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ASNT
LEVEL
STUDYGUIDE III
Electromagnetic
Testing Method
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Testing, Inc.
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Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
Third Edition
first printing 09/14
ebook 09/14
Errata, if available for this printing, may be obtained from ASNT’s web site, www.asnt.org.
Published by:
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
www.asnt.org
Edited by: Bob Conklin, Educational Materials Editor
Assisted by: Cynthia M. Leeman, Educational Materials Supervisor
ii
FOREWORD
Purpose
Typical Level III questions are available at the end
This study guide is intended to aid individuals of each chapter to aid in determining comprehension
preparing to take the ASNT NDT Level III exami- of the material. If the individual finds questions in a
nation for electromagnetic testing. The material in certain chapter of the study guide to be difficult, it is
this study guide addresses the body of knowledge in suggested that the individual carefully study the
ANSI/ASNT CP-105: ASNT Standard Topical information presented in that chapter. References
Outlines for Qualification of Nondestructive Testing where additional detailed information can be obtained
Personnel (2011) and includes an example of a pro- are listed at the beginning of the book.
cedure, the kind of technical document from which Successfully answering the questions will help
“applications” questions are sometimes derived. determine if more concentrated study in particular
The study guide is not intended to comprehensively areas is needed. Those familiar with some of the
cover all possible technical issues that may appear topics may wish to go directly to the review ques-
on the Level III exam, but rather it is intended to tions. If the questions can be answered confidently
reflect the breadth of the possible technology topics and correctly, additional study may be optional.
that comprise potential questions. Additional Information
The ASNT NDT Level III certification program
is a service offered by The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc., that gives NDT per- The electromagnetic testing method has several sub-
sonnel an opportunity to have their familiarity with disciplines. The general consensus at the time of this
the principles and practices of NDT assessed by an revision is that there are three specific techniques:
independent body. The program uses the independ- alternating current field measurement, eddy current
ent body to review credentials and uses comprehen- testing, and remote field testing. Each of these tech-
sive written examinations to identify those who niques may provide some information in specific
meet the criteria for becoming an ASNT NDT Level material testing applications that the others may not
III. be able to provide in the same test situation.
How to Use the Study Guide This edition builds on the second edition coor-
dinated by Jim Cox of JECNDT, LLC. Changes to
this edition include the following:
This study guide is intended to provide ASNT Level ● All questions are now multiple choice with
III candidates with a concise reference with which four unique answers to more closely match
to prepare for the ASNT Level III examination in ASNT exam format.
electromagnetic testing. The Level III candidate ● New, expanded, separate chapters on alternating
should use this study guide only as a review, as it current field measurement and remote field
may not contain all of the information necessary to testing with separate question sets for each
pass a typical ASNT Level III qualifying examina- are provided.
tion. The study guide provides a general overview ● A change in terminology from eddy current to
of subject matter covered by the examination so electromagnetic testing is employed throughout
that students can identify those areas of the body of to reflect the overall method as designated in
knowledge in which they need further study. It is CP-105, when it is the method and not the eddy
not intended to be the only source of preparation. current technique that is being addressed.
ii
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. is grateful for the volunteer contributions, technical
expertise, knowledge, and dedication of the following individuals who assisted with this edition of the
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Electromagnetic Testing Method:
iv
REFERENCES
Recommended References
Information in this study guide has been drawn from the following recommended training references for
electromagnetic testing as listed in ANSI/ASNT CP-105: ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification
of Nondestructive Testing Personnel (2011).
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 03.03, Nondestructive Testing. Philadelphia, PA: American Society
for Testing and Materials. Latest edition.
Cecco, V.S., G. Van Drunen, and F.L. Sharp, Eddy Current Testing, U.S. Edition. Columbia,
MD: GP Courseware. 1987.
Libby, H.L., Introduction to Electromagnetic Nondestructive Test Methods. New York, NY: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 1979.
Sadek, H., Electromagnetic Testing Classroom Training Book. Columbus, OH: American Society
for Nondestructive Testing. 2006.
Udpa, S.S., technical editor, P.O. Moore, editor, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume
5, Electromagnetic Testing. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 2004.
Additional References
The following references were also used in the development of this study guide:
ASTM STP 722, Eddy Current Characterization of Materials and Structures. Philadelphia, PA:
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1981.
Cox, J.E. editor, ET-CT-6-5, Eddy Current Testing, Classroom Training Book. General Dynamics
(Revised Edition). Harrisburg, NC: PH Diversified. 1997.
Eddy Current Nondestructive Testing. NBS Special Publication 589. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau
of Standards. 1981.
Hagemaier, D.J., Fundamentals of Eddy Current Testing. Columbus, OH: American Society
for Nondestructive Testing. 1990.
Hagemaier, D.J., and A.P. Steinberg, “Low Frequency Eddy Current Inspection of Aircraft Structure.”
Materials Evaluation, Vol. 40, No. 2 (Feb. 1982). Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing. 206-210.
Harvey, D.E., ASNT Reference Manual – Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice. Columbus,
OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 1995.
McGonnagle, W.J., Nondestructive Testing, second edition. New York, NY: Gordon and Breach
Publishing Company. 1975.
McMaster, R.C., editor, Nondestructive Testing Handbook. Columbus, OH: American Society
for Nondestructive Testing. 1959.
v
Metals Handbook, Vol.1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys. Metals
Park, OH: American Society for Metals. Latest edition.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 2, Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose
Materials. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals. Latest edition.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control. Metals Park, OH:
American Society for Metals. Latest edition.
Nondestructive Evaluation in the Nuclear Industry. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals. 1981.
Sharpe, R.S., Research Techniques in Nondestructive Testing, Vol. 1. New York, NY: Academic Press. 1970.
vi
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................................................................... iv
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................................ v
vii
Chapter 4: Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils ........................................................................................................ 27
Electrical Conductivity ............................................................................................................................................. 27
Magnetic Permeability ............................................................................................................................................. 29
Skin Effect ..................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Edge Effect .................................................................................................................................................................. 29
End Effect ..................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Liftoff .............................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Fill Factor....................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Signal-to-Noise Ratio ................................................................................................................................................. 31
Discontinuities ............................................................................................................................................................. 31
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................................... 33
viii
Chapter 7: Eddy Current Applications ......................................................................................................................... 57
Electromagnetic Techniques................................................................................................................................... 57
Eddy Current Overview ............................................................................................................................................. 57
Discontinuity Detection ............................................................................................................................................. 58
Dimensional Measurements ..................................................................................................................................... 61
Conductivity Measurements ................................................................................................................................... 62
Hardness Measurements........................................................................................................................................... 62
Alloy Sorting .................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 63
ix
Chapter 1
Principles of Electromagnetic Testing
Historical Background
1
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 1
Coil A Coil B
N
0
– +
b
S Core
V
a c
Figure 3: Induced current,
electromagnetic method.
2
Principles of Electromagnetic Testing
Conductor B Ip φp
(Test object)
Coil
IE@1δ = 37%
φE
Ip IE@2δ = 13.5%
IE@3δ = 5%
Φp
Ip current
φp = Primary magnetic field
IE = Secondary (eddy) current
Field Intensity
.
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 1
Figure 7(a)
Ep = primary coil voltage
I = excitation current EP
φP = primary magnetic flux
φS = secondary magnetic flux
Figure 7(b)
Ep = primary coil voltage
I = excitation current
φP = primary magnetic flux
ES = secondary coil voltage
φS = secondary magnetic flux
ET = total coil voltage Ι φP φS = 0
φT = total magnetic flux
(a)
In Figure 7(a) the current (I) and primary mag-
netic flux (φP) are plotted in phase. The primary
voltage (EP) is shown separated by 90 electrical
ES
degrees. The secondary magnetic flux (φS) is
plotted at zero because without a test object, no EP
secondary flux exists.
Figure 7(b) represents the action of placing the
coil on a nonferromagnetic test object.
Observing Figure 7(b), one can see by vectorial ET
addition of EP and ES that a new coil voltage (ET) is
arrived at for the loaded condition. The primary
φS φT
magnetic flux φP and secondary magnetic flux φS are
also combined by vectorial addition to arrive at a new φS
magnetic flux (φT) for the loaded coil.
Notice that for the condition of the test object Ι φP
in the test coil, φT is no longer in phase with the (b)
excitation current I. Also observe that the included
(a)Figurewithout7:Phatestorobject;diagram(b) ofwithcoiltestvoltage:object.
angle between the excitation current and the new
coil voltage ET is no longer at 90 electrical degrees.
These interactions will be discussed in detail later
in this study guide.
Current Density significant changes in Y-axis values from 100%
to 37% and, below 37%, changes in X-axis values
produce less significant changes in Y-axis values.
The distribution of eddy currents in a test object Applying this logic to electromagnetic testing, a
varies exponentially. The current density in the test term is developed to describe current distribution
object is most dense near the test coil. This expo- in the test object. The eddy current generated at the
nential current density follows the mathematical rules surface of the test object nearest the test coil is
for a natural exponential decay curve (1/ε) where ε 100%. The point in the test object thickness where
(epsilon) is 2.718. Usually, a natural expo-nential this current is diminished to 37% of its previous
curve is illustrated by a graph with the ordinate (Y strength is known as the standard depth of penetra-
axis) representing magnitude and the abscissa (X tion. The Greek letter δ (delta) is used to represent
axis) representing time or distance. this point in the material. Figure 8 is a relative eddy
A common point described on such a graph is the current density curve for a plane wave of infinite
“knee” of the curve. The knee occurs at the 37% extent with magnetic field parallel to the conduct-
value on the ordinate axis. This 37% point is ing test object surface.
chosen because changes in X-axis values produce
4
Principles of Electromagnetic Testing
The current density at any depth can be calcu- Magnetic permeability μ is a combination of
lated as: terms. For nonmagnetic materials:
x π f µσ
(Eq. 2) JX=JOe
(Eq. 3) µ π×
where
δ = standard depth of penetration, meters
ace)
surf
1.2
π = 3.1416
f = frequency in hertz
ofcurrentatthe
currentdensity
0.4
Eddy
1
δ=
7 4 3.4 38
δ = 0.00135 meters
δ = 1.35 mm
5
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 1
Using 1.35 mm as depth x from the surface, a variables, such as coil parameters and excitation
ratio of depth/depth of penetration would be 1. methods.
Referring to Figure 8, a depth/depth of penetration The amount of phase lag for a given part thick-
of 1 indicates a relative eddy current density of 0.37 ness is an important factor when considering
or 37%. What is the relative eddy current density at resolution. Resolution is the ability to separate
3 mm? variables occurring in the test object; for example,
Depth x equals 3 mm and depth of penetration distinguishing two discontinuities occurring at dif-
is 1.35 mm; therefore: ferent depths in the same test object.
As an example, using a standard depth of pene-
3÷1.35 = 2.222 tration at 1 mm in a 5 mm thick test object, refer to
Figure 9 and observe the phase lag of the current at
This ratio indicates a relative eddy current den- one standard depth of penetration. Where depth of
sity of about 0.1 or 10%. With only 10% of the avail- interest X is 1 mm and depth of penetration δ is
able current flowing at a depth of 3 mm, variables 1 mm, the X/δ ratio is 1 and the current at depth X
such as conductivity, permeability, and discontinu- lags the surface current by 1 radian or 57°.
ities would be very difficult to detect. The obvious
solution for greater detectability at the 3 mm depth
is to lower the test frequency. Frequency selection
will be covered in detail later in this text.
Phase/Amplitude and Current/Time
Relationships
Once the application of these rules in the real world ● determine if and how those parts have been
is understood, electromagnetic testing can be used heat-treated,
for a wide range of inspection applications in elec- ● help determine if there are manufacturing
trically conductive materials to: discontinuities that need to be addressed, and
● measure the size or shape of parts, ● determine if there are service-induced
● measure variations in the grade or chemistry discontinuities that may limit the use of the part.
(alloy) of those parts,
7
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 1
Review Questions
1. Generation of eddy currents depends on the 5. Eddy currents generated in a test object flow:
principle of:
a. in the same plane as magnetic flux.
a. wave guide theory. b. in the same plane as the coil is wound.
b. electromagnetic induction. c. 90° to the coil winding plane.
c. magnetorestrictive forces. d. in no predictable direction.
d. lorentz forces.
6. The discovery of electromagnetic induction is
2. A secondary field is generated by the test object credited to:
and is:
a. Arago.
a. equal and opposite to the primary field. b. Oersted.
b. opposite to the primary field but much smaller. c. Maxwell.
c. in the same plane as the coil is wound. d. Faraday.
d. in phase with the primary field.
7. A standard depth of penetration is defined as the
3. When a nonferromagnetic part is placed in the test point in a test object where the relative current
coil, the coil’s voltage: density is reduced to:
a. increases. a. 25%
b. remains constant because this is essential. b. 37%
c. decreases. c. 50%
d. shifts 90° in phase. d. 100%
4. Refer to Figure 7(b). If ET was produced by the test 8. Refer to Figure 8. If one standard depth of
object being stainless steel, what would the effect be if penetration was established at 1 mm in an object 3
the test object were copper? mm thick, what is the relative current density on
the far surface?
a. ET would decrease and be at a different angle.
b. ET would increase and be at a different angle. a. 3
c. Because both materials are nonferromagnetic, no b. <0.1
change occurs. c. 1/3
d. Current (I) and primary magnetic flux (φP) will d. indeterminate
be out of phase.
8
Principles of Electromagnetic Testing
9. Refer to Figure 9. Using the example in question 8, 10. Calculate the standard depth of penetration at
what is the phase difference between the near and far 10 kHz in copper. Cu has σ = 5.7 × 107
surfaces? siemens per meter.
a. The far-surface current leads the near- a. 0.1 mm (3.9 × 10–3 in.)
surface current by 57°. b. 0.02 mm (7.9 × 10–4 in.)
b. The far-surface current leads the near- c. 0.66 mm (0.026 in.)
surface current by 171°. d. 66 mm (2.6 in.)
c. The far-surface current lags the near-surface
current by 171°.
d. The far-surface current lags the near-surface
current by 570°.
Answers
1b 2b 3c 4a 5b 6d 7b 8b 9c 10c
9
.
Chapter 2
Test Coil Arrangements
Test coils can be categorized into three main This careful scanning is very time-consuming. For
mechanical groups: surface coils, encircling this reason, surface probe coil inspections of large
coils, and internal coils. test objects are usually limited to critical areas.
Surface Coils Surface probe coils are used extensively in air-
craft inspection for crack detection near fasteners
and fastener holes. In the case of fastener holes
Surface coil, surface probe, surface probe coil, flat (boltholes, rivet holes), the surface probe coil may
coil, and pancake coil are all common terms be rotated either manually or mechanically to
used to describe the same test coil type. Surface pro-vide a helical scan of the hole using a
probe coils provide a convenient method of spinning probe technique (Figure 2).
examining the surface of a test object. Figure 1
illustrates a typical set of probe coils used for
several surface scanning applications.
11
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 2
Encircling Coils
encircling coil. The additional advantage that a
probe coil would have over the encircling coil is
Encircling coil, outside diameter coil, and feed- that the probe coil could define where within the
through coil are terms commonly used to describe circumferential plane the discontinuity exists. The
a coil that surrounds the test object. Figure 3 illus- encircling coil cannot make that distinction. If there
trates a typical encircling coil. are multiple signal sources within the coil’s field of
view, the encircling coil response will indicate the
average of all of those events.
When using an encircling coil, it is important to
Crack
keep the test object centered in the coil. If the test
object is not centered, a uniform discontinuity
response is difficult to obtain. To ensure proper
Direction of centering, it is common practice to run the calibra-
tube travel
tion standard several times, each time indexing the
artificial discontinuities to a new circumferential
location in the coil.
Encircling coil As in all discontinuity detection schemes, it is
essential to select a reasonable operating frequency,
properly adjust the system display parameters, and
ensure that the tube is centered in the coil at all
Tube times to achieve optimum test sensitivity.
Internal Coils for Pipes and Tubes
Tube
Differential coils
Shaft
Figure 5 shows various types of absolute and gradually. Variables such as slowly changing wall
differential coil arrangements. thickness, diameter, or conductivity are effectively
discriminated against with the self-comparison dif-
Absolute Coils ferential coil.
An absolute coil makes its measurement without Only when a different condition affects one or the
direct reference or comparison to a standard as the other test coils will an output signal be generat-ed.
measurement is being made. Some applications for The coils usually being mechanically and elec-
absolute coil systems would be measurements of trically similar allows the arrangement to be very
conductivity, permeability, dimensions, stable during temperature changes. Short disconti-
and hardness. nuities such as cracks, pits, or other localized dis-
continuities with abrupt boundaries can be readily
Differential Coils detected using the self-comparison differential coil.
Differential coils consist of two or more coils The external reference differential coil uses an
electrically connected to oppose each other. external reference to affect one coil while the other
Differential coils can be categorized into two coil is affected by the test object. Figure 6 illustrates
types: self-comparison differential and this concept. This system is used to detect differ-
external reference differential. ences between a standard object and test object. It is
The self-comparison differential coil compares particularly useful for comparative conductivity,
one area of a test object to another area on the same permeability, and dimensional measurements.
test object. A common use is two coils, connected Obviously in Figure 6 it is imperative to normalize
opposing, so that if both coils are affected by identi- (or balance) the system with one coil affected by the
cal test object conditions, the net output is 0 volts or standard object and the other coil affected by an
no signal change. The self-comparison arrange- acceptable test object. The external reference differ-
ment is insensitive to test object variables that occur ential coil system is sensitive to all measurable
13
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 2
Material
From a designer’s perspective, electromagnetic coils
may also be defined by three parameters: diameter
(D), height (h), and orientation of the axis (usually
Indicating
Sensing coil instrument relative to the inspection surface). Number of turns of
wire and wire thickness are not as significant as far as
measured signals are concerned. Given these
Receiving circuit parameters, pancake coils have h < D and bobbin
14
Test Coil Arrangements
coils have h > D. Coils may be described as square if and perpendicular to the surface) for sensors.
h is roughly equal to D. Note that direction of coil With remote field testing, bobbin coils are used
movement is not included in the above definitions. but with an orientation optimized to detect the
Conventional eddy current testing uses surface axial magnetic field in the tube wall.
(pancake) coils with axes perpendicular to the sur- When tube inspection is considered as a special
face. Alternating current field measurement uses application, the use of internal or surface comes
bobbin coils (with the axis parallel to the surface) into play to further differentiate the type of probe.
for induction and square coils (with axes parallel
15
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 2
Review Questions
1. A hybrid coil arrangement consists of: 5. When inspecting a tubular product with an
encircling coil, which statement is not true?
a. bobbin coils.
b. probe coils. a. Outside diameter discontinuities can be found.
c. outside diameter coils. b. Axial discontinuity locations can be noted.
d. an excitation coil and a sensing coil. c. Circumferential discontinuity locations can
be noted.
2. When using a surface probe coil to scan a test object: d. Inside diameter discontinuities can be found.
a. the object must be dry and polished. 6. An absolute coil measurement is made:
b. the object must be scanned carefully to ensure
inspection coverage. a. by comparing one spot on the test object to
c. the object must be scanned in circular motions at another.
constant speeds. b. without reference to or direct comparison with a
d. the probe must be moving at all times to get a standard.
reading. c. only with probe coils.
d. by comparative measurement to a
3. A spinning probe would most likely be: known standard.
a. Bobbin.
b. Absolute.
c. Outside diameter.
d. Self-comparison differential.
16
Test Coil Arrangements
9. A hybrid coil is composed of two or more coils. The 10. Proper selection of the test coil arrangement is
coils: determined by the:
a. must be aligned coplanar to the driver axis. a. shape of the test object.
b. may be of widely different dimensions. b. test equipment.
c. must be impedance matched as closely as c. operator’s skills.
possible. d. standard depth of penetration.
d. are very temperature sensitive.
Answers
1d 2b 3d 4b 5c 6b 7b 8d 9b 10a
17
Chapter 3
Test Coil Design
19
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 3
The inductance of a multilayer air-core coil can would have an inductance of:
be expressed by its physical properties or coil i
(6 0.1) (9 0.1) (10 0.1)
parameters. Coil parameters such as length,
diame-ter, thickness, and number of turns of wire
affect the coil’s inductance.
Figure 1 illustrates typical coil dimensions i 0.6 0 .9 1 2.5 32
required to calculate coil inductance. (Variables
refer to those listed for Equation 8 below.)
= µ
In alternating current circuits, the current is
r always changing; therefore, inductance is always
opposing this change. As the current tries to
change, the inductance reacts to oppose that
change. This reaction is called inductive reactance.
l Inductive Reactance
20
Test Coil Design
To explain the addition of reactance and resistance L
XL =6 . 28 × 200 0 00 Hz × 0 . 0001 H
with a minimum of mathematical calculations, it is
possible to use vector or phasor diagrams. A vector XL =6 . 28 × 20 = 125 . 6 Ω
diagram constructed with imaginary units on the
2 2
ordinate or Y axis and real units on the abscissa or Z= (125 . 6) + (5) = 15 800 . 36
X axis is shown in Figure 2.
Z = 125 . 7 Ω
First, convert inductance to inductive reactance
and then, by vector addition, combine inductive
reactance and resistance to obtain the impedance.
Z The importance of knowing the impedance
XL of the test coil is more one of instrument
a considera-tion than coil design.
Maximum transfer of power is accomplished
when the driving impedance and load impedance
0 R are matched. If, for instance, an electromagnetic
testing instrument has a driving impedance of 50 Ω,
Figure 2: Vector diagram. the most efficient test coils would also have imped-
ances of 50 Ω. Other, more common examples of
impedance matching are home stereo systems rated
at 100 W per channel into 8 ohms.
21
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 3
Q or Figure of Merit
Impedance can be discussed in a more detailed
manner by mathematically noting variables using
imaginary numbers. The square root of a negative The term used to describe coil efficiency is Q or
number is known as an imaginary number. The merit of the coil. The higher the Q or merit of a
imaginary number √–16 can be written √(–1)16 or coil, the more efficiently the coil performs as an
√(–1) √(–16) or √(–1) 4. The notation √(–1) is inductor. The merit of a coil is mathematically
used extensively and is mathematically noted by a stated as:
lower case letter “i.” Because i is also used in electri-
cal terms for current, the i notation for electrical (Eq. 18) L
calculations is changed to the letter “j.” The symbol
j, often called operator j, is equal to √(–1). Instead
of noting √–16 as √(–1) 4, note it as j4. Because where
L
reactance is known as an imaginary component, R = resistance
then impedance is expressed as:
materials must be chosen carefully. Most interactions between these material combinations
common commercial copper coil wire may be could cause cracking and lead to component failure.
used up to 150 °C to 200 °C (302 °F to 392 °F). Mechanical and electrical stability of the test coil
For temperatures above 200 °C (392 °F), silver or can be enhanced by an application of epoxy resin
aluminum wire with ceramic or high- between each layer of coil winding. This accom-
temperature silicone insulation must be used. plishes several objectives: 1) it seals the coil to
Materials must be chemically compatible with exclude moisture, 2) it provides additional electrical
the test object. As extreme examples, a polystyrene insulation, and 3) it provides mechanical stability.
coil form would not be used to inspect an acetone Characteristics listed are not in order of impor-
cooler or a lead or graphite housing allowed to tance. The importance of each characteristic is
come in contact with a high-temperature nickel determined by specific test requirements.
chromium alloy jet engine tail cone. The chemical
24
Test Coil Design
Review Questions
1. A coil’s resistance is determined by: 6. The impedance of a 100 μH coil with a resistance of
20 ohms operating at 100 kHz would be:
a. wire hardness.
b. wire permeability. a. 62.8 ohms
c. wire cross-sectional area. b. 4343.8 ohms
d. wire weight. c. 628 ohms
d. 65.9 ohms
2. Inductance might be referred to as being
analogous to: 7. The Q or merit of a coil is denoted by the ratio:
a. force. a. Z ÷ XL
b. volume. b. XL ÷ Z
c. inertia. c. XL ÷ R
d. velocity. d. R ÷ XL
Answers
1c 2c 3a 4b 5c 6d 7c 8a 9b 10d
25
Chapter 4
Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils
As previously seen, the electromagnetic testing The symbol for conductivity is σ (sigma) and
method depends on the generation of induced the unit is percent International Annealed
currents within the test object. Disturbances in Copper Standard (IACS).
these small induced currents affect the test coil. Table 1 lists materials by their electrical proper-
The result is a variance of the test coil impedance ties: conductivity and resistivity. Note that a good
due to test object variables. These variances are conductor is a poor resistor. Conductance and
called operating or test variables. The range of test resistance are direct reciprocals, as stated earlier.
variables encountered might include electrical con- Conductivity and resistivity, however, have
ductivity, magnetic permeability, skin effect, edge different origins and units; therefore, the
effect, end effect, liftoff, fill factor, and signal-to- conversion is not so direct.
noise ratio. As previously discussed, conductivity is
Coil impedance was discussed at length in expressed on an arbitrary scale in percent IACS.
Chapter 3. In this chapter, coil impedance changes Resistivity is expressed in absolute terms of micro-
will be represented graphically to more effectively ohm-centimeters. To convert values on one scale
explain the interaction of the operating variables. to the other system of units, a conversion factor of
Electrical Conductivity 172.41 is required. Once you know either the con-
ductivity or the resistivity value for a material, the
other electrical property can be calculated.
In electron theory, the atom consists of a positive
nucleus surrounded by orbiting negative electrons. %IACS
(Eq. 19) resistivity (in micro-ohm-cm)
Materials that allow these electrons to be easily
moved out of orbit around the nucleus are
classified as conductors. In conductors, electrons
are moved by applying an outside electrical force. or
The ease with which the electrons are made to
move through the conductor is called conductance. resistivity (in micro-ohm-cm) %IACS
A unit of con-ductance is the siemen (mho). The
siemen is the reciprocal of the ohm or conductance
These numerical values are necessary when addi-
G = 1/R, where G is conductance in siemens and R
tional calculations are needed to determine issues of
is resist-ance in ohms.
frequency choice, depth of penetration, and/or phase
In electromagnetic testing, instead of describing
spread to meet specific inspection criteria.
conductance in absolute terms, an arbitrary unit
As the test coil is influenced by different con-
has been assigned. Since the relative conductivity of
ductivities, its impedance varies inversely to con-
metals and alloys varies over a wide range, the need
ductivity. A higher conductivity causes the test coil
for a conductivity benchmark is of prime
to have a lower impedance value. Figure 1 illustrates
importance.
a measured conductivity locus.
The International Electrochemical Commission
established in 1913 a convenient technique of com- The coil’s inductive reactance is represented
paring one material to another. The commission by the Y axis and coil resistance appears on the X
established that a specific grade of high purity cop- axis. The 0% conductivity point, or air point, is
per, 1 m in length, with a uniform cross section of when the coil’s empty reactance (XLO) is at its maxi-
1 mm2, measuring 0.017241 ohms at 20 °C would mum. Conductivity is influenced by many factors.
be arbitrarily considered to be 100% conductive.
27
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 4
Resistivity Conductivity
Material
micro-ohm-cm (μΩ-cm) %IACS
Admiralty brass 6.90 25.00
Aluminum (99.9) 2.65 64.94
6061-T6 4.10 42.00
7075-T-6 5.30 32.00
2024-T4 5.70 30.00
Aluminum bronze 12.00 14.00
Copper 1.72 100.00
Copper nickel 90-10 18.95 9.10
Copper nickel 70-30 37.00 4.60
Gold 2.35 75.00
Corrosive resistant nickel alloy 130.00 1.30
High-temperature nickel chromium alloy 100.00 1.72
Lead 20.77 8.30
Magnesium (99%) 4.45 38.60
Stainless steel 304 72.00 2.39
Stainless steel 316 74.00 2.33
Titanium 99% 48.60 3.50
Tungsten 5.65 30.00
2%
by redistributing elements in the material.
Dependent on materials and degree of heat-
treatment, conduc-tivity can either increase or 5%
decrease as a result of heat-treatment.
Stresses in a material due to cold working pro-duce 10%
lattice distortion or dislocation. This mechani-cal
process changes the grain structure and hardness of
100% IACS
the material, changing its electrical conductivity.
Hardness in age hardenable aluminum alloys
changes the electrical conductivity of the alloy. The Resistance
electrical conductivity decreases as hardness
increases. As an example, a brinell hardness of 60 is
Figure 1: Conductivity curve.
represented by a conductivity of 23 and a brinell
hardness of 100 of the same alloy would have a
conductivity of 19.
28
Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils
Magnetic Permeability
coil’s field precedes the coil by some distance
deter-mined by coil parameters, operating
Magnetic permeability of any material is a measure frequency, and test object characteristics. As the
of the ease with which its magnetic domains can be coil approaches the edge of a test object, eddy
aligned or the ease with which it can establish lines current flow in the test sample becomes distorted
of force. Materials are rated on a comparative basis. by the edge. This is known as the edge effect.
Air is assigned a permeability of 1. Diamagnetic The edge effect can create a change in the
materials have a permeability less than air. In con- coil’s impedance that is similar to a discontinuity
trast, ferromagnetic metals and alloys including (Figure 2). The response would move back along
nickel, iron, and cobalt tend to concentrate magnet- the conductivity curve toward the air point. The
ic flux lines. As discussed in Chapter 3, some ferro- coil is responding to a slightly less conductive
magnetic materials or sintered ionic compounds are situation (air) at the leading edge of the coil’s field
also useful in concentrating magnetic flux. of view. It is therefore essential that the edge
Magnetic permeability is not constant for a effect be eliminated as a variable during a surface-
given material. The permeability in a test sample scanning test.
depends on the magnetic field acting on it. As an
example, consider a magnetic steel bar placed in an
encircling coil. As the coil current is increased, the Good coupling Decreased coupling
magnetic field of the coil will increase. The magnet-
ic flux within the steel will increase rapidly at first
and then will tend to level off as the steel approach-
es magnetic saturation. This phenomenon is called
the barkhausen effect.
When increases in the magnetizing force produce
little or no change on the flux within the steel bar, the
bar is magnetically saturated. When ferromagnetic
materials are saturated, permeability becomes con-
stant. With magnetic permeability constant, ferro-
magnetic materials may be inspected using the elec-
tromagnetic testing method. Without magnetic
saturation, ferromagnetic materials exhibit such a wide
range of permeability variation that signals pro-duced
by discontinuities or conductivity variations are
masked by the permeability signal.
Figure 2: Edge effect.
Skin Effect
29
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 4
Liftoff
coating such as paint or plastic causes a space
between the coil and conducting base, allowing
Electromagnetic coupling between test coil and test liftoff to represent the coating thickness. Liftoff is
object is of prime importance when conducting an also useful in profilometry and proximity applica-
electromagnetic test. The coupling between test coil tions. Liftoff is most applicable to testing objects
and test object varies with spacing between the test with a surface or probe coil.
coil and test object. This spacing is called liftoff. Fill Factor
The effect on the coil impedance is called the
liftoff effect.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between air, Fill factor is a term used to describe how well a test
conductive materials, and liftoff. The electromag- object will be electromagnetically coupled to a test
netic field, as previously discussed, is strongest near coil that surrounds or is inserted into the test
the coil and dissipates with distance from the coil. object. Fill factor then pertains to inspections using
This fact causes a pronounced liftoff effect for small bobbin or encircling coils. Like liftoff, electromag-
variations in coil-to-object spacing. As an example, netic coupling between test coil and test object is
a spacing change from contact to 0.0254 mm (0.001 most efficient when the coil is nearest the surface of
in.) will produce a liftoff effect many times greater the part.
than a spacing change of 0.254 mm The area of a circle (A) is determined using the
(0.010 in.) to 0.2794 mm (0.011 in.). The equation:
liftoff effect is generally an undesired effect
(Eq. 20) A 4
causing increased noise and reduced
coupling, resulting in poor measuring ability.
e
a
A
0.99 is more efficient than a fill factor of 0.75. The
effect of fill factor on the test system is that poor fill
100% factors do not allow the coil to be sufficiently cou-
IACS pled to the test object. This is analogous to the
0 Resistance 0˚ effect of drawing a bow only slightly and releasing
an arrow. The result is, with the bow slightly drawn
and released, little effect is produced to propel
the arrow.
In electrical terms it is said that the coil is
loaded by the test object. How much the coil is
In some instances, equipment having phase dis- loaded by the test object due to fill factor can be
crimination capability can readily separate liftoff from calculated in relative terms. A test system with
conductivity or other variables. Liftoff can be used to constant current capabilities being affected by
advantage when measuring nonconductive coatings
on conductive bases. A nonconductive
30
Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils
OR
Compare either:
a conductive nonmagnetic bar placed into an encir- It is suggested that the reader calculate the
cling coil can be used to demonstrate this effect. resultant loaded voltage developed by a 12.7 mm
For this example, the system parameters are (0.5 in.) bar of the same material and observe the
as follows: relative sensitivity difference.
● Unloaded coil voltage equals 10 V. Signal-to-Noise Ratio
● Test object effective permeability equals 0.3.
● Test coil inside diameter equals
25.4 mm (1 in.). Signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of signals of interest
● Test object outside diameter equals to unwanted signals. Common noise sources are
22.9 mm (0.9 in.). test object variations of surface roughness, geome-
try, and homogeneity. Other electrical noises can be
(Eq. 22) fill factor = 1
0.81
due to such external sources as welding machines,
electric motors, and generators. Mechanical vibra-
tions can increase test system noise by physical
movement of test coil or test object. In other words,
An equation demonstrating coil loading is anything that interferes with a test system’s ability
given by: to define a measurement is considered noise.
Signal-to-noise ratios can be improved by sever-
(Eq. 23) E EO 1 µeff
al techniques. If a part is dirty or scaly, the signal-
to-noise ratio can be improved by cleaning the part.
Electrical interference can be shielded or isolated.
where
Phase discrimination and filtering can improve the
E0 = coil voltage with coil affected by air signal-to-noise ratio.
E = coil voltage with coil affected by test object It is common practice in nondestructive testing
η = fill factor to require a minimum signal-to-noise ratio of
μeff = effective permeability 3 to 1. This means a signal of interest must have a
response at least three times that of the noise at
When a nonferromagnetic test object is inserted that point.
into the test coil, the coil’s voltage will decrease.
Discontinuities
E = 10[(1 – 0.81) + (0.81) (0.3)]
E = 10[0.19 + 0.243] Any discontinuity that appreciably changes
E = 10[0.433] the normal eddy current flow can be detected.
E = 4.3 V Discontinuities, such as cracks, pits, gouges, vibra-
tional damage, and corrosion, generally cause the
This allows 10 – 4.3 = 5.7 V available to respond effective conductivity of the test object to be reduced.
to test object changes caused by discontinuities or Discontinuities open to the surface are more
decreases in effective conductivity of the test object. easily detected than subsurface discontinuities.
31
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 4
Discontinuities open to the surface can be detected tube. With this condition, identical near- and far-
with a wide range of frequencies; subsurface investi- surface discontinuities would have greatly different
gations require a more careful frequency selection. responses. Due to current magnitude alone, the near-
Discontinuity detection at depths greater than surface discontinuity response would be nearly five
12.7 mm (0.5 in.) in stainless steel is very difficult. times that of the far-surface discontinuity.
This is due in part to the sparse distribution of Discontinuity orientation has a dramatic effect
magnetic flux lines at the low frequency required on response. As seen earlier, discontinuity response
for such deep penetrations. is at its maximum when eddy currents and disconti-
Figure 8 in Chapter 1 is again useful to illustrate nuities are at 90° or perpendicular. Discontinuities
discontinuity response because of current distribu- parallel to the eddy current flow produce little or no
tion. As an example, consider testing a nonferro- response. The simplest technique to ensure
magnetic tube at a frequency that establishes a stan- detectability of discontinuities is to use a reference
dard depth of penetration at the midpoint of the standard or model that provides a consistent means
tube wall. This condition would allow a relative cur- of adjusting instrumentation.
rent density of about 20% on the far surface of the
32
Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils
Review Questions
1. Materials that hold their electrons loosely are 5. Materials that tend to concentrate magnetic flux lines
classified as: are:
a. resistors. a. conductive.
b. conductors. b. permeable.
c. semiconductors. c. resistive.
d. insulators. d. inductive.
2. 100% IACS is based on a specified copper bar having 6. Diamagnetic materials have:
a resistance of:
a. a permeability greater than air.
a. 0.01 ohms b. a permeability less than air.
b. 100 ohms c. a permeability greater than ferromagnetic
c. 0.017241 ohms materials.
d. 172.41 ohms d. no permeability.
a. 11.032 a. bars.
b. 0.0625 b. tubes.
c. 1652 c. plates or sheets.
d. 13.26 d. castings.
4. A term used to describe the effect observed due to a 8. Calculate the effect of fill factor when a conducting
change in the electromagnetic coupling between a bar 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) in diameter with an effective
test specimen and a probe coil when the distance of permeability of 0.4 is placed into a 25.4 mm (1 in.)
separation between them is varied is: diameter coil with an unloaded voltage of 10 V.
The loaded voltage is:
a. fill factor.
b. edge effect. a. 2V
c. end effect. b. 4.6 V
d. liftoff. c. 8.5 V
d. 3.2 V
33
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 4
9. The thickness of nonconductive coatings on a 10. Temperature changes, vibration, and environmental
conductive base can be most simply measured by: effects are test coil inputs that generate:
Answers
1b 2c 3d 4d 5b 6b 7c 8c 9a 10a
34
Chapter 5
Selection of Test Frequency
It is the responsibility of nondestructive testing engi- included phase angle provides good detectability
neers and technicians to provide and perform non- and resolution for thin-wall tube inspection.
destructive testing that in some way ensures the The depth of penetration formula discussed in
quality or usefulness of industry products. To apply Chapter 1, although correct, has rather cumbersome
a nondestructive test, it is essential that the parame- units. Conductivity is usually expressed in percent of
ters affecting the test be understood. Usually, indus- the International Annealed Copper Standard
try establishes a product or component and then (%IACS). Resistivity is usually expressed in terms of
seeks a method to inspect it. micro-ohm-centimeters (μΩ-cm). Depth of penetra-
This practice establishes test object geometry, tion is normally much less than 12.7 mm (0.5 in.). A
conductivity, and permeability before the application formula using these units may be more appropriate
of the electromagnetic examination. Instrumentation, and easier to use.
test coil, and test frequency selection become the tools In Chapter 1, a formula for calculating depth of
used to solve the problem of inspection. Test coils were penetration in metric units was presented. Another
discussed previously and instrumentation will be derivative of this formula using resistivity,
discussed later in this text. Test frequencies and their frequency, and permeability with δ expressed in
selection will be examined in detail in either millime-ters or inches can be expressed as:
this chapter.
Frequency Selection
ρ
35
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 5
(a) K f where
f = frequency (in hertz)
σ = conductivity (meter/ohm-mm2) d
(b) K f = diameter of test object (cm) μrel =
relative permeability
2 A frequency can always be selected to establish
(c) K 2 f
factor A equal to 1. This frequency is known as the
limit frequency and is noted by fg. By substituting
K 2 f 1 for factor A and fg for f, the equation becomes:
(d) 2
µ σ
2 rel
K 2 1.98
=
(Eq. 28) 1 = 5066 or fg µ rel σd2
2 2
(e) f or f Limit frequency (fg) is then established in
As an example of how this may be used, consider terms of conductivity, permeability, some
inspecting a 7.6 mm (0.3 in.) thick aluminum plate, dimensional property, and a constant (5066).
fastened to a steel plate at the far surface. Effects of Because limit frequency is based on these param-
the steel part are undesirable and require discrimi- eters, a technique of frequency determination using a
nation or elimination. The aluminum plate has a
test frequency to limit frequency ratio f/fg can be
resistivity of 5 μΩ-cm. By establishing a depth of
penetration at 2.54 mm (0.1 in.), the far-surface accomplished. High f/fg ratios are used for near-surface
current will be less than 10% of the available tests and lower f/fg ratios are used for subsur-face tests.
current, thus reducing response to the steel part.
Often results of such tests are represented by dia-
The frequency required for this can be calculated by
grams. These diagrams are called impedance dia-grams.
applying:
Impedance, illustrated by vector diagrams in Chapter
3, shows inductive reactance represented on the Y axis
19.6 and resistance on the X axis.
=
f =
f = 1960 Hz
2 0.01 The vector sum of the reactive and resistive
com-ponents is impedance. This impedