similar effect, but then lighter material or other forms of functions. For example, if you
look at the subliming coatings, heat energy absorbed by transforming solid to vapor.
So, basically you have a very thin lay of this coating material when it is affected by
temperature, it actually vaporize, the vapor is the barrier forming between the
temperature or the fire to the steel. So, you have a cloud of this material but directly from
solid to vapor. So, you will see a few a few 100 mm a layer, not permeating the flame to
go through and go into the structural surface. So, that subliming coating is quite
expensive, but the thickness of the coating may be 5 mm, but at the time of temperature
increases, it actually vaporized and form a thick cloud which does not permit the direct
contact of the fire with the steel. The intimation coating will expand under fire forming
foam like material very similar, just like our foam.
So, basically it gives a semi solid protection basically between the fire and the steel, it
will form a kind of thick material, but not so thick, it is just a foam type of material. So,
both of them, the original thickness will be very, very, very small 5 to 10 mm maximum,
density is low, lower than concrete. So, you have similar characteristic achieved by a
smaller thickness less weight, but slightly increased cost. So, that is where we look at
either we use subliming coatings, normally not used in main facilities, but this intimation
coating is well preferred because, this has been in use for several decades. And basically,
you go through net you will find so many vendors of different chemical composition,
you can find.
A typical fire, you can see here the longer the or the larger, the radius are distance away
from the central, you will see that the, you know the heat energy will be reducing. That
means, if try to go closer and closer you would not be able to survive. So, we need to
locate the safe facilities when a fire occurs in a particular location, where you should
have master switch in, in, in case if you have to have a change over from automatic
control to. So, you need to locate them properly sometimes, we do a specialized study
you know each fire location is assumed. So, you are find out which will be the best
position for the controls valves to be located. You do not want the control valves to be
located in the hydro carbon area, where the fire occurs the control valve also get
damaged.
Basically, I think just give you an idea of what this heat radiation means to personal
survival, just to greatest solar radiation in terms of kilowatt per square meter is about less
than 1. And working area is their personal or continuously exposed slightly 1.6, where
personal may be continuously express the general areas about this much. And when you
look at around 10, you know people working in a sunlight, in a hot areas is about 1, when
you talk about you know, around 10 kilowatt per square meter then, probably you would
not be able sustain, you would not be able to stand.
So, you need to just to get away from there. So, that is the type of number we need to
know because, when you go back to this picture when we do a fire study, we need to find
out the escape pass are not across, such radius in levels in case of fire or in case of
operating situations there.
I think we have already discussed, this basically a different applications to different type
of structures, type of bulkets will may not be that important basically.
Also application of the passive fire protection to different classes of structures valves you
know basic idea what is preferred. Mostly you can see here spray applied coatings,
which are ((Refer time: 40:02)) type and most of them. Mostly just to apply like a spray
paint, you might just you normally, we do painting of valves only thing is it needs to be
applied by experienced personal so that, the thickness of the coating is uniform and then,
stick to the surface of the steel. Otherwise, it will just come peal of it is going to be a
problem. Sometimes, we have a special sections like for example, pre-fabricated sections
with the seals for example, you want to have a door, your barriers is all-around the
building, but if the door is not fire proof, what will happen? Fire will encase through the
door.
So, you need to make the door fire proof. So, in this type of cases we normally do not
basically spray on the door, but you have a pre fabricated material of that kind, you make
the door out of that material. But then, the sealing between the door and fixed component
needs to have fire protection, cannot use the fire material like a rubber, you cannot use.
So, you can see here when you want to make a particular structure fire proof is not so
easy because, you need to make sure every component is well behaved during fire.
Especially, something like this penetration, it is very important for example, you have
this building for sure you will have incoming outgoing systems.
For example, the electrical system, plumbing system, you have a plumbing type coming
in and if that pipe is not designed, fire can come through that or you have that sleeve,
that connection is not sealed, smoke can come. The main problem of or the cause of
death during a fire is actually not directly fire, many times smoke causes tremendous
effect and basically that means you need to make sure, the seal in should be 100 percent
correct that smoke does not enter into the facility. So, basically just an example to give
you, what are things you need to look after during design.

And this, the best way of looking at the lay out which I think you have seen the
photographs basically, the well area process area and safe area or living area, purpose
fully I have put safe area. Basically, they are barriers is a wall which is what normally we
do in a answer or the building structure. You have the barriers which is nothing but you
can make it sound proof, fire proof, blast proof, isn’t it? Most of the buildings we make
it, make the walls for sound proof basically and then, you have potential of having fire,
you make fire wall.
So, instead of making brick, you may actually go with concrete wall, some cases are
buildings. You know you will see that some of the walls are made of concrete just to
make sure that they have sufficient fire resistance, instead of normal conventional brick
you will use a concrete wall. And you can design the concrete wall with sufficient
reinforcement which can also take the explosion or blast resistance. So, basically that is
the idea. So, these barriers are nothing but a structure capable of resisting high
temperature and higher loading for raising from blast. So, basically call it fire wall, fire
and blast wall or blast wall sometimes you design for both.
And basically whenever you have this safe area in the vicinity of the process area, you
need to make sure that double safety for something like this, you see here when you enter
here, you have double door. So, the first door opens the inland, the, the, the hydro carbon
entering into the room is avoided because, you have another lock. So, this called the air
lock is nothing but the door which separates the entry of any foreign material like
hydrocarbon gas, smoke especially, smoke entering into this particular. So, all the time
one of them is closed then, there will be an exhaust from that particular chamber so that,
whatever is entering is resize circled, recycled and surrounded by a free wall all around
the facility.
Design of offshore structures
Prof. Dr. S .Nallayarasu
Module - 06
Lecture - 03
So, today we are going to just continue the session on the firewalls. So, you can see this
divisions, basically area wise bifurcation between safe, un so, unsafe and then the
process area. Basically, the most critical area is the well by area where, you have high
pressure equipment’s, especially the fluid coming from underground, under high
temperature and also excessively high pressure. If you are talking about the type of
magnitude, you know something around 25,000 to 30,000 PSI. So, such type of pressure
is equal to almost like a atomic bomb, you know if it explodes you will see in the
vicinity, nothing will be able to sustain that kind of loading.
So, that is why the well pressure needs to be regulated and maintained. So, every well I
think, I shown you some pictures during the introduction classes that there is a
arrangement were its called Christmas tree, where it regulates and reduces the pressure.
So, basically though we can do that kind of arrangement, still the potential chance of a
spark or a leakage can cause of fire in the vicinity of the well and if the well explodes, it
would potentially prove to be a disaster. So, that is why well by area is the most critical
in terms of fire and safety and needs to be given most priority, that means it needs to be
isolated away from the habitable area.
So, that is why we have seen many occasions, well platform will be separate or if it is not
visible, at least kept at one side where the, the, the damages done to that area may not be
possess that danger to the other areas like process and the living. So, you see here it is
just a nice three rectangles, one is the well by area, central is the process as the
decreasing order of, you know the risk and the safe area is given on the right side. So, but
you will see in some cases, may be slightly modified like well bay might come in
between. Again we need to design these barriers in such a way that, propagation of risk
is reduced, not absolutely stopped as we normally think.
We want to have a barrier by which its infinitively stiff, does not actually the form in any
case of loading, which is not visible because, the structure which is supporting these
barriers may fail before the barrier failed, isn't it? Suppose you want to make a very stiff
wall, which is just highly stiff compared to the loading that you are encountering, that
may actually performs its duty, but then this, this structure needs to transfer the reaction
to the deck structure and the sub structure. They may not to be able to be designed to be
taking such high loads, typical example, for example you take the width of the platform
is 50 meter, height of the that particular wall is 10 meter, 50 by 10, you take area of 500
square meter typically.
500 square meter with the horizontal loading of say 1 bar, if you apply 1 bar with a 500
square meter loading, I think possibly it will be not there in this location, the platform
will fly off to another country. Because, the amount of loading is incomparable to either
the wave load or the wind load or other forms of loading which you have designed.
Because, if you just calculate the magnitude of loading few 100 tones, few 1000 tones
will be the magnitude of loading that you are talking about, may be a 1000 ton is the
wave load. Whereas, if you take 500 square meter 1 bar loading, it can just see that it is
several times of the wave or the wind loading that we are talking about. That is why we
may not able to be design it, though you can design this wall, this wall can be designed
for such a loading because, this only a local design just design.
The wall make of very stick steel plates, but the sub structure will not be and that is one
of the reasons why we do not want to design for such non flexible walls. So, what if we
go in another method where, the wall deforms and absorb energy while actually it is
deforming and that is the approach normally adopted for onshore. Whereas, compared to
offshore so, basically compare to onshore bunkers, we have always have a very large
thickness concrete cell, which is not going to deform when you have such a large
loading. Because, you have very good ground conditions where the load can be
transferred without much problem.
So, that is why the approach on onshore bunkers versus offshore bunkers is lightly
different. Sometimes you, you combine the fire and blast wall together, you also have a
fire wall which can take a certain amount of loading, which is just a combined effect.
One is the structural requirement, the other one is the performance with regards to
temperature. So, that means the external temperature needs to be reduced to certain
amount in the inside of the building. For example, if there is a fire here, 900 degrees, you
make sure that the insulating material which is part of the fire wall is not transferring or
convict, conducting the temperature on the other side, to a higher level. That means
reduced it, that, sometimes you will have the same wall designed for certain amount of
the pressure due to blast. So, it is a combined fire and blast wall.
Typically, you will see a living facility will be encompassed by a peripheral fire wall
most of the time because, you know basically it does two things. One is, one is the
temperature reduction due to fire, the other one is heat loss, you have a air condition
space. Basically you do not want that, the too much of heat coming in so that, the energy
requirement will be going higher up. So, that means, that is the second purpose of course,
is secondary, but the first one is to maintain the temperature within the limits though
there is a fire outside. And the other requirement I think you will see in most of the off
floor facility is the air lock, which essential path in order to reduce the risk of smoke
entering into the facility.
If you have a single door, for sure you will have a smoke increase which will cause
tremendous problem to the living facility because, it will get into circulation and
everywhere it will pass on and almost all people will be affected because of this. So, that
is why you need to create a barrier by which you will have an exhaust, even if the
increase of smoke or gas enters into the building, this air lock chamber will evaluate it
not allowing the, the same to be entered into the main building. So, that is something
very similar to what you see here of course, it is not an air lock. Air lock needs to be
pressurized, you need to keep the inside pressure higher than the outside so that, always
the increase will be not possible to.
So, you need to pressurize the building in such a way that, you know the increase from
outside, unless the pressure outside is so large and normally is an atmospheric pressure
outside. So, you may not actually have a, the problem so that means, the inside of the
building needs to be pressurized is slightly higher not too high. So, that there is a
potential of going out, but not coming in.
Now you see a typical cross section of a fire and blast wall combined on the left side you
see here, the black color is basically the thermal coating, which we talk about there are
few types. We have a cement material which is conventional plaster or you have a
intimation coating or the other form where, you can use that. So, first one is the thermal
coating which reduces the direct fire contact with the structural material, which is steel.
And the second one basically the, the gray color which is structural barrier it could be a
steel plate of 5 mm, 10 mm or it could be a corrugated plate. We will see the details later
on, basically that is the structural material the last one on the right hand side, and you see
the insulation.
So, between a thermal coating and on the right hand side is the insulation, in between
you have a structural barrier which is going to perform the duty of the blast resistance?
That means, when you apply a loading from right side or left side you will see the
structure gets the form and when there is a fire, the first thing what you does, you need to
perform the structural duty that means, the structure material should be safeguarded from
increase the temperature. So, that means the, the thermal coating will reduce the
temperature, if it is 1000 the structure will only get reasonably reduced value of say 100,
150, 200. Because, until 400 we can accept because the, quality, basically the material
deformation will be limited that means, the stress strain characteristics will be under our
control.
The second thing what it does, though this steel is at 400 degrees, we do not want 400
degrees direct contact of occupants of the building because, 400 degrees nobody can
take? Because, we all have been living under certain conditions like less than 40 degrees
mostly and that means you need to limit the temperature to such type of normal
temperature inside so that, they can sustain for a slightly longer time. 400 degrees you
can stay there for 2 minutes, 1 minute beyond which you would not able to stay there.
But if it is 40 degrees, probably you can stay there for another half an hour before you
can get evacuated.
So, that is why this insulation material is placed inside because, this cannot take
temperature because, if you keep the insulation material prior to the steel, what will
happen? That temperature will actually destroy the insulation itself, that is why the
insulation needs to be in a right place, on the right hand side. So, you have several
materials for insulators, steel is a very good conductor of heat. So, we need to find a
exactly opposite material so, most of the time wool will be used and now a days glass
wool is the best material, you might have seen in many places, you know used in most of
the air conditioning spaces where, you have the insulation.
So, normally now a days glass wool is preferred and it is easily available. So, you put
whatever the thickness, the larger the thickness of the glass wool the reduction in
temperature will be higher, but of course, we always look for more space so, typically
about 30 mm, 50 mm, 100 mm. So, you have to design looking at the incoming
temperature and what is the temperature required, you will design the thickness of the
glass wool required. The additional thing what we normally do also, we create a space a
between the steel and the glass wool air gap, you know very well that air gap is also a
good insulator of sound and temperature.
So, normally what we do is between the steel and the insulator, you give a 100 mm gap
for example. So, it will actually stop the propagation of sound, as well as the
temperature. So that may be additional you know precautions. So, you have to come up
with the cross section by which you can reduce the temperature, as well as it will take the
required design. But one thing very important the sequence for example, before the fire if
the blast occurs, what happens? For example, the first is the blast and then followed by a
fire, there is a potential chance of the thermal coating, what we call it the material pasted
on top of the steel service might actually bull up, exposing the steel directly to a larger
temperature.
So, there is a potential danger of such thing happening. So, we need to have sometimes
double wall in a basically one barrier sacrificial for only taking the blast, then you will
have a fire wall combined with the. So, some of the process facilities they design in such
a way that, you have a double fire single fire wall and then followed by in front a blast
wall. Again depends on, you know how much risk you would like to take, but there is a
potential risk of the blast happening first and then followed by a fire, which actually
direct contact of large temperature insured the occupants building. So, basically the idea
of a fire and blast wall is nothing but is a bifurcation between processed or unsafe area to
a safe area, comprising a structural resistance against blast and a thermal resistance
against fire and reduction in temperature, toward desired a level inside the building.
Now fire can be classified into several categories, I think we have discussed about it in
the previous sessions, basically the construction material for building bridges, offshore
platforms, you could see that various types of material we are using. So, the
noncombustible construction is one classical material is this concrete, you know
basically is a good material, that is why typically in most of the buildings and civil
construction, we use concrete as a material of construction. Basically, if you have this
non combustible construction then, it is fire safety is automatic. For example, when you
design a residential building, a 230 mm brick wall has 1 hour fire resistance that means,
you do not need to really worry about it.
If you have a concrete wall of 300 mm, it has got 2 hour fire resistance concrete wall just
reinforce to concrete wall. So, basically most of the buildings constructed of
conventional steel concrete or in a, basically with brick wall in fill you will, you will not
necessary to design anything special unless, it requires to be a designed for a blast.
Because, fire by nature you do not have that much of loading except that it changes the
material characteristics. So, non combustible construction basically is good, but
unfortunately we cannot use it because, steel gives us the lot of other advantages
compare to the concrete, because of the weight.
Now this classification, I just have to be following this particular guide book, you know
basically a SOLAS 2000, 2007 also has come, but still we use 2000, some of the
guidelines in 2007 is not as strict as the old one. Safety of life at sea so, any installations
whether it is you know ship or after platforms, other installations need to follow this
particular guideline because, it is coming from IMO and needs to be hundred percent
followed. It is not like you can say yes or no, any installation to be certified for
occupancy in offshore must have solar certification so that, people are safe. So, this is a
guideline, this is a very large book, there is one copy in the central library, in the
reference section you may not allowed to borrow and basically can refer to it.
And this gives you the details of various requirements, not only fire and safety, other
operational safety and evacuation and basically gives every aspect of safety of life at sea
and one of them is, you know the requirements of fire safety. And fire safety what they
do is the, classification if you see here, classification is in four categories A B C plus the
hydro carbon fire and basic idea is this hydro carbon fire is the most vulnerable because,
the temperature rise is very fast, temperature is itself is higher. So, you can see here the h
class maintain stability and integrity for 2 hours and limit the temperature to 140 degree
c on the safe side of the wall or the barrier.
Whereas, you look at the A class barrier basically, is only 1 hour and 140 degrees. In all
three cases, you need to bring the temperature less than 140 degrees, only the time
duration H class and A class and B class and C class you can see here. So, when an,
when you design a fire wall, you will be given a, you design is A class. So, that means A
class means basically 1 hour, you have to maintain the structural stability and the
temperature needs to be limited to 140 degrees. So, the thickness of your insulator are
insulating material will be decided basically for 140 degrees. So, you can go to the
vendor, what thickness is required or you can also calculate because, you know what is
the material and the insulating characteristic will be known.
So, the conductance you calculate there is easy to do a 5 minutes, check what
temperature is on the upstream and what temperature is on the downstream, but over a
time. So, because basically as the time goes by, you will see that the. So, you need 2
hours means you need increase the thickness. So, that is the idea behind. So, H class, A
class, B class is only just a matter of the structural stability for half an hour, 1 hour and 2
hours.
So, if you just look at the table, this is how you define the basically the firewall
characteristics. So, starting from H 120, H 120 means is 2 hours of stability and then
insulation performance is also 120. Whereas, H 60 means H class is always 2 hours of
stability and strength. Whereas, the 60, the number indicates the insulation performance,
basically on the right hand side you have a insulator, which needs to be giving the
temperature less than 140 degrees for 1 hour, that is basically H 60. H 120 means H itself
is 120 minutes of stability and strength and in addition, you have an insulation
characteristic of basically 2 hours.
So that, you have to little bit careful there, this 120 versus 60 this H means is stability
and strength is for 2 hours, A class is 1 hour and the B class is half an hour, that is what
you are seeing from the first column. And the second column is the subscript for that, if
it is 120 it is insulation performance, 60 0 and basically gives you the thickness of
insulator required. So, basically that is the idea and this is how you just need to. So, if
you are asked to find out the thickness of H 60 insulating material, you basically need to
work out 60 minutes what will be the thickness? If I have a temperature 900 degrees on
the upstream to limit the temperature to 140 degrees, we need to do calculations.
So, structural response to a fire basically what we, what we need to just look at it, even if
the fire occurs large deformation, basically because of the material characters change. I
think you might have seen in many occasions, when you want to deform a steel plate
what you normally do is, you just heat it because, if you try it to bend it in a cold form,
what happens? The effort require is more. So, if you go to go to a blacksmith shop,
normally you just heat it and you can change it to any shape, easy to malleable. So, that
is exactly what normally happens when you have a fire, the material gets easy to change
it shape under forms of loading.
For example, fire followed by a loading already exist, for example, gravity loading is
already there, this structure may be already subjected to compression loading due to its
own sulphate also a super impose loading. So, when you heat a column what will
happen? Easy to deform and docile by failure. So, basically the large deformation needs
to be looked at for the whole structure and we need to understand the characteristics by
which we want to design. In this particular case, just now we were talking about the low
transfer to the support system. So, if you have a dedicated wall not carrying any loading
for example, you have a wall designed only for the purpose of taking the load from fire
and blast.
But connected to the support structure in such a way that does not carry the existing
gravity loads. For example, I have two columns on either side, I have a beam connecting
these two columns, taking all the loads to the columns, but this wall is fitted in such a
way that, it does not carry any of the loads coming up from the previous floor. And then,
then basically that means I can allow the wall to deform under that conditions. Because, I
am not depend on this wall to transfer the load to the sub structure, compare to the, you
know the buildings that we normally construct, most of the load barring walls are
carrying the loads. So, if you actually allow the wall to deform, what will happen? The
whole structure will fail.
So, when we design a fire wall, we need to design in such a way that we introduce
smaller reaction to the structure, by allowing the deformation to happen and that
allowing deformation means basically energy absorption or work done. Basically if you
have a firewall of certain size, load applied is and the deformation is a half a meter and
the load multiplied by a half a meter displacement is the amount of energy observed by
the wall, during the process of this incident happening. The larger the energy absorption
is better because, then this structure will not fail. If you make that same wall as rigid, it is
good, it is actually good, wall does not deform, wall is staying in the same location,
deformation is very small.
But what happens, the structure with to which this wall is attached, what will happen?
Will actually receive too much of a support reaction, by which the supports will fly off or
fail and basically structure will collapse. Compared to a situation where the same barrier
is supported on a very strong ground, no restriction on support conditions, then it is fine
and that is where we have to just design just exactly opposite. But not to the extent that
the deformation go and actually create problem to the other facilities. For example, I
have an equipment half a meter away, when a fire wall or a blast deforms go and hit that
equipment creating a chain reaction of subsequent fire and blast.
So, what we need to do is evaluation of this deformation is permitted, provided it is not
harmful to subsequent events. Loads other than fire can also be reduced, in case if you
have a such a wall designed, in such a way that no loads can be. So, you need to come up
with the connection, it can be transferring loads from the wall to the beam, but not from
the beam to the wall.
So, you need to come up with a such a nice connection, that it cannot take other forms of
loading. Mechanical properties basically, what is our concern is basically how the
variation of the steel properties during the temperature rise and then the steady state. So,
what we need to look at is the stress strain characteristics like, how it changes that means
modulus of elasticity and also the yield strength reduction, during the process that means,
corresponding strength loss and stiffness loss.
The stiffness reduction means large deformation may happen. So, as long as you can
quantify it then you can limit the deformation to how much amount. The variation of
strain will not be uniform, this is exactly is the problem, across the thickness, across the
length is going to be varying. So, simulation become quite difficult, especially you have
a three dimensional fire scenario and look at the beam length or the wall length across
the thickness, you will see that the strain will be according to the temperature. And the
temperature is not constant across the cross section. So, there will be a higher this side
smaller this side. So, behavior becomes little bit difficult to predict so, most of the time
we end up doing a non-linear geometric analysis, to account for a variations.
So, what could be our acceptance criteria, we need to look at as usual the two things.
One is the structural strength limit, that means there is no disintegration should happen,
the wall stood should still stick to the wherever it is attached. And deformation limit
basically, to make sure that the large deformation does not go and affect the neighboring
structures are the facilities. So, strength limit is basically design as per our conventional
idea, design capacity versus the load effects, but how we deal with it whether it is going
to be a allowable stress design or it is going to be LRFD or is it going to be something
different needs to be decided by us.
Most of the time in 70’s and 80’s we used to go for conventional allowable stress design,
you know you just take the pressure due to blast and design as per conventional
allowable stress analysis and just limit it, the structure become too big. That means, the
thickness is very high, the span is limited or you will stiffen it with lot of beams and
columns. So, you made it so strong that the, under the blast it is still strong enough to
take the load, but not considering the supports and that is where several of the structures
especially, the onshore structures have failed terribly because, you design the firewall for
the requirements, but not the system and the foundations.
So, you have to little bit careful in selection of the method by which you will do the
design, we will just look at the three of the options. Sometimes still a people do this,
what if you actually design a firewall in such a way that, it just blows off when the
critical limit is reached. Typically for a example, you have a firewall or a blast wall
sustainable to certain load because, you do not want to break the structure in case if the
firewall capacity is exceeded in a case for example. Something very similar to a exit or a
window, you have a window designed for a particular pressure, you do not want the
window or a barrier to be stronger than the subsequent structures which are attached.
So, in that case it just blow off and many cases, now a day’s vendors have come up with
a design ware it will take particular design load beyond which, it will actually break
away to safeguard the main structure you know. But it is not advisable because, if the
people have not evacuated on the other side, it may become potentially problem. So,
actually this is a little bit difficult to design according to the structural systems.
Consideration shall be given to what happens to the material, when you look at steel
whether how much reduction to yield strength and how much reduction to modulus and
how much is the ratio between the reduction in yield and reduction in modulus of
elasticity.
So, we just need to quickly look at how much, which I have taken some examples from
one of the guide book, you will see that it will be similar. Deformation limit basically,
this is what we were talking about, how much we can permit inside or increase into the
safe area, also into the escape way or the roots along which the people are running away.
No path of the structure in basis on critical equipment on the opposite side for example,
you have a well by area and you have a process area, process area you will have a several
process equipments, pressure vessels.
So, if you go and hit that so, we need to make sure that either the equipment is located
away or the deformation is limited. So, that is why most of the time when you design a
fire wall, you must make sure that no equipments are placed within the vicinity, probably
about a meter. And then, maintenance of structural and insulation integrity, basically we
need to see these three categories.
Typical and thermal properties of steel and I think you might have seen.
A graph which you has taken from this interim guidance notes, which is basically a joint
industry project in Europe, by several oil companies together. They have made a
prototype structures both for blast and fire and have tested and one of the testing is just
you can see here is a typical stress strain diagram showing a different temperature, how
the behavior is. So, you can see the first one the 20 degrees is the perfectly elastic and
plastic material just you see a one straight line and just perfectly a plastic horizontal line.
At 20 degrees is a high stent steels with this 350 mega Pascal steel, 50 guy is material.
So, basically the slope of this line of the initial line will give you the, what? Modulus of
elasticity.
So, you could just see the stress versus strain ratio 350 versus about 0.2 percent, which is
a typical elastic strain, I think most of you will remember. So, if you look at the other
graphs it just subsequently as it increase the temperatures, the slope starts to decrease, I
will come down. Modulus of elasticity is expected to decrease, the indication is no good
the stiffness reduces. So, basically and you can also can see the, there is no clear
demarcation point between elastic and plastic, basically it becomes non-linear from
starting rather than, a linear I have to certain limit, typically about 0.2 percent and
becomes perfectly plastic.
And this has become almost like a highly non-linear material from start, something very
similar to rubber, I think if you look at a rubber material you start making a testing, you
will see that it never forms any part of the initial stage linear. It is always going to be a
continuously non-linear changes occur and that is what has happened we have, we have
heated the material, we have heated the steel and becomes easy to deform. So, that
means when you are designing a structure at say 500 degrees, we need to look at not only
the yield strength and also the slope of the initial, that sometime we call it as a initial
modulus, sometime we take the tangent modulus depending on what strain you are
following.
For example, when you are allowable stress design when you are doing design most of
our cases we take strain as 0.2 percent, if you look at yield point is corresponding to 0.2
percent. Now if you look at this 0.2 percent, it just go around project this at say 500
degrees, somewhere here the yield strength is around 160, 170, but if you decide to allow
one percent strain, somewhere around here, you can go up to 240. So, all depends on
what is the strain you are allowing, that means strain means corresponding deformation,
if you are allowing large deformation of the wall, what will happen? 1 meter. If you
calculate the strain at the ends of the beam, you will see that there is a no more 0.2
percent, it is going to be surely more than 0.2 percent.
So, that means the selection of yield point, selection of modulus of elasticity because,
when you allow up to 1 percent, the modulus of elasticity is even worse. Because, it has
become almost flat, that tangent modulus I think you, hope you understand the difference
between the initial modulus and the tangent modulus. Basically, the tangent modulus is
the tangent taken at the point of the intersection between the line and the intersection
coming from the previous step. Typically we take at the point of into interest. So, if you
look at initial modulus its quite good, almost all of them are in the very close range, as
you propagate further higher strain, you will see the tangent modulus become very small,
almost becomes 0.
So, if you look at this one, the first one is actually a is 0. So, basic idea is the strain limits
need to be fixed according to the deformation limit, whether you want to allow 50 mm
deformation or 1 meter deformation. So, this gives you an idea that three parameters of
elasticity, one is a modulus of elasticity, strain and yield strength must be taken as a
parameter for design. As long as you know this, then we can decide the, which method of
design that we can look at. So, this interim guidance notes gives all the design procedure
in fact most of the lecture notes I am following is based on that. Of course, again this has
been taken by API, API has just fully absorbed this report as a design procedure.
Of course, it is quite simple and basically that previous one gives from 20 degrees to 600
degrees. So, you can even see further from 600 degrees to 900 degrees. So, if you look at
one of them 900 degrees, almost it has become no strength 10 mega Pascal and just the
curve goes almost flat. So, that indicates that the material would have already melted
down, basically is no most strength. That is why most of the walls, we would like to
design less than 500 or any steel that you need to design for fire, you should make sure
that you have residual strength, which is possible to sustain.
Based on the guidance notes, I have just taken some of the values of modulus of
elasticity and the yield strength at 0.2 percent strain. Basically you see here, 20 degrees
mod no reduction to modulus of elasticity, no reduction to yield strength that means
conventional operating conditions. Even at 100 degrees, not much reductions see seems
to happen, in a basically still under the same 100 percent strength you can utilize. So, as
long as you have the temperature less than 100 degrees, probably not a big problem of
course, when it is at 100 degrees, the deformation is within the limits of standard design
procedure. But then the reaction introduced by these steel beam structures at 100 degrees
needs to be taken into account, that is why some of the structures when we design.
For example, when you design a pipeline in a hot area like middle east, 50 degrees, 60
degrees, we need to design for 60 degrees, normal sun temperature reaches there almost
during summer time around 60 to 65 degrees. So, imagine in the winter time it goes to 5
degrees, 10 degrees. So, the difference in temperature causes huge amount of axial force
on the pipe line, which could cause potential problem to support structures or could
cause problem to the equipment to which these pipes are connected. For example, you
have equipment one, equipment two on either side of the pipeline and when the pipeline
expands 50 degrees, you could imagine the amount of force introduced will be very very
large. Because, the pipeline is restricted by connecting to the.
So, that is why the several structures design you need to take into account the effect of
temperature. Now if you have 400 degrees, you could see here the modulus of elasticity
reduced by 30 percent. So, whatever the value you have 2 into 10 power 5 is it just
multiplied by 0.7 as the reduction factor. So, these numbers are given by these guidance
notes of course, if you look at the API slightly different. In fact modulus of elasticity
value reduction is not given in API, we still have to follow this interim guidance notes
The reason it is called the guidance notes, the interim the final report has not been issued
yet, 2005 was the interim guidance, still further subsequent results is happening.
So, final report has not come yet and look if you at the same temperature for the yield
stress, it goes as much as 50 percent, in fact 58 percent reduction only remaining is 42
percent. So, below which if you look at any temperature, the material become no
strength, you know basically that is impossible to design because, when you design for
example, 800 degrees you are only left with 5 percent of the yield strength. That means,
your structural requirement will be so large for example, thickness is originally at 100
percent here may be 20 mm, at 5 percent yield you may require a thickness of 100 mm,
which you may not be able to design at all. So, that is why we need to limit the
temperature, most of the guidance requirements needs to be around 400 degrees.

Basically, this is the same thing expressed as a, as a graph, you can see here it is not very
straight lines, basically this data is obtained from experiments. So, that is why you would
not see a straight line joining some values to other values. So, basic idea is, this is also
not same as value for both modulus of elasticity and yield, they are two different values.
So, do not get that the idea that slope and the yield strength reduction will be same, it
will be same provided this graph follows the single line like this, but unfortunately the
strain value changes every time when you increase the temperature because, the
demarcation is not going to be a single point. So, that is why you have a different value
for strength reduction, different value for yield strength and the modulus elasticity.
So, that is gives an idea about the reductions that you will apply for the design
procedure. Now API has also given a comparative table at different yield limits instead
of 0.2 percent, I think most of you are familiar with elastic stress design, where we use
the yield strength according to 0.2 percent strain limit. Whereas, when you go for a
higher deformation, we are going to increase the strain limits to higher values. So, you
can see here 0.5 percent, 1.5 percent and 2 percent sometimes, we go even three percent
strain limits. So, you can see here the values of yield strength reduction at 0.2 percent
versus the 2 percent.
Now if you allow larger deformation to happen so, you can still reach, that is what I was
highlighting in this particular one. If you go here or in even the previous one, if you
allow the 0.2 percent strain for example, let me go to this graph, I can make maximum
allow 100 mega Pascal. Whereas, if I go to 2 percent I can allow almost, I can allow
almost 150, 150 mega Pascal, the yield strength. So, basically the larger the deformation
that I will allow, I can have a higher yield strength used in the design. So, that is where
you can see here this table will give you an idea that you limit the strain because, after all
is the relationship between strain and the stress.
So, basic idea is the larger deformation means you can have no reduction to the yield
strength whereas, if you limit your strain to 0.2 percent then, you will need to reduce by
6 percent which is 094. Correspondingly, if you come to 400 degrees, what happens is
0.6. So, there is a difference between the guidance notes that is what I wanted to
highlight, guidance notes says is only 42 percent strength. Whereas, API with their own
research has gone to 0.6. So, there is a little discrepancy so, you have to little bit careful
if you are designing to API it takes 0.6, but unfortunately API does not give you the, any
recommendation for modulus of elasticity.
So, we will still go back to this table, we will use a 70 percent reduction for modulus of
elasticity based on guidance notes and API you will take a 60 percent that means, 40
percent reduction for yield strength at 0.2 percent. So, what we will need to do is, first
we need to define and accept what is the strain limit and then subsequently you will
decide, what is the reduction for yield strength? What is the reduction for modulus of
elasticity?

All, for them just for comparison purpose, plotted in a terms of graphical display so that,
you can understand easily.
Prof. Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Module - 6
Lecture - 4
Design Against Accidental Loads 4
So, today we are just going to continue the design against temperature.
So, you see this table, you can see here the yield strength reduction factor, which I think
presented earlier also in terms of, you go back to this for 0.2 percent, you know stream
you can see the reduction is 0.6 for 400 degrees. So, you use the summarize, summary of
the reduction factors for various temperatures for 0.2 percent. So, you can see here from
0.6 it goes down point 0.7 when the temperature reaches 600 degrees. So, how do we
approach the design problem? So, basically we want to keep the stresses under control.
So, you look at this, the second column, the unity check ratio, I think most of your are
familiar with unity check ratio, I think what we were looking at is the applied stress
divided by allowable stress.
So, applied does not depend on the temperature, it is basically the loads and the
geometry. Allowable stress depends on the allowable stress factor, which is percentage
of yield and yield strength itself is going to reduce by certain percentage, which you see
from the column number one. So, basically at 20 degrees, if there if is no temperature
change then, unity check is 1, it is normal design, but when you have 400 degrees
increased, the yield reduced by 60 percent. And basically, as long as you keep your
applied stress level at 60 percent, you know you correspondingly reduce your applied
stress to 60 percent then, the unit check will remain same. Because, ultimately we want
to maintain the unit check less than 1 so that, the structure they demand versus capacity
satisfied, structure dose not so, failure case.
So, that is the ultimate aim of the design. So, as long as you keep the temperature higher,
keep the applied stress is lower. So, it is just a linear interpolation I would say or just a
proportioning of the increased temperature, reduction in the steel yield stresses. And
correspondingly you reduced the applied stress levels by reducing the load or the
alternatively you cannot reduced the load because, that is what your indented purpose
have design. So, what we normally do is, we increase a section capacity such that the
applied stress levels are only brought to the level of 60 percent of the, that is for the 400
degrees, just a typical example.
So, if you want to have any other factor so, just proportionate the reduction in yield is
equal to reduction in the applied stress level. So, just a crude way of doing it, if you
understand this I think then it is very easy. Basically what we are trying to maintain is,
the unity check to be maintained, as if the original unit check when the stress levels are
maintained at 20 degrees, just normal you know the operating conditions. So, that is what
is demonstrated in this particular table because, most of the design methods for
temperature, it is going to be this way except, in some specialized cases we may go
beyond the yield.
So, if you look at this diagram one important think what we are just now discussed
without realizing the changes happening to the stress strain curve, we simply reduce the
stress levels to the same as the reduction in the yield, which is not very good. Because
we do not look at the stress strain curve because, the slop of the stress strain curve is very
important, how the behavior is. You see this curve is the solid line, this solid line is the
change of you know the stress corresponding to strain at various points, along the
increasing strain levels. So, basically from if you look at this first point is about 0.2
percent and then, 0.4 percent and then so on its keep on increasing up to say 1.8 percent
or 1.7 percent.
Now you see, it is continuously changing, it does not fallow a typical you know linear
elastic and then perfectly plastic. It is just basically a continuous non-linear profile. Now
we need modulus of elasticity value for design purposes. Basically when do analysis you
need stiffness, for calculating stiffness you need surely the model is a elasticity value.
So, which value will you take? If you have very nice typical linear elastic one line
bilinear stress strain diagram, then it is very easy because, you will take the initial slope
because, most of your design is going to be within the 0.2 percent.
You see here if of course, this first one 0.2, but you even before there was, there was
slight clink there, even point may be 0.5 percent there. So, it is continuously changing
and basically we need to find out what will be the best assumption and approximation we
can make. As the discussed about yesterday, we can take a initial modulus, an average
between this point which is 0.06 and basically 0.2 and pass through a data line, which
take us to a typically strength reduction factor of 0.6. Basically here and this and make
bilinear graph and take that as your yield strength, 60 percent of the yield and
corresponding to strain value of 0.2 or slightly higher. So, you take that slope as the
modulus of velocity used in your analysis, that is a first approximation.
So, we take 0.2 percent as the approximation to find out what is the approximate model
is the velocity value. The second approximation could be potentially using the same 0.6
or the corresponding yield value, just take a straight line joining origin and the point of
intersection with the 60 percent reduction. And you will see a reduced modulus of
velocity whether the slop is reducing.
So, you can see here there is substantial difference, when you use a model is a velocity
using the first option b, you will see that the stiffness is more compared to the second
one, stiffness will be less. Now, how do you approximate depends on the person who is
doing the work basically, this is where the principle needs to be applied, you have to be
conservative, but non conservative.
So, if you use the choice one or option b, they call it choice b it is not good because, you
are taking higher stiffness in your system analysis compared to the second one. And most
of the time both of them are not correct because, if you are having a value of your stress
at this plot may be that point correct, but what about in between? In between you have
continuously changing values of the ratio of stress and strain and if you take only one
value as a representative because, you are doing a linear static analysis. Because you are
trying to do a simplified structural analysis, that is why you are doing this, but what of
you do non-linear linear analysis?
Then you do not need to assumed like this, every time you can divide the hole graph into
say 10 sub segments, every time you can take the different values of modulus value,
whenever the strains are increasing So, for lower strain you will take the values
somewhere here, as the strain value increasing, as you have a long large deformation
problem then, you can continuously change your the tension modules, which you should
calculate from this graph. So, that is where the necessity of the second order or so called
a non-linear analysis structures is required, whenever the strain values are larger than 0.2
percent and then higher.
So, whenever you have a material characteristics not bilinear, I will show you another
bilinear graph, I think you have before also straight line and then just a perfectly plastic
and that type of problem you do not need to worry. Whereas here, you see here multi
segments of linear proposition here and continuously changing from starting itself, which
will be a typical behavior for steel under increased temperature. I think is what we saw or
so, yesterday at several graphs in one particular picture for steel at 20 degrees, 400
degrees, 500 degrees you will see that is no more a bilinear graphs. So, that is one thing
very important that you need to remember, it is not only yield strength reduces, but also
two things happen, there is a reduction in the modulus and also the modulus is not a
constant value trough out the range of deformation.
It is going to be changing, which needs to be accounted for, if you are using higher strain
value, if you are using 0.2 percent strain, I think you do not need to very because, the
anywhere difference between this and this probably a very small difference. But you
decide to go for a large deformation because, you want to absorb more energy, you want
to allow more strain, more strain means you will go somewhere here.
Then, the strain value is needs to be appropriately taken to calculate the model is a
velocity, that is where the difference and it all depends the choice of analysis with it. If
you still use the conventional allowable stress method, none of this what we discussed
here can be incorporated because, the method itself uses only a single rings modulus
value, which either you will use the initial or you will use the final.
So, it depends which method. So, if you go to non-linear second order analysis then, all
this can be in corrupted appropriately and that why when you are designing is, basically
critical components in the system. For example, thermal nuclear reactor you do not do a
simple static analysis like what we are trying to do, you have to do non-linear analysis to
stimulate the, the, the temperature behavior of the structure and make sure that all the
possible, you know the response are taken into account. Whereas, when we are designing
a simple structures like you know, the protective barrier you go, try to go conservatively
and try to do a static design, as long the pickup right values.
A typical elongation of a beam not restrained in any directions. So, then when you
temperature increases from t, t naught to t, you see the delta t happening and basically
you can find out the thermal strain in any direction as long is not restrained. So, it is just
going to expand this way, expand longitudinally and it the transfers direction. So, you
could easily calculate, but what if, what happens if you just try to restrain in one
direction, along the end, see you have put one restrain on this understand on this, that the
beam is trying to expand in any direction where ever, the degree of return is free. And
that is what will happen, when you try to do, look at beam you just hold it on both ends
and it is trying to unable to go in the actual direction.
And also unable to rotate at the end because, you might have fixed, but if you have
allowed to rotate and that is will happen, you know when you will allow the ends to
rotate because, simply supported the boundary conditions and just trying to. So, you can
see here one important thing is, when the beam is bending one of the surface is going to
get a compressive force, the other surface is going to get the tensile force.
So, this shrinkage is also a problem, depending on type of cross section you know if the
shrinks is to large, buckling may initiate. And that is way most of the failures due to fire
happens because of this, large deformation unable to take. And then suddenly, though
there is no actual load, you know the problem is because of the shrinkage length of the
member, unable to go further down, just try to deckle locally and fail. So, that is many of
the cases the failure due to fire is because of this phenomena called shrinkage length.
There are several methods described by API for a design so, what we have looked at is
the critical parameter is the reduction factor, modulus of elasticity reduction
corresponding to the temperature. And in here, we got about typically the first two
methods are same, almost same I would say, except there is little difference in
accommodating in the temperature.
The first one is very simple, keep the temperature below 400 degrees means, is as long as
you have the temperature below 400 degrees, you do not need to do any design, as long
as you keep the unity check ratio corresponding to the yield strength reduction.
So, basically that is the table that is going to be used, the linear elastic limit as the
normally do, most of design in the last several years is basically just replace the yield
strength by, the actual reduction factor. So, you if have 0.6 or 5, you replace trough out
and replace the modulus of elasticity corresponding to either the tangent or the initial
modulus. And this is what practiced by almost all designers in the, in the see for so,
many years because, it is quite easy know, just replace modulus value replace the. But
only one important thing is the linearization has to done properly, like this all one
different choice b, choice a.
So, if you do linearization conservatively taking as lower side of the modulus properly
not a problem, but if you take the choice no, choice a, if you choice b higher modeless
value not very good. So, that the only difference. The elastic and the elastic and to plastic
method, that is typically a second order analysis, both material and geometry because, it
is a large deformation problem and material itself is continuously changing. And which
normally not done, except for very specific cases and probably what we are looking at is,
the ultimate capacity, not the elastic capacity. So, ultimate capacity at any time the
structure dose not collapse.
So, under high temperature so, some of the members were fail, but still the system does
not collapse because, you have redundancy in the system. So, that what we are trying to
do in the third one and typically, it is not done for conventional design special cases even
for jackets they do it, but not for fire, but for ((Refer time: 14:41)). But some cases
people have attempt to do fire stimulation, if you lose one of the leg whether the system
can still be stable because, during fire you could get such a situation there where, one
side of the leg is damaged or collapsed.
So, such analysis is, is basically taking it to account the plastic capacity available that
means, beyond yield you might have seen, we have been using a triangles situation for
elastic. When you go to plastic, you have a rectangular distribution. So, the distribution
across a section and distribution along the length. So, those will be taken into account in
this whereas, has the first two methods nothing of that sort, simply a triangles
distribution and basically conventional allowable stress design.
So, let us look at quickly what the zone method, API has given you the tape, figure you
see on the right hand side comprising of all three method, the dark color or the bottom,
you can see 20 degrees. This is 20 degrees, the design as per operational temperature
with no temperature increase. So, you could see here I have just defined the zone method
restricting the temperature 400 degrees. So, as long as you have the temperature below
400 degrees, the unity check will be 1 and as long as at 20 degrees, you design the
system in such a way that, the unity check is 0.6, 0.6 yeah. So, basically that means the
applied stresses are kept low at 20 degrees and at 400 degrees the unity check will
become 1.
So, very simple just proportionate, you know basically that is the idea behind the zone
method, but only the difference is we are keeping the temperature below 400 degrees.
And that is the most projects applied this, this principle because, temperature higher than
400 degrees you know, the reduction factor is so large that, the section size is become
too big. So, we will look at alternatives how to bring the temperature below 400 degrees
rather than, do not provide any protection, but just allow the temperature to grow as big
as in some cases what we normally do is, insulation in many part of the structure, you
know basically the thermal coating. Or if the, if the design because of not accurate
because, I think it might have seen is structure called flower structure, we were trying
fire the excess gas.
At the one of the days I have explained you, there will be a structure two fire the, the gas
that is coming out of oil platform, I think first few classes we were discussing. If there is
purely oil platform designed for oil protection, but there will be a gas coming together
with oil, the quantity is so small that, you do not want to know do production. So, such
times you actually fire the gas instead of sending it back to land, if it is a predominantly
gas platform and then, you produce because, you got to change the equipments. So, in
such type of cases you will see, I think probably I will show you a photograph the, the
firing of gas will actually affect the structures in the vicinity, isn’t it?
So, that type of design you can provide a barrier, you actual make a barrier or make the
structure so long that the temperature reaching the main structure is within 400 degrees,
just a planned activity. So, it is not an accident, it is actually an operational case, but we
can restrict. So, most of the time such type of cases we will be assured that the
temperature is below 400 and then just come up with the. So, 20 degrees the unity check
is basically 0.6 and we know very well that 400 degrees, the yield strength reduction is
0.6. Only one thing is we have forgotten about the modulus of elasticity because, we are
looking at the, if you look at 400 degrees.
Just let us go back quickly, what happens to 400 degrees somewhere here, 500, 400 is 1,
2, 3 I think this is the one 200, 300, 400. So, if you look at the 400 degrees still it is not
linear, if you look at the 20 the degrees, it is just one straight line and a horizontal plastic
line. So, basically still there will be considerable change in the modulus of elasticity
depending on what reduction factor. For example, for 60 percent you may be taking
some where here about 200 something. So, if you join this line and this line you will see
at least 20 to 30 percent reduction, 20 percent deduction in the modulus of elasticity
value, which is what we are ignoring in the zone method.
So, you got to be little bit careful as long as your temperature is set 200 degrees probably
not bad because, the yield instant production from 350 or to probably 300 and the slop
between this line and this line is very, very small change. So, that is where you have to
be little bit careful. So, the idea behind the zone method is simply designing the
structures with the reduced applied stress, corresponding to the yield strength reduction
factors for 400 degrees. And there just a typical example, I have the applied stress 0.6
FOI and basically at 20 degrees and we know very well that the allowable stress or the
safety factor in allowable stress design 1.67, taking 0.6.
And gamma is also increase factor, which is normally if you remember when you design
structures for a seismic condition, we normally increases stresses to 70 percent. I think
most of the codes are describing, I think whether is API or IS 1893 during seismic
condition, you can increase the stresses to 70 percent. So, similarly you see here the
stress increase factor of 1.67, when you substitute all of them you will get a unit disgrace
of 1. So, that is the idea behind you keep the stresses below certain level, unity check
will be only one thing is the modulus value is not changed and just completely ignored.
As long as the change is smaller, then the system behavior will be same. Now if you go
to the same zone method at higher strain value, what we discussed just know only 0.2
percent, which is okay, as long as your deformations are smaller.
But what happens when the strain values you want to allow larger because, you want to
have more deformation and in such cases, the allowable temperature for example, when
you restricted the strain to 0.2 percent, 400 degrees you are unity check value is 1.
Whereas, when you allow largest deformation the strain value is higher then, you can
possibly allow higher temperature. So, that is the another thing. So, the higher the
deformation values you would like allow you can have the slightly increased
temperature.
Like for example, if you want to allow 2 percent strain then, you can go for higher
temperature because, it is going to. So, basically what we try to important note is the,
note at the bottom, the modulus value has to be appropriately taken. So, if you not taking
then, it will be incorrect system analysis though the components design correctly, but the
behavior of the system will not be correct.
The second one is the linear elastic method, but exactly the same, only thing is the
system analysis will be taken into account, the average model is the velocity and we do
allow temperatures beyond 400 degrees. So, you can see here this is the 400 degrees line
450, 500, 550 and 600 all of them are drawn in the same graph. So, the typical example it
will be the exactly the same design, only that we have for example, unity check value of
1 at 600 basically, your applied stress must be reduced to 27 percent. So, when you do as
400 degrees, we could actually allow up to 60 percent of the original load. Whereas,
when you go to 600 degree c and we can only allow 27 percent.
So, basically that is the idea behind you know, you, you keep increasing the stress, you
have to keep reducing the applied load. And otherwise, you cannot maintain the unity
check of one, which demarcates the failure to non-failure. So, that is the simple
difference both methods, if you consider basically the change in modulus as elasticity,
both methods are reasonably correct, as long as the strain values are smaller. When the
strain value goes larger and larger, that is where the problem starts to crop up because,
modulus values will start changing.
The elastoplastic method commonly used for large deformation structures, not for stiff
and steel structures basically, specialized structures like, you can use this method.
Because, the time consuming process you have to model the material characteristics, you
have to model the geometric second ordinal linearity. And whenever you go beyond
then, you will be using the extra strength, that is not strength available even the elastic
limit to the failure also called ultimate strength, which normally in most of the design we
do not allow and you will use that with appropriate factor of safety. So, basically in
summary the design of structures for steel is very simple idea, what we need to know is
the strain value, increased temperature multiplied by the thermal coefficient.
And you will get the strain, from strain you can go back to deformation and stresses and
correspondingly work out the unit disaggressive. Or you limit the temperature to a
particular limit and then, calculate the reduction factor in the yield, compute what will be
the allowable applied load or you calculate backwards, what will be the second the
property either way. So, basically what we need to remember in design for temperature
is, trying to modify this yield strength and young’s modulus.
So, in the examination point of view I think you will be given simple exercise of reading
the chart, you know nothing more than because, basically system analysis cannot be
performed because, where you are replacing the rings modules value. Whereas in the
component calculation either you will be calculating the section property required or you
can calculate the limiting temperature or limiting strain. So, most of time you will use
this chart, what we were looking at.
The next one what we are going to see here today is the design against blast, I think we
have discussed about this fact that, blast deserted fire or fire in the state initiated blast or
have to be treated little bit carefully. So, in this case we are just going to look at the fire
initiated blast, fire is already occurring and there is blast. And that blast, the behavior
needs to be understood, the load is going to be dynamic. I think most of you might have
studied dynamics of structures going through a course now no, not yet, you know the
single degree of freedom response at least you need to remember, I think you might have
also studied in your basis, in your physics.
So, basically we need to see how the response, if the loading cycles or loading frequency
is comparably close to the system frequency. Then, how the response is going to be
increased? We call it resonance, I think that is the most critical part of the whole
business. Both in terms of cyclic loading like wave loads or in this particular case, the
blast is going to be the pulse load, very small duration or large amplitude. So, what really
happens you know basically, you will be locking to a resonance area where, the
amplitude of response of the structure could be several fold, higher than conventional
static response.
You know, if you calculate a simple beam apply the blast load and try to find out what is
the deflection at the center, you may get few millimeter if you just ignore the frequency
response function. Or if you take account you may get several time may be, 5 times, 6
times. So, that is the exactly we need to find out the blast load is going to be dynamic, it
is not static load and the duration, the smaller duration we are going to have trouble.
Imagine you have a blast and just over long period of time the behavior will become
almost equal to static loading, that is exactly the idea and will see how the behavior
modeled.
If you look at this typical compartment, blast occurs as long as the ventilation is there.
The most important problem is ventilation, you know if you do not have the ventilation,
the, what is a blast? Blast is basically an ignition of a source material, it could be gas in
this case of platform or it could be oil or it could be other types of sources, which
normally we do not use in our platforms. So, basically in this case if thus the ignition
point is congested in that area, you got a large of lot of obstructions, there is the
possibility of the exposes, exploded gas is unable to escape. Then, there will be a further
increase of pressure which we call it the blast over pressure.
So, you make a compartment and just explore and typically that is what will happen and
that is where if you have large ventilation, the gases could actually, the gas cloud can
escape so that, the pressure, the over pressure will be reduced. In fact several times the
damages are very large because of this, you know the ventilation is not there, that is why
when you expose something in a open space nothing really happens. But when you
expose the same thing in a congested space, with several ((Refer time: 29:06)) and other
materials in the vicinity could to a serious damage.
So, that is why the blast basically, the combustion of unburnt gases trying to escape,
whatever is brunt is okay, it will become a smoke, but the un brunt gases trying to escape
will build up pressure and trying to expand. And that is called the over pressure
generated by the blast and that is why, when you design an offshore platform, you need
make sure that all directions. Whenever there is a large equipments, you need to provide
the large space around and also ventilation to make the gases escape both the, during the
blast as well as during normal operation.
So, you see here at this picture as long as the obstruction or no obstruction, if there is an
obstruction, if it is uniform then the net load is 0 or if there is no obstruction every, it can
actually expand nicely. So, that net load will be simply not there whereas, there is
unequal construction or kind of distribution something like this, then there will be a net
load because of the differential pressure, which is caused by the drag. So, that is the
exactly idea happening in the real scenario where, the equipments and the other facilities
around particular location or designation and expose is not differently going to be a
inform, there is no point of doing that.
So, that is why that net load causes damage to structures in terms of trying to rip-off the
structure and the local vicinity or that whole thing can go and ((Refer time: 30:47)) on to
neighboring wall or a bigger obstruction.
Typical you know basically, the over process expected in the offshore platforms, not as
high as 7 bar. Most of the offshore platforms are designed for less than 1 bar many, but
in special cases some of the platforms also designed for 3 bar over pressure. So, you
could see here 2 bar is nothing but 300 kilo Pascal, which is 30 ton per meter square. So,
if you look at 0.2 bar is 2 ton per square meter. So, imagine 2 ton per square meter is
very large loading 20 p k i is huge loading and when you design for 30 ton per square
meter, which is possibly the heaviest load the civil engineers may not have even seen
you know such type of loading, would possible to design any structure for such type of
loading, especially when you want to design for gravity.
So, that is where the problem will come so, you can see here the expected type of
damages to human being because, after all we are worried about you know the injurious
and the mortality. Basically if you have such type of over pressures and that is where the
damage is too much. So, most of the cases we have less than 1 bar, some times as much
as 7 bar only very few platforms, especially when you have a congested space.
So, how the blast wave interact with structures depends on you know the type of
obstruction and basically the enclosure that you have. So, you see here the, similar to our
the chalk piece, you have the surface face then, you go to our wave base, the incident
waves and the reflected waves get actually interacting and the effect will be increasing
further more. So, you can see here an obstruction is here and basically, the shock wave
propagating from one end because of the explosion comes backwards for an obstructed
space or a wall. So, you will see the, unless you have 100 percent ventilation, you will
see a savior interaction, which will be very difficult to stimulate and that is where the
pressure will buildup and wherever the weakest component on the wall, will try to export
in the direction.
So, this idea is the prediction blast over pressure, typically there is no software to
stimulate this. What people have done is, they have done several full scale testing, you
know the join industry report which is was referring, the interim report basically have
done several full scale model fabrication and ignited with artificial you know detonated
the and mastered the over pressures, with several degrees of ventilation, you have. For
example, in this particular case you enclose it and only provide a weaker particular space
so that, exceeding the particular over pressure, that will actually blow off. So, that means
the over pressure will build up is so much.
So, like that they have done the experiments and come up with the report, depending on
the porosity of the structure porosity does not mean that, we like the structure porous.
The obstructions on the facility, you know you have pipes, you have equipments, you
may have structural columns, you may have structural beams. So, put together a volume
is defends x y z volume and how much is occupied by the obstruction and how much is
not occupied by are empty space. So, that ratio is very much important, depending on
that the values are recommended and basically will see in the next few slides. So, the
blast over pressure is very important to obtain from references are from others sources so
that, it can be used for design.
Typically you see here, as long as you know the velocity of flow, theoretically you can
stimulate gas floe around solid bodies or obstructions you can calculate the drag force, as
long you know the velocity of the flow. So, depending on the type of objects that is
being, if it is too small mostly the flow will go around creating a drag and if it is slightly
bigger, not too big, it may actually create a soft force. Because, it is an abstraction that is
crossing, depending in the shape and size things could be different, but as long as you
know the velocity, you could use the projected area to find out, what could be the
potential drag force that causes. So, the potential drag force once you know, then you can
design the structures. Typical pressure time curve is just given in this graph.
So, you can see here potentially it will be lees then 150 mill second very small, time
period is quite small. The most important is the rise time, which is basically so, you see
just idealized, you know just like a triangle. Whereas, you may not see a nice triangle
like this, you may see ah things like this changing within the time period, but for the
analysis purpose we normally use a simplified triangle. So, the three parameters one is
peak pressure, basically the value of the pick, it could be at the center of or it could be at
the, of the center because, not necessary that you will get nice symmetric triangle like
this. And then, the rise time in the, in this case is 50 percent, this basically the half of the
total and the total duration of the pulse.
So, these three parameters are required so that, we can go back to a mathematical model
and use the dynamic equation and substitute the loading and can find out the structure
response. And as I mentioned earlier, the peak process vary from 0.1 bar to 10 bar,
typically for offshore applications, not more than 2 or 3 bars.
And depending on, you know the, the type of impulse you can go the, the last one first,
the ratio of total duration divided by the natural frequency. If it is greater than 2 that
means, basically behaves as most, almost close to static or quasi static. So, you do not
need to worry about the so, the duration of loading is very large, is sustained loading,
isn’t it? So, you can treated as a static structure, you do not need to vary about dynamic.
Whenever the pulse so small then, it is just excited and then the load reduces. So, the
structure starts vibrating depending on the frequency, you will see into resonance and
that is the most important one and you can see here the rise time is quite very small or
does not exist.
Straight away, value picks higher value and starts reducing and most of the detonated
explosions will be something like this, the peak value will be reaching in very very small
period almost 0 and then comes down. Whereas, when the explosion happens after a fire
you may see that, there could be a similar situation because, already fire is there, the
detonation can happen very quickly. So, these three we need to understand how we deal
with it because, each of this area you can defined a particular analysis method. So, as I
mentioned the last one, we really do not need to worry about dynamics, the first one for
sure very short impulse and second is in between 0.4 and 2.
So, basically for the first and the second one, we use a dynamic analysis whereas the last
one, you could use a simple static analysis of course, in the slight increase in the
dynamic load factor and approximation, which we can use it, because, still we are trying
to convert the dynamic loading to static loading. So, you just multiply by a dynamic load
factor, which is what is mostly practiced in the industry because, a first two involves
considerable amount of time and effort. So, we try to do is, we try to do a single area of
freedom of model of the first two items and try to find out, what could be a possible
dynamic load factor, go and apply to a quasi-static model, which is a simple static
analysis and increased the loading by that amount and then find out what is a response.
So, structural resistance against blast loads basically, the idea behind is the large
deformation and you can see here, the important thing is when the large deformation is
occurring should not go and impinge on to neighboring equipments because, that may
trigger subsequent basically a blast or fire. So, the important parameter is, one is the over
pressure which we discussed about it. Basically for large obstruction because, it is unable
to escape or smaller obstruction you may actually have a drag force, which very similar
to any drag component like wind.
Acceptance criteria we just need to fix up, one is the strength limit, the other one is
deformation limit, I think deformation is very easy to understand, we want to limit the
deflection to say half a meter. Because, we want to keep the equipments in the near or
you may set the value meter as long as you want to waste 2 meters space in that vicinity.
So, it all depends on the space availability, as know very well the space availability is
very difficult in offshore platform, not easy to get large open space. So, you typically
give a meter and put all your equipments around.
So, when the deflection happens so, the deformation limit is very easy to set, how you
obtain the deformation is the most important. Whether you want do a simple static
analysis or you want to do second order non-linear deformation or you do a consist
analysis with a load factor multiplied. Strength limit is again, similar idea like, what we
discussed about the temperature. Similar you can do a static analysis, multiplied by the
dynamic amplification or you can do a non-linear analysis.
Prof. Dr. S.Nallayarasu
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Module - 6
Lecture - 5
Design against Accidental Loads 5
So, let us continue today, the remainder of the design against to blast loading. I think
yesterday, we were looking at the requirement.
Basically, how you evaluate and what are the design criteria. And if you look at it, the
basically, the acceptance criteria is based on the serviceability requirements and the
strength requirements. And the this strength requirements, as usual if you are looking at
allowable stress design or the other forms of the design, where you use the plastic
capacity. But most of the time for blast loading, we still use the allowable stress method.
Only when very rear cases, we go into basically plastic design methods. And the
deformation limit is something that we need to limit it indirectly.
So, basically the deformation limit is depending on the location of the equipment’s and
the facilities and also the disconnection of the structure, with the main structure.
Basically, what do you do not want the last displacement to make the plastic hinge
formation at the 2 ends. For example, if you take a simply supported beam, you allow the
beam to bend substantially larger deformation, then the ends will form a plastic hinge, by
which it will just fracture. So basically, no part of the structure should impulse the
critical operations, on the equipment on the other side. And the deformation should not
collapse or make the structure to collapse because the hinge formation, either 2 numbers
or 3 numbers are depending on the bending movement.
So basically, the idea behind why we do not want the structure to collapse, because we
need to give sufficient time for the people to run away, to a place which is safe enough,
for them to be evacuated. That is, sometimes we call it temporary safe refills, is just a
technical notation given in the codes and guidance. Its t s r is nothing but, some place is
designated to be a safe place, for them to stay there for a slightly longer time - waiting
time, so that you know basically either they can get evacuated, by helicopter or boat or
other means. So, every platform normally will have a temporary safe refuge, at a
particular designated location.
You suppose to assemble, in case of in case of an emergency like fire or other forms of
accidents. And along the route, you know basically when they are running around,
towards that particular location, the escape path must be designed in such a way that, you
know, the collapse does not happened. The idea is, so you have to identify the elements,
which are required to be satisfying this condition and design those elements accordingly.
So, if you look at the design load, I think yesterday also we are looking at the pulse
loading. The duration of pulse, is basically tau and the natural period of the structure that
you are looking at.
For example, when you are looking at a escape path, you have several beams supporting
the escape path. Each beam should be looked at as a individual element, it is a local
design. It is not a global design we are looking at. And basically, the natural period is
local to that particular beam, not like the complete structure. And the design method are
also called the analysis method, depends on the behaviour of the structure, whether its
dynamic or static or even highly displacement based structure.
Basically, if you look at the loading ratio, the duration verses the period of the structure
is very very small, then you may have to use the energy method, which we normally we
use it for some class of problem like drop objects, we look at the impact energy and the
energy observed by the structure. As long as the load is very short duration, short pulse
and just have a impact and typically, we calculate impact energy by means of the weight
times a height, m g h we can calculate.
And the energy observed by the system, can be easily calculated by the work done, you
know. So, as long as the energy observed by the structure is larger, this system is not
going got fail by, you know basically brutal nature. So, that is one of the method which
is conventionally used, for most of the, you know the impact type of problems. And if
the loading is between 0.4 to 2, that means the duration to the period of the structure, is
slightly longer duration. You could actually use a dynamic analysis method, where you
look at the response of the structure using a simplified, either single degree freedom
system or multiple degree of freedom system.
I do not know, whether we have taken classes in dynamics, basically single degree of
freedom is this, moves in one direction. For example, each particle in a structure can
have a 6 degree of freedom, in a basically 3 translation 3 rotations. In this particular case,
what is our interest is, the lateral motion of the structure or the displacement of the
structure. Typically if we take a wall, you know the horizontal displacement is what we
are very much worried about. Basically, you do not want to have the structure go on hit
or impact against any other equipment and dislocates. So, basically that, so most of the
time, we try to use a single degree of freedom system. If it is only assists a simple wall or
a beam, you do not look at anything else, other than just the lateral displacement. And
many times is very very simple, you know quite easy to do hand calculation. If it
becomes multi degree of freedom, of course, then you may use a assistance from
computer, computer software’s and then the loading is substantially longer duration, then
you can go for a simple static energy method. Static energy which is equal to a stiffness
method, basically a simple analysis can be performed.
Deformation limit in many cases, we directly or indirectly, we have several ideas have
limiting without doing design. You know for example, the I think most of you are civil
engineers. You might have studied in concrete design, we tried to limit this is span to
depth ratio, you know for making sure that the deformation is within limits, you do not
even need to do calculations. For example, simply supported span to depth ratio is
limited to say, 20 cant linear 10, 12. Something guidance, which you follow most
probably, you will not have a problem with a deflection. In this particular case, basically
a typical values span by 40. You know, because of the impact loading, so in just almost a
factor of f t f, true. So basically, the proportion by span, the larger the span, then you will
have a larger amount allowable.
(Refer Slide time: 06:45)
Absolute deformation is something that, we need to also set because of, you know the
spacing between the structure or the wall to the equipment in the vicinity. Typically
about a meter in practise, normally we give a meter space. Because if it is less than a
metre space; for example, you do not have a access to equipment on the other side. So
normally, we give about 1 meter 1.2 meter. So, once you fix up this, the absolute
deformation, then probably working out are that calculating the straight limit is easy
easier. Because you take a beam, you allow 1 meter to deflect, then automatically you
can calculate that, what could be the potential strain induce down the beam, at the ends
or elsewhere. So that, basically the strain limits is indirectly coming from the
deformation limits.
Now, how much strain any system can take, depends on the type of material. For
example, you take a glass, you take a rubber and the steel material. You can easily see,
that the glass will not even take a fraction of a percentage. So just break because the
material is brutal in nature, compared to steel. And the same thing goes to rubber, its
quite elastic, it can take a large amount of strain, as much as 20,30 percent. Whereas,
steel can take at, specially the ductile steel can take 17 percent at low strain rates, not
very fast, slow increase. So you can see here, the ductility ratio is defined in terms of the
elastic verses elasto plastic, basically to see that after elastic deformation how much
strain the system can take, so that failure will is not immediate, it can actually go for a
slow and ductile failure.
So the ductility ratio is one of the area where, lot of research have been done. In fact, we
have already got some idea about elastic modulus verses plastic modulus. I think in few
classes back, we were looking at for different sections, different boundary conditions.
So, one of the thing is ductility ratio is not only effected by the material selected, also
affected by the geometry and also the boundary conditions and the type of loading. I
think all of them, we have had a look at early run, we just have to re look at it, in terms
of ductility ratio.
Basically, the steel sections can sustain the plastic deformation, provided they do not
have other forms of failure. For example, you take that eye section verses the tubular
system, the predominant different is buckling. Eye sections have a buckling, whereas
tubular’s have a local buckling because of the d by t ratio. So, as long as they both of
them does not happen, both of them will reach the maximum plastic capacity. But again,
depends on the span. So basically, we need to look at the span, the section property and
type of loading and the boundary conditions.
All of them put together, though you have a very good ductile steel and calculate back
what is the ductility ratio, the ratio of deformation at elastic to the plastic, that the
maximum deformation that beam can take. Because, we are looking at, mostly the beam
type of element for design in offshore structures. One of the limitation, basically though
the beam can take, many times that is what happen. You know, for example you design a
residential building.
You have architectural finishes, the structure actually can take slightly higher or increase
the deformation deflections by. Why we want to limit to lower value? We do not want to
see a crack appearing on a structure, which prohibit the uses to be little bit scary. You
know basically, they do not want to go there, because you can see this cracks visible. So
the structural deformation actually, will reflect on the architectural finishes, whereas I
think offshores structure is we are not worried too much. But what is our worry is, the
fire protection coating, what is applied on to the structural elements will start cracking.
Once you have a crack, the effectiveness will be gone, because the temperature will be
directly attacking to the steel structure. So, that is one of the worry, where you know you
may limit the strain to a limited value rather than going to the maximum strain value.
A typical strain limits given by some of the codes, which I have just try to summarise,
you know basically, tension member you can go for 5 percent instead of 17 percent,
though we say we can go for 17 percent up to. And basically, the other members in
compression bending, you know I have just taken one typical example from B S or E C
codes. You can go for 5 percent, 3 percent and other open sections to 1 percent,
compared to we allow 0.2 percent, for elastic or allowable based design, which all our
linear stress strain diagram is at 0.2 percent strain. So you could see here, from 0.2
percent, we are trying to go to 1 percent, 2 percent and 5 percent.
So, we use the same equations, allowable stress equations and calculate back what could
be the possible deformation or deflection of a beam. If I use 5 percent strain limit, you
will see that it will be very large. But when the deflection is large, by that means itself,
all your theory is not correct because the first assumption, we make in the elastic beam
bending theory is the deflection is small, so the deflected configuration is same as the
original beam. That is the first assumption you make and that will be violated. So that is
why, whenever you are going for this large strain problem, you have to look for a, the
updated.
So basically, every time you apply a load, you divide the load into several sub steps.
Each time you apply a load, find out the deflected configuration, re calculate the stiffness
based on the deflected system and then apply the additional load and just keep on going.
So basically, that is where the this, the idea have to work out. So most of the large strain
problem, we have to go for a non-linear analysis, geometric non-linear analysis. The
other one basically, thee important problem is shrinkage of the beam. You take a simple
beam, rectangular cross section, you apply a central point load, when the beam bends,
what happens?
The bottom surface experiences tension. The top surface experiences compression. As
long as the deflection of the beam centre is smaller, these extension and reduction in the
length of the beam surfaces could be very small, the difference, the compression and the
tension. Whereas, if the deformation is so large, that you will see that the shrinkage at the
top is going to be substantially larger and they longest in at the bottom is going to be
very big. And that basically have to be worked out, the shrinkage limits, sometimes
instead of specifying directly the deflection, you will be given a shrinkage limit of
particular material. Because I have got architect architectural finishes, I may have other
coatings. At that particular shrinkage limit, the material disintegrates.
For example, you have a intermission coating on top of the steel beam, when you bend
the beam to 5 percent strain, you will see that none of the coating excites there, so all
gone, so you will have to get the shrinkage limits from the material manufacturer, that it
can take only, say 1 percent. Then you have to calculate back, what could be the
potential deflection that you can allow for the beam and what backwards. So all this is
basically to not just look at the mechanic side of the problem, also the serviceability and
offer ability of the system in question. So, member shrinkage is one thing that we need to
work out.
So basically, the ductility ratio is the total deformation at failure or just close to failure at
ultimate load, to a deflection at elastic limit which is at 0.2 percent, which will give you
an idea, how much deformation a beam or a plate or a system can take prior to failure.
So, that gives you the range, as long as if they are equal, for example ductility ratio is 1,
not a good idea. Because as soon as it reaches the yield, the beam is going to fail and that
will never be called ductile failure. It will be called brutal failure, which is what we do
not want to happen.
And you have to select system material and loading systems and basically your cross
sections, such that ductile failure. Always every design of structure, whether it is
onshore, offshore everybody is looking for a ductile failure of the system, not the brutal
failure. So, as I mentioned early on, it depends on so many factors. The fixity, not only
beam, it could be plates also. And you have type of loading and the shape of stress strain
curve, whether it is just elastic and perfectly plastic. No, good is it not? Because it is
basically by linear and once it reaches and large deformation will be immediate and that
is exactly, we were talking about.
I think several classes back, the difference between yield strength and the ultimate
strength, the larger and larger is good. If you have smaller and smaller, there is no
redundancy in the stress strength of. And the rate of loading, basically whether it is quick
pulse loading or sustains loading for a longer duration and the hinge formation, basically
the plastic hinge. I think we have cuts, little information about simple beam system, to
calculate the plastic movement capacity. I think, we will insist revise again one more
time. If you look at the, some of the text books or code guidance, you will get this
derived formulas.
We could also derive, based on what we have learned on the beam fixity and the stress
strain curves. This is a summary of equations, that is to give you an idea for ductility
ratio or ductility factor, which is just sometimes do not get confuse with symbol mu. In
this particular one, they have given mu. Normally, we use mu for poison sections, so just
do not worry about it. Basically, for a different beams, from cantilever and supported
beams on both and simply supports, fix beam with different types of loading, you know
the summary of the equation to calculate, the ductility ratio, always must be greater than
definitely 1.
If it is 1, that means the system is very week in carrying in any load. Basically it will
fail, once it reaches the ill strength. So you see here, epsilon p is the plastic strain and
epsilon y is the, you know basically, I think it should be 17 percent. Basically the elastic
limit and 0.17 instead of 0.2 for grade 50 steel for elastic limit and s x and z x is the
elastic and plastic modulus, which I think most of the sections, we have already derived
sometimes back. You know, i sections, circular sections. I think, we have derived both,
so you should be able to substitute this, you can get the value. And you will see that
depending on the type of cross section, depending on the ratios, you will get the different
values. In fact, summary of such, has been taken from one of the euro code, for grade 50
steel.
You will see that the numbers, rising from as low as 1.6 up to, you know 12.5 is the large
number for most of the beams. You can see here, especially the class 1 and class 2. Class
1, class 2 is basically a, you know the classification whether its compact or plastic
sections. I think one of the class, we will try to go into this classification of open
sections, which I think we have done so far. And also for plates, you know most of the
times, we use plates for, you know the fire and blast walls. So basically, you see
depending on the boundary conditions, you can have larger number. You see here the
fixed ends for the plates. All 4 edges are fixed, you have a very large ductility ratio. So
this gives you an idea, how much redundancy the system has got, prior to complete
failure.
Now idealization, unfortunately you have not taken the dynamic course yet or you some
of you have taken previously? Not yet. So basically, the single degree of freedom is
nothing but, the that the dynamic response of beam or a column or a plate systems
against external loading. And basically, a single degree of freedom is one particular
displacement is modelled for analysis. For example, if you take a beam, transversely
loaded, perpendicular to the axis of the beam and when we look at the vertical
displacement, so it is only single degree of freedom. If you are looking at a horizontal
displacement, actual deformation, then it becomes 3 degree of freedom. And as together,
if you looking at the rotations, x rotation, y rotation and z rotation and then it becomes 6
degree of freedom. So basically, single degree of freedom is one particular axis of
deformation is included in the calculation. Most of our beam calculations, if you look at
it, we are only worried about the vertical deformation, basically is a single degree of
freedom. It is just a notation in dynamics.
So basically, you can model all this systems. For example, you take a beam, 2
dimensional beam and some boundary conditions are given at ends. You have a
transverse load perpendicular to the beam axis, at the top flanks and the bottom flanks
and you can model this as a simple vibrating problem, perpendicular to the axis. So, most
of the text books will have formulas to find out the, you know the displacements and the
movements and can be used very easily. In next, I have got summarised table for both
dynamic and static and probably right now, you may not be able to, you know basically
memorise it, because you need to take the course, so that you will be able to use it
appropriately.
Somewhere here, you know I have just given only 3.
If you look at this particular code book, you will have several more. Probably, I think 3
or 4 pages, just to give you an idea what really happens. But in fact, we in fact derived
some of this formula in one of the classes. I think in the previous class, for point load and
the distribute a load, we derived the maximum rotational capacity.
I think the last time, so similarly for other forms of loading, the summary is given. The
reason why we want to do is, basically what we want to find out, what is the dynamics of
the system place a role on this. You know, basically when the load is dynamic, dynamic
response is to be looked the response with respect to varying load. In this particular case
is not a 100 percent varying load. It is actually a short pulse and stuffs, compare to a
wave load where it is varying continuously. So the response could be slightly different.
For that to happen, we need to understand and calculate a natural period of the system,
which is a very simple stiffness and mass equation.
If you look at this, I think even it you might have studied in your basic physics, square
root of m by k, you know simple idea. As long as you know the mass of the system,
where it is a distributed mass or a lamped mass at the top, you can calculate the period,
which I have just rewrite in a slightly different from, does not matter. Basically the idea
is, you need to the mass of the system and the stiffness. When you are solving a starting
problem, you do not look at the mass, you just look at the stiffness, that is what the most
of the bending movement formulations based on, you know the initial effect is
negligible. That is what the assumption, we make when you try to derive your simple
beam bending theory.
You know acceleration is so small, you can ignore it and basically, assume that the
inertial force is not contributing to the total displacement of the system. That is what
makes you the problem so simple, that you just only solve for stiffness and displacement.
So in here, what we are looking at is, the contribution of the inertial effect, to the total
deformation is not ignorable or not too small, then you find out what is the vibration
frequency and what is the loading frequency and compare it. And that is exactly the idea
behind. So if you have a distributed mass and you want to distribute to a particular
degree of freedom.
For example, you take the beam, the matches all along the length of the beam. It is not
one particular point, then you need to designate to the lamped mass to either at the top or
at the bottom. So, you depending on the mass factors, the distribution factors, you can
summit up as a characteristics mass. Sometimes, we call it effective mass and remember
most of our offshore problems, we need to take into account the added mass. Because
this, especially the sub structure, super structure you do not need to really worry because
is above water.
The typical stress strain curves, which for idealization is a by linear curve. So it is
basically, you see here a single line with the perfectly elastic and plastic, basically is not
a good idea to have it, but for modelling several times we use this. Because if we have a
non-linear, something like this, then you need to go for a non-linear analysis. To
simplify, many times we make a by linear stress strain diagram and try to calculate
simplified solution, of course by hand, not by computer programme. If you have a
computer programme to do, then you do not need to assume such type of stress strain
curve. You always can go for a non-linear graph like this. So the dynamic load factor, I
think indirectly, if you study dynamic which we call it dynamic amplification factor, but
in this particular aspect, we call it dynamic load factor. Basically the increased reaction
of the system to a applied load. So how do we find out is, basically the ratio of the
dynamic respond or dynamic reaction to a static reaction.
Basically, if you take a simple beam, apply a centre point load you will have half at both
ends. When you apply the same w, as a impulse, as a short duration impact load, then the
increase the reaction, you could easily find out from the formulas that we can derived
and that gives you the ratio called dynamic load factor. The reason why you want find
out, we want to solve this complete fire and blast world design in a simplified manner,
instead of going for a non-linear analysis, you do the static response, you find out what is
a d l f separately, apply on top of it.
So basically, quicker design method is a short cut, but of course, saves the purpose for
which we want to design the fire wall. That is what you will see from, you know the
table here, the derived statics reactions and the dynamic reactions. So basically, the ratio
will give you the d l f, which we could derive, but I think this is part of your dynamic
course, which will take considerable amount of time, that is why I am not deriving in this
class.

The next one is a simple dynamic response, which I just wanted to highlight, before we
summarise, basically the response of a simple beam system to a triangular pulse loading,
just a basically idealised pulse loading like this, with symmetric rise time and the fall
time. Basically just a nice, you know a simple loading to be analysed quickly by hand.
So, you could find most of these equations in any dynamics book, starting from your
dynamic equation, supply this loading and find out the response. The response contains 3
parts, especially you see here is between the time of pulse, basically between 0 to 0.5,
that means on the rise time and on the fall time and after the load is over.
So, you will see the response will be definitely different compare to, if you have this
triangular pulse keep on coming back and again, then there will be a stress strain
response. You call it transits response and the steady straight response. When you are
doing your calculations, you will do exactly this. If you have a continuously applied
load, then the study stress strain response will start from few cycles later.
But continue for a longer duration because the load is continue to be there. In this
particular case, if you see here, the policy supplied and that there is no more loading. So
you will have a increase response first and then go for a reduced the response after wards
and then it will tie die down, because there is no more loading coming there. So
basically, this 3 component responses can be computed and I just graphically shown
here, that is what the idea. So the response is peek, typically reaches is a normalise
response.
Basically, see the maximum response within the limits of your, the applied load and then
go for a sustained, also called a steady state response. Then it will die down afterwards,
as long as, there is a dumpling in a system.
Now, I just summarised 4 of the cases, plotted the basically the dynamic response factor.
We call it, in a basically the dynamic load factor, in which we just now calculate the
dynamic reaction verses the static reaction. You say one at the same. So in here, you see
here for 4 forms of loading, 0 rise time, smaller rise time, slightly increase rise time, 0.3,
here 0.1 and its 0.5. You see the ratio of factor, as much as 2 here and reduces to 1.5, 1.6
and then 1.5. So, you could see here most of the simple beams, you will you have a
increased deformation factor, basically almost 2. As long as you are able to predict this
particular response to your class of problems, then you can multiply whatever the static
displacement you are calculating because we have assumed a by linear elastic perfectly
plastic system. This is only a simplification we are making for our hand calculations,
most of the design practise. Now a days is based on this, of course this is not mandatory.
If you have your time and effort, you can actually go for a non-linear stress strain
analysis.
But, most of the design practise, we make this because its quicker and seal the purpose.
So that is why, we need to derive such dynamic factors. So load is applied dynamic, we
know indirectly the dynamic factorise say x and you calculate your simple beam static
displacement, static bending movement, static stresses, multiply that with this factors.
So, that is the idea behind. Many times we do this, even for big jackets. So basically, the
idea of calculating the dynamic load factor or dynamic factor, is to account for the
system dynamic and not going into non-linear analysis, simple static analysis will cover
the response of the system. So, how do we design the fire wall, is basically several steps,
all of them have been discussed.

First one is the fire scenario, I think we have already discussed whether it is a full fire or
jet fire and fire ignited blast or blast generated fire, all that have to be described, so that
you can find out the extend and the area of the loading. And the over pressure scenario,
basically depending on your procreative of the structure and the wall configurations and
the ventilation and establish the response under increased the temperature, so which I
think very simple idea.
We have a stress strain characteristics, under increased the temperature for steel and the
reduction factor for yield, reduction factor for modulus of elasticity as a velocity and
approximate methods also we have discussed. So, we need to establish the applicable
yield strength, applicable module as a velocity and keep it one side. You have establish
the design pressure, which will come from specially study. Most of the time computer
software’s are not that good. References from various, you know the proton tabs testing
are some recommendation from other guides will be used.
Many times, people use the risk verses the value. Because based on history, if you want
to take lower risk you design for a higher blast pressure. So, there are several guide
books, which give use design 1 bar, 2 bar. But in the recent times, quite a number of 3
dimensional modelling software, I think are available and could model complete
platform and make a ignited blast and can calculate and software’s able to simulate such
over pressure values. But again, it depends highly on how the model is done correctly
because the real scenario verses the computer model, prediction could be quite
approximate. So, this blast over pressure will be recommended for design by the discuss
has been group. They will assign you the value, that you can use.
For structure engineer, the most important is the third point, to asses and establish the
characteristics of material falls, you will be point and the modulus then find out the
dynamic amplification, dynamic load factor which, you need to have a basic
understanding of system dynamic. If it is a simple beam, I think what we describe is ok.
But, if it is multi degree of freedom and basically you have complete frame to be
designed, then probably by hand calculation will not be able to do properly. But for class
room exercise, I think most of the problem, we are going to solve is either a beam or a
simple rectangular plate.
So you can establish d l f and establish deformation limit, I think which we have
sufficient information now. 1 metre, half a metre, 500, 600 mm, then you can proceed
and establish strength limit. Basically, whether you want to design by allowance stress
method or you want to design for plastic deformation capacity. So, once you do this, I
think the procedure is very simple. As normal, you do a simple beam design; for
example, we decide to do a allowable stress design you do not need to go anywhere,
simply follow the steps, what we have done so far.
Only 2 things you need to do, change the material characteristics, increase the loading
factor. Isn’t it and the allowable stress needs to be increased by x amount. In this case,
we will say 50 percent, 60 percent. The codes allow as much as to 70 percent you know
like, when you design a structure for earth quake, you increase a load the stress levels to
70 percent of the conventional or normal stress levels. So, this are the 3 things, you will,
there is no other difference because of the presence of the temperature, the material
charters changes. Because of the presence of the blast loading, the load is dynamic, so
you incorporate the dynamic factor and because of the deformation is large, you may
have to consider increased the strain and that increased strain, you will go back and
calculate and find out what could be the potential reduction in yield and modulus. So
basically, that is the simple idea and we will just see few of them.
A typical structure, normally a fire wall is like this. This is one of the frame in a, in a
offshore platform. I think the offshore platforms, on the super structure have several
frames, like you have one wall here, you may see some of the columns which are hidden
there. So the pink colour is typically a column and the blue colour is the floor beam. So,
we have a fire wall, say safe side and safe side and this kind of panels, as I mentioned
yesterday I think, are designed for a specific blast pressure.
And in a basically once the over pressure exceeds, they actually wanted to have the panel
break away, because they do not want to create such a large pressure, that they will fail
the main structure, which is potentially dangerous. So you see a situation, we want to
safe guard, of course yes, as soon as the pressure reaches that point, you do not want to
destroy the structure because structural integrity in question. Because if the columns fail,
what will happen? Even the temporary refuse are, escape roots actually will collapse,
making a whole platform to be unusable. And that is exactly the design idea, but not
everyone practise this way. So, this is also dangerous because the safe side becomes very
quickly unsafe. As long as the temperature rise and the blast pressure increase, is very
quick. Suppose, if it happens in a delayed period, then it is okay. Otherwise, you actually
will be destroying the safe zone also. So, that be little bit careful at, that is where the risk
will come into picture. How much risk you would like to take and how much potentially
you want to have a design of the columns? Suppose you design the column for increase
the pressure, then this worry is not there. So basically, that is the idea behind, so each of
this panel need to be designed either by allowable stress method or by plastic design
method.
So typically, if you look at a cross section of the wall, is just a barrier and blast side safe
side and you can see here the horizontal deformation, you hope to design this connection
in such a way that, at that deformation the connection will not dislocate or the connection
will not fail. So large rotation will happen is it not? So basically, that is exactly the idea
that you need design for. Typically for most of the fire and blast walls, sometimes people
still use flat panels, assist a thin plate.
But as you know very well, the thin plate has got not much movement of inertia. So if
you do a move because it is bending perpendicular to the thickness know, basically if
you calculate the mode of inertia of a thin plate, is not much, is basically B t square by 6.
B is the width, effective width which you can consider, whereas if you just make the
corrugation like this, simple, same plate, but you bend it in this manner. You increase the
movement of inertia substantially, as much as some cases 30, 40 percent.

So you could see here, when you just make the same plate bend in this ratio and this
profiled plate, you will see that good increase of modulus of velocity and many times we
use this practical applications.
Typical flat plates, I have just given you a simple table, which you can use it for
calculation of stresses. I think if you have taken plated structures codes, you will derive
this. In fact, if you look at this formula, for example, you go back to this particular
formula is basically, will by down to simple beam bending, when you have the ratio of a
t o b. a is your length of the plate, b is your width of the plate. When there length become
substantially larger, what will happen? Basically, it becomes a beam. It is just a one way
action and when the plate is a to a equal to b, it becomes the 2 way action.
So, that basically is one way slab verses, those who studies civil engineering, concrete
design. 1 way verses 2 way load distribution. So, if you just look at the long plate, you
substitute the 0.75, will ultimately will come down to your w l square by w l square by 8,
something like this. You know basically, for other a by b ratios, you have been given
basic bending stress parameters, which is I think is beta and deflection parameter, which
is alpha.
So you can select and given the loading the blast pressure is given to you. I think, when
you solve the problem, the pressure is q. This q is here, over blast pressure and t is the
thickness of the plate and simply substitute, you will get the bending stress and you will
also get the deflections. So quite a simple and straight forward, the only reason why I
gave this, you know the cable is just to make not only the beams, you also can solve
plates with the boundary conditions, simply supported. And similarly, you can go to
plate fixed at all the 4 sides. You can also find the formula similar, is exactly same when
the plate length becomes longer, it becomes one way action.
And basically, will reach 0.5 and there are 2 coefficients beta 1 and beta 2. Basically,
you know the stress at the centre and stresses along the long edge. So and the deflection
coefficient is alpha, basically at the, all of them will convert to a simple beam equation
once the a becomes too large. So for solution purpose for problem solving, the table will
be given in the examination point. Suppose, if this question is coming, the table will be
given, but these formulas you need to remember. Is basically, simple m by z, you know
if you go back here, is nothing but bending movement divided by x n modulus. x n
modulus is p t square by 6. So, just substitute backwards. And sometimes we have a
stiffen plate like this, you know basically like a floor like this. You have a stiffened, the
plate stiffened with the several stiffness.
Very similar to swift construction, so you may actually take effective flange from there,
the floor plate for take it as a beam action, so that you can use that in the calculation of
bending stress on the stiffen the section. So empirical formula.
Prof. Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Module - 06
Lecture - 06
So, today we are going to see the next accidental load arising from a ship collision with
the fixed structures. Basically in this case, we are just going to look at the turbulent
members, as you know very well predominantly we use turbulent structures for jacket
structures. And the ship collision may damage locally or globally depending on the size
of the vessel or the boat impacting the structure.
So, we just need to see what we need to consider as a loading case and then, the
subsequent damage evaluation and then, the available stresses, again we go back to our
designed process. The only difference is the designed method will be slightly different,
basically allowable stress method may not be very suitable, as the load is very large and
we will be using energy methods and some empirical equations to find out what kind of
damage can happen.
So, we just need to assess our self what type of ship or what type of vessel will be
arriving in the vicinity of fixed observe platforms. Normally, when you plan a observe
platform location it, it is basically away from the coast for sure, most of the oil and gas
field developments are happening quite, substantial distance away from the coast line,
number one. Number two, you will not allow commercial vessels to travel in the vicinity
of the platforms though, if it is you know for example, oil and gas field is located in the
vicinity of the, see the commercial fair way, you may have a restriction on that the
vessels may not be permitted to travel.
So, you will reroute to other locations, but still what other ships and vessels can go and
arrive in the near vicinity of the platforms, you supply vessels, as you know each
platform will require food supply, first of all for the people living in the platform and the
spare parts, chemicals required for the processing. So, you will see that several things
needs to go and come back and in that case that means, there is a definite possibility that
some type of vessel will need to go on a regular basis. It is not that one time it goes in
one day and then just. So, you will have periodical intervals every two days, every five
days, depending on the supply requirement.
So, such types of vessels have higher risk of hitting the platform, due to various reasons.
The reasons could be, many you know it could be a human error, it could be engine
failure and we worsening situation of environmental conditions. You know when the
boat is starting from the coast, it may be perfectly all right by the time it reaches, you
know you might see a different environmental conditions like gusting wind can change,
wind direction can change which is definitely a botheration. So, that is why we need to
just make sure that, select a suitable boat, you do not select the largest vessel like what
we normally do for a live load and other load estimation, we take the highest possible
load and then just design for it, which will be the best.
But in this case, if you select the largest ship which may go in the vicinity not even near
the platform then, you may not be able to design. So, that is why we need to make sure
that the selection of the boat as a loading case needs to be accessed carefully, together
with the risk involved. You know if the lower the risk, you will select a smaller vessel
size and basically, sorry higher the vessel size and vice versa. So, in this case normally
API recommends a 1000 ton vessel typically, most of the platforms used for supply boat.
Basically dimension is around 30 to 40 meter or 50 meter long 20, 30 meter wide, a
typical ah supply boat. So, 100 ton is not a lot comparing a commercial vessel of few
hundred thousand.
You know if you look at a tanker 300000 tanker carrying oil is quite large, when you are
imagining to think about designing offshore platform for such a special impact, you may
not be able to even design it. So, 1000 tone is quite small, but still there is the damage
that could be done by this type of vessel is, substantially large depending on the velocity
of approach. If it goes at a higher speed, what will happen? The impact energy will be so
large that, it can just destroy the structure instantaneously. So, that is why we just need to
do a risk evaluation, what could be potential causes of failure? What could be the
potential size of the vessel? What could be the frequency of arrival, you know if it is
going to happen one time in a year, the risk is very less.
But every two days if you have a vessel arriving there or leaving there and probably
higher risk. So, many times the operators will do a risk assessment and come up with the
size, the frequency and the velocity and probably once you have that, then you can find
out what is the energy of impact. And some cases, you see the last one, you know you
already have a platform and you may actually install another platform in that vicinity.
Because, it is not the only one platform there, you may in a progressively develop other
fields. So, in that vicinity you will have installation vessels, which are comparatively
larger than any of these supplied boats and they can also damage because, they are all
going to be there in that vicinity, during the period of installation of the new platforms.
So, that could also potentially prove to be dangerous of course, you will take all
necessary precautions to make sure that the installation vessel does not make a case.
Most of the time during the design process we do not consider this as a designed case.
Because, it is only period, very limited period the installation is happening and also one
time during say, one year and the next year you may not actually have the same
installation. Because, it is not going to be like every year we are going to install the, you
know the new platform. So, normally we do not take the installation vessel as a designed
case, but in case if it is required then, you may have to consider that.
And typically, the vessel impact could be due to various reasons as I mentioned earlier
on manual error is really a cause of worry because, many times people misjudge either
that distance the speed and the wind conditions. So, it could be definitely a possibility.
The other one is the un forcing engine failure, you know you may not have, you know
thought about engine will fail at that particular instant of time and probably when the
engine is failed, then you are unable to manure or unable to thresh back. Then, it will just
automatically drip towards the platform, if it happens to hit then it is a problem. Weather
situations normally to be a not so much of problem because, now a days the weather
forecasting is available.
So, when you start from the coast you can actually see next three days what kind of
weather is there, but still things can change. So, worsening weather conditions while you
are in transit or after arrival when you are doing loading unloading process, that time
suddenly a gust wind can happen.
So, the ship or the vessel can drip into the platform. What we need to primarily look at is
this size or the weight of the ship or the boat, the speed of approach normally, you know
you do not go very high speed when you arrive near the platform, you slow down and
just go at a very low speed. And basically, human error can make the speed slightly
higher than what is permissible in the region and the frequency. So, this is something that
we need to evaluate as part of the risk assessment study, you will be given these three
numbers so that, you can design the structure.
What type of cases we need to consider, there are two cases. One is the you know
normally occurring cases where, you plan to actually approach the platform and come in
contact. That means, the boat needs to go near the platform and hit the platform, not
accidentally, planned operation that means, you just need to control the speed, control
the direction, control the orientation of the ship or the boat arriving at the platform
because, you need to unload material or may be unload people and vice versa. So, that is
basically called operational impact and all the parameters involved is under your control.
For example, the size of the ship is already predetermined that means, you will not allow
a bigger ship to go there and berth against, isn’t it? And also the velocity at which it is
supposed to approach and come in contact will be very much controlled under the
captain. And basically then that means, which we have already got these two numbers,
you can calculate the energy required to design the structure because, the impact energy
is known and you could possibly design it. So, that is called operational impact in this
process you do not expect any damage to happen that means after the berthing, the
structures would be tact as original design, that means no damage to be expected.
So, you could possibly design without any problem, the accidental impact case is
basically a higher velocity because, the speed at which the ship is arriving is not under
your control. Because, basically several reasons or the cause of failure could be there and
the size of the ship is well determined, basically based on the risk assessment study, but
then some cases it may actually go beyond. Because, you have not taken zero risk, you
have taken certain risk so, there is always a potential possibility that the size of the ship
that you have assumed during your design process may exceed. So, that is something we
need to be careful there.
So, this accidental impact, what we are trying to determine is the collapse of the structure
should not happen at the at the point of impact or post impact. That means, damage can
happen, but then you do not want to design in such a way that even after an accidental
impact, the structure should be intact, which if you want to do it you can do it, but at the
cost of large structure or may be, may not be able to design it because, the cost will
become excessively high.
So, what we are trying to do? We are going to differentiate between the operational
impact and the accidental impact. Accidental impact you are allowed to damage part of
the structure, not the total, that is what we are trying to define. Whereas the operational
impact you need to make sure that the structure is intact because, you are going to redo it
again and again because, multiple numbers of times during the period of designed life.
So, what type of impact that may happen, we just need to think about it depending on the
type of structure. For example, if you have a mono hull single tubular section installed,
in any direction it can come and hit isn’t it? Because it is a circular section and what type
of impact it can happen is a tubular dent. For example, if you have a circular section,
when the ship is hitting against the wall of the cylinder, you may have a local
deformation in the form of a dent and it may have also a bending of a beam like a
cantilever section. Because, it is fixed at the bottom and just standing above water and
also the global deformation of the structure.
So, basically you need to look at what type of impact that can happen depending on the
size of the ship and size of the structure. If it is a very big structure, it may not actually
hit at many locations. So, we just need to see those type of impact and evaluate each one
of the case and assess the structure for the capacity.
The vessel collision zone is something that we need to carefully evaluate, it is not going
to hit the bottom of the structure because, the ship may not be able to go unless you have
a submarine coming there. So, basically what we have is a particular zone in the structure
near the water line, slightly above slightly below, which we call it, I think we have
defined as the splash zone area, the change in tidal levels low tide to high tide.
So typically, we see this is the structure that you can see the water line, the mean water
line is this and you could see that this, the boat can hit either on this area or just below
water line to certain extent. That is what we need to look at and basically evaluate each
of the impact because, we do not know a priory that where it will hit. So, we need to
assume certain worst scenarios, what if it hits here, what will happen to the member?
What will happen to the structure? So, basically we are only trying to assume several
cases of impact and that is where you need to make sure there are change in water levels
are also taken into account.
Typically if you see there in this vicinity, the near the water line you may actually see
that the high potential of direct impact that means, those members only needs to be
designed for such type of impact not the members below. Because, they have no axis
through the boat because, the boats cannot get submerge unless, the boat itself is
capsizing and then, go and dive downwards which I think it is a different scenario.
There are two or three types of impacts are expected. For example, you see here drifting
vessel, engine failed, environmental conditions are deteriorating and the vessel has no
direction and can come and hit in this place and though the engine direction, the
basically the, the velocity of the vessel is in this way, when the engine was working. And
when the engine is not working and the complete system is going in a different direction,
you can get a hit like one corner impact. That means, the leg is getting impacted, that is
basically a corner impact that means, what we need to evaluate, when a leg is damaged
whether the system will be stable.
That is the purpose of which is basically to evaluate such a scenario or if it drifts in this
phase and comes and get in contact with the structure in a parallel way. That means
multiple contacts at simultaneously, which will be not a very a critical case because, so
many legs are there, the damage could be lower than the corner impact.
Or you may have a arriving vessel, unexpectedly higher speed just re pop the structure
across through. So, this is one of the dangerous situation when bow or stern collision
happen, you may see that the velocity is 100 percent that means, the engine direction is
this way and basically can hit. So, what we are looking at is that coefficient of added
mass, I think all of you are studying aerodynamics floating bodies, the most important
one for the floating structures come in contact with the fixed structure, the added mass of
the fluid that it carries, when it is moving from stationary to another location. Basically
this will have increased added mass, compared to the added mass for a stern or bow
impact, here it is 1.1, the other one is 1.4, 1.5 depending on a type of vessel and ship.
So, that is where we need to evaluate the impact of the direction of impact and basically
the weight of the ship plus the added mass of the fluid, I think I hope all of you
understand, what is added mass. Added mass is the fluid surrounding the structure or the
floating body moves together with the body itself, which contributes to the, the dynamics
of the system, which increases the impact energy, which is what is important for us.
So, basically 1.1 and 1.4 that location of collision as you can see, as I mentioned on will
be in the joules of changing water levels, it could hit anywhere in the horizontal braise.
But why I have highlighted only at the center, for purpose of evaluation, you know
basically the center impact could produce larger moment, isn’t it? Simply, I have just
chosen, but it is not the only case that you need to evaluate, you may evaluate another
case where, the impact could be very close to the support location. So, what will happen?
The shear could be maximum so, basically as an engineer we need to just start thinking,
what will happen if I keep on changing the location of impact because, nobody knows
where it will hit.
So, what we are trying to do is get back all the scenarios and only select the critical ones
and try to evaluate the structural strength in terms of energy of absorption. And basically
not enough, the structure will fail, what will happen if the structure fails? That means
that if this braise gets damaged that means, that the braise is no more in the system,
whether the jacket will be stable or it will become unstable, that is what we are trying to
evaluate. So, if you look at the next braise basically, you can see here also can happen
anywhere between this water line to this water line. In case of a low water, you can have
a hit somewhere here, when it is high water you may actually, all depends on the draft of
the ship or the boat that is arriving here.
So, if it hits at this location and basically this part of the member gets damaged or may
be broken, then what happens if the load transfer whatever was coming through this right
side leg, have to find the alternative way or redistribution should happen. And that is
exactly why, you provide most of the time the braces in like a criss cross bracing, if
another bracing is not there for example, this is not there, only one bracing was provided
for some reason, what will happen? It becomes a portal frame which becomes less
redundant and may not take the loads actually designed for.
So, that is why it has got a larger you know basically thinking. Because, you need to
arrange the system in a such a way that, even if one of the member at any one time is
failed because of the impact still the structure will be having sufficient redundancy so
that, it does not collapse immediately after the failure of that particular member, that is
the intention.
Another picture showing you know, basically can just go directly across the cross
bracing.
So, when the impact happens this is picture you need to remember basically, what really
happens to the process? You could usually see when two cars are colliding each other,
what happens? It is not that only one car is getting damaged, the other one is, no damage
happens. Basically, in this case you have a moving vessel a fixed structure and basically
the structure is not infinitely stiff for example, you make instead of a structure, a barrier
which is highly stiff. And basically the damage may only happen to the ship, but in this
case we have a structure which has got hollow sections, they are not solid sections. And
also they have flexibility in the vertical or horizontal direction that means, the cantilever
structure.
So, that it will also absorb certain amount of the energy during the process of collision,
during the process of collision the ship also goes through a similar damage. Because, the
ship also made of steel and hallow constructions and basically the local valve will get
deformation, also bent, also made a contribution towards absorbing energy. So, that
means if you look at ship and the platform at certain percentage of energy absorbed by
dent and the damage happen to the ship side and also to the structure side. Unfortunately,
the problem with the evaluation of ship energy absorption is so complex because, there is
not only single type of ship or a hull available all over the world. You have several types
of configurations, this will be very difficult to, for a structural engineer to incorporate the
amount of energy taken by ship.
So, what DNV specified basically this graph is taken from a DNV code, you know you
assume that the 100 percent energy is absorbed by the structure part and not the other,
basically that is exactly the idea behind. And we are going to concentrate on the amount
of energy absorbed only on the structure side and not on the ship side. But in reality there
is a certain percentage of energy is absorbed by the damage and indentation happening
on the ship side. So, you see here in this picture the horizontal axis, basically the
indentation or the dent or deformation on the vertical axis is your, the amount of force
excited on to the structure during the process of collision. So, basically that is the idea
behind and which we need to work out, how to get this p value for a given dent.
So, you take a piece plate, you try to impact if you deform by certain an amount of you
now deformation, what will be the impact force? Because is not a static force like, unlike
you think about simple beam deformation put a load there, find out the delta by means of
elastic beam theory. Because, that is a static load in this case we have a dynamic load the
load is moving at the certain velocity and we need to find out what could be the impact
force at that time of contact. So, which is you could find out by several means, what we
are going to use here in this particular case the structure is not such a simple plate. We
have a circular section, hallow section several experiments are been done in the past, in
fact DNV has conducted several experiments in house.
They have come up with the relations ship, which is a empirical it means, if you are
having the energy of impact at the time of contact that means, you will have the weight
of the ship, you will have the velocity, you have the added mask, you calculate the
energy. And then, using the energy you can find out what could be a potential amount of
impact force excreted on to the structure, to generate a dent. So, that empirical question
we will try to use to arrive at that force because, unless we know the force we cannot
design a platform. For example, if you take a rubber you know simple rubber disk and
apply a load you can actually dip, measure the deformation at certain load and increase
the load until the rubber fails.
So, you can establish the load displacement relationship. Similarly, you can establish for
a simple scheme of structure like a rode or a plate, but for such complex structures like a
jacket, no one has done a full scale testing. So, basically scale model testing plus if you
analysis DNV and the other people those who have gone research have come up with
several empirical equations, we will see that. And we will try to use one of them
basically we will use one from API.
How to calculate the impact energy basically is kinetic energy formula basically half m v
square, what has been added here is basically the added mask which is basically for
floating structure moving in water. So, added mass coefficient for board side collision
and I think you have seen the picture earlier on. So, basically half m v square, v is the
velocity of you know the ship or the boat arriving and basically, the m is the mass of the
ship, a is the other mass factor and e is the kinetic energy at the time of impact. So, once
you know this then, we can move forward. So, basically mass of the ship can be obtained
by the weight divided by gravitational acceleration.
Most of the time, you know the boats and ships they give in terms of dead weight
tonnage plus the payload, I think those who are studying naval architecture you will
know very well, it is called dead weight tonnage, DWT and basically displacement of the
vessel. So, if know the weight of the ship plus the cargo, hold everything together
divided by g, you will get the total mass and you can find out the kinetic energy of
impact or energy of the impact.
Energy absorption during the process of dent or the damage happening in various
sequences as you can see here, the first one is a local dent basically the deformation of
the wall of the tubular section, which is part of the structure. Then, the second one is the
elastic beam bending basically, the horizontal member or inclined member, you have
made a dent in the structure by means of impact. And that they, during the process of
denting you have introduced a force on the structure, which is making the member to
deflect either horizontally or the other means. And basically during the process, it has ha
global deformation to the member that means, the member deflects by say delta, which
also absorbs the energy and after that, that reaction from the beam goes to the structure,
may be the columns or the legs and the overall structure gets deflected.
Basically, that is going for the last one, but in between what happens is basically the
interesting thing. For example, you have a dent load which is substantially smaller that
means, the dent may not happen. For example, you have very thick tube and you just
take a small hammer, you try to impact what will happen? The local, local strength of the
tube is so large that, the dent may not even happen, but if you have a dent is larger that
means, it may keep on increasing the dent level absorb more energy. But if the dent so
large, that it actually can just pierce off or break the member into two halves. So, that
means the relative stiffness of the member is also important, in addition to the local
stiffness of the ((Refer time: 26:01)) section.
So, what are the things involved? d by d ratio, which makes the local you know the
strength higher and the l by d ratio, the longer length and smaller diameter. So, you see
that the diameter, the span and the thickness and the end conditions, you know if you
have a pin condition, it may deflect more. If you have a fix condition, it may not deflect
more. So, you see here the relative dimensions are the member in question is very
important. So, the local denting and elastic beam bending is definitely going to happen,
but what we are looking at, what happens after that? You know if the cellar, if the impact
process so large, the stresses are going behind yield, you know at the extreme ends. You
take a simple fix beam and the bending movements at the point of impact are going to be
same as the end, you know basically w l by 4, which we you have derived the last time.
And once the bending movement is so large and the yield stresses, the stresses at the
support points are going higher than yield, what will happen? Redistribution may happen
from a triangle distribution to rectangle distribution, I think we derived it. So, once you
have a huge formation happens, then what will happen? The beam may go through
further deformation, because of plastic beam bending, which we call it the collapse load,
but once it reaches the collapse load what will happen? The member will break away and
that means, local denting elastic beam bending and then the plastic deformation.
So, these three things go into form a major part of energy absorption process and lastly,
we have a global deformation. In addition to it, sometimes what happens is the tensile
stain basically you take a long member and try to deflect more, there will be a actual
force introduced on the member. I think you can easily understand, you take a string of
flexible string, hold on to it on both ends very firmly and try to make a large force, what
will happen? The string will try to slip away from your hands, which is basically a tensile
sail induced by large deformation bending, which is also going to contribute because,
larger the tensile strain, what will happen? It will not allow the member to deflect any
further.
So, that is one of the studies which mean necessity, necessarily not take large amount,
but will contribute to certain amount of additional energy absorption. And the last one is
the local deformational of the vessel, as I mentioned earlier and we normally keep it a
side and not add part of our design process, because of the complicity, because of the
unknown types of ships and variety of hull forms, we normally do not include in the
design of structures, which is conservative. Because, you are assuming the, that part of
the energy also taken by structure, which is a reasonable. Typically, API gives you an
idea because, many times mandatory requirements are supposed to be full filled.
So, if you have are designing a platform in gulf of Mexico, you have to mandatory
design for 1000 tons, but elsewhere if you come around like for example, ONGC
platforms they do not design for 1000 tons, they design for a much smaller size vessel.
Because, it has got a definitive impact on the design sizes, the larger the size that you
design for, your leg size will increase, bray sizes will increase, you may have lot of other
members. So, that is why API requirements are not mandatory for platforms elsewhere,
but some clients they follow someone keep the vessel size slightly lower. In this case, I
think they are using about 600 or 700 tons, but if you go to elsewhere like north, North
Sea platforms it is they are designing for even larger size vessels. Because, the both boats
or the ships arriving there in a bigger size.
So, you may design for 5000 tons, some of the platforms that design for 10000 tons
shifts, boats arriving there. Again in depends on the, the risk level the, the oil companies
want to take. In fact in this particular case, I would mention one of the case where two
years back, when we design the platform the client was talking about no ships will come
to my platform. Basically, he was assuming he wants to take such a risk that no ships
will come because, he is a unmanned platform. Of course, yes it is a completely
unmanned platform, no necessity of people going there because, it is remotely controlled
from another platform.
But unfortunately what happened, one year later after the insulation is over and basically
a boat hit the platform and completely damage the front two braises. And it was not
noticed by the owner himself because, there was nobody on the platform number one it is
remotely controlled from another platform. The damage happened such that, it did not
disturb any other facilities everything was intact. So, how did they find later on in a
basically when they were monitoring the flow in pipes, flow in the equipments, there was
a sudden jerkin the flow levels or liquid levels in one of the equipment.
So, then they investigated then, they visited the platform, they found that the braise is
completely ripped off and basically it is an accidental case and they could not locate who
was the owner of the boat. In basic that can also happen and lucky in that platform those
braises where actually broken, but no damage to the structure was done and still it is
intact. But later it was, you know replaced to the different arrangement to protect against.
So, you could see that when you take such a high risk, you know they have taken a risk,
but they have made more money than, actually if you have designed for you know that is
exactly the behind.
So, just a complete picture of what really you needs to be verified in the design process
basically, one is during the impact which is very essential. What we do not want is the
capacity of the structure is lesser than the energy of impact that means, progressively it
will make the structure to collapse. So, that means during the process of impact what we
want is to take sure that, the energy of impact can be absorbed by the energy available
from the various forms of energy absorption mechanism, in the structure. I think the
most one is the dent elastic beam bending and the plastic deformation and the last one is
global deformation of the vessel. So, basically these four we need to find ways and
means of calculations.
I think elastic beam bending is very simple, all of you are very very well familiar with
the simple beam bending equations for point load at various locations, in a beam with
either fix condition or partially fix condition isn’t it? So, it is a basically elastic beam
theory you have for example, the deflection calculations for most of the cases available
in the text books. Dent formation we are going to have a look at some of the empirical
formulas developed by various agencies, which will give you the energy absorption and
the impact force, it is an empirical formula.
The third one is the plastic beam bending, which also have been introduced to you few
classes back. Basically at collapse, what could be the deflection at the point of load,
depending on the strain that you allow, I think this where we need to discuss little be
more. Larger the strain you want to allow, more the deformation can happen and at the
point of collapse plastic hinges may form and that time, the structure will come unstable.
The last one cannot be completed by manual calculations, you need a help of computer
because the structure is so complex, you will use the computer simulation. The only
thing is the calculated dent force from here, will be applied to the structure and find out
the global deformation of the total system.
So, when you add all the energy absorption by all these four mechanisms is greater than,
the energy of impact which we just know calculated 0.5 m b square into ((Refer time:
34:22)) coefficient. Then, that means you can finally conclude that the impact energy is
fully absorbed by the structure that means, the structure will still stand there. Though,
important thing is this, if during the process of this energy absorption, one of the
members has been completely broken or hinge formation happened. So, that this one
thing we need to be very careful, if it is an operational impact we do not permit this, but
if it is an accidental impact we do permit, but then the next stage will be post impact.
If you have actually made one of the member to achieve or reach collapse stage, one of
the member not the whole structure, but the structure is still in tied because, the energy
of impact is smaller than energy absorption. But then what happens, one member is gone
the purpose for which you have put that member, there must be certain reason, why you
have made that member inside the structure. So, once that member becomes inactive
what happens to the reminder of the structure, that is called a the post impact. So, you
need to evaluate what once the impact is happening, energy is absorbed, one of the
members is dented and also plastic deformation has happened.
That means, it may become unusable and that that stage whether the structure can still
stand, number one how long it can stand? That is a main thing, whether it can sustain
eddy additional forces or not. For example, at that time of impact you have the dead load,
you may also have the wind load, the wave load and in future you may also have a storm
load, we do not know. But normally we do not assume at the time of impact another
foam is hitting, which is two disasters together. So, normally we assume one you know
accidental case had one time.
So, at that time of impact we assume that the gravity loads do exist and no environmental
loads, but post impact once that impact is over, you are looking at your say the repair
scheme. But you cannot take a infant amount of time to repair it because, in future you
do not whether the storm is coming next month or next year. So, you need to find out
that time duration, if you can make repair quickly, but you need to make sure that during
this period of time whether, the structure is stable and not over stressed. That means, if
you apply a smaller storm condition for example, normal operating condition 10 meter
width, still okay.
Then, you have got one year to repair suppose, if you have 100 year storm coming,
within that one year then, the structure will become unsafe. So, that is what the purpose
of, the post impact analysis is to make sure that you get enough time to repair. So, when
you are designing the structure you take one member out, still it can take operationally
impact or operational storm loads then, it is fine. And if it is, if it can take 100 years
storm also without that member, that means your design is slightly over design or may be
better design. In fact that was a, that was the case in that particular structure which I was
mentioning even without that x braise, the structure be stand 100 years storm.
So, the owner was extremely happy because, they do not need do repair in the near
future, but in case they did the repair within one year, but he was so happy that the
structure still can stand without any problem. So, that is exactly the idea, the basically
during impact we need to make sure the energy is absorbed, post impact structure is
stable and able to take the gravity loads plus certain amount of environmental loads. And
that certain amount depends on the duration, which you would like to spend on your
repair work. If you have one year storm designed then that means, you can designed
repaired work within a year so that, you can do the replacement. So, basically the design
against boat impact is all these scenarios needs to be worked out.
So, one is the size of the vessel, velocity and the frequency and basically then the energy
absorption scheme, which I think we will just go through quickly and the post impact
analysis. This post impact analysis is basically a global structural analysis, which I do
not think we will be able to demonstrate in the classroom, basically structural analysis
like any other schemes. So, basic idea is that input for this will be coming from the dent
model, this particular model. So, basically you allows say 10 percent dent take that force
apply to the structure, together with gravity loads and analyze the structure.
Damage assessment basic idea is the energy absorption and survival of the platform that
means, you do not allow the structure to fully collapse during the process of impact. Post
impact, just to make sure that you are able to a repair it during the shortest possible
duration.
So, one by one we will just look at the scenario, in this process what we do not want is
the local buckling and I think we have learn enough about it during our member design.
The d by t ratio plays the major role, if you have the d by t ratio selected so large, that it
cannot even take a dent, at the point of impact it will buckle straight away. So, that is
basically one of the area we must make sure that the selected members in the area of
impact needs to have no local bulking cases. That means need to have sufficient wall
thickness and making too bigger wall thickness also is a worry because, the dent will not
happen.
For example, you make it solid no dent, no dent means basically large impact force
because, the dent, the energy is not absorbed. Large impact force is not good for
structure because, this, the, the beam may be very good, but the introduced reaction
forces on to the other part of the structure may actually, the structure will collapse
instantaneously, you understand the idea know? So, you do not want to have a very large
stiffness also. So, you need to play a little tricky role in making sure that, the dent also
happens, but not too big because, if it is too big what will happen? The member becomes
two parts. So, this design is little bit tricky and we need to look at all these cases, I think
first we will try to solve for denting model so that, we can get the reaction forces.
So, if you look at one of these cross section, you could see from here the dent of a
circulars section, as you keep on increasing this depth of dent. See here delta t or delta d,
the larger it goes this two things happen, one is the cross sectional area gets reduced as
you can see from the picture and the section modulus, which going to give you the
strength against bending also reduces. So, as long as the delta d is more, we get two
things delta d more, you will actually have energy absorption higher because, it is
internal work done is more. But at the same time the cross sectional area is reduces
substantially and moment of inertia comes down global or the beam bending will be
becoming weaker, it cannot take too much of load.
So, it may actually break away or it may go from elastic to elastic to elastoplastic and
fail. A simple geometric relationship describing the delta d with the respect to that angle
and the plastic section modulus, which I think we derived for the case of a circulars
section, I think and expressed in terms of this reduced section is shown here.
So, if you plot these two together in a graphical form, the reactive dent depth is basically
the, the delta d divided by d, which is just a ratio normalized with respect to basically the
relative section modulus. Section modulus with respect to the original circulars section,
you could see here that the, you know the dent depth is 0 is full section modulus is
available. As you keep on increasing the dent, you can see here at 50 percent dent you
only have less than 20 percent section modulus, isn’t it? So, is only just becoming so,
you expect, you want to have a larger dent absorb more energy, but unfortunately what
will happen?
It has got no sectional area, it has got no section modulus, that beam may fail. That
means, it will not go further to the next stages of energy absorption, which not very
good. So, we need to limit in the d by t ratio in such way that, the dent is only certain
depth then, after that the, the beam reflection happens. Because, we want to have no
global failures so that is the idea behind you need to work out. So, this equation is just a
geometrical relationship between the section modulus and delta d.
A simple pictures showing dent geometry, you can see here in red color is a local
deformation. If it is a flat plate for example like this, when somebody is poking with a
sharp object, you may find greater type of local deformation. But in this case it is not a
sharp object basically, a ship of any type of bow or stern, you know shapes it can hit in
any direction. So, people have assumed is something like this, you know basically a two
way deformation, but at this edge is a sharp corner and basically, the moment capacity is
not the tubular moment capacity, in this case is a local plate moment capacity.
I think t square by 4 is the plastic capacity of a flat plate, t square by 6 is the moment
capacity of elastic moment capacity t square by 4 is plastic moment capacity. So,
basically multiplied by f y is just treated as a flat plate because, it is only a local. So, do
not, do not substitute here your plastic capacity of the circulars section because, this
deformation is local to the surface of the plate. So, just that is why I have just put this
formula so that you can use it.

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Design of Offshore Structures

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Even control basically working procedures, selection of equipment, active protection

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Provide connections of primary members, which I think I emphasis to do during our

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So, design for fire as a loading condition is to be evaluated quickly.

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Somewhere here, you know I have just given only 3.

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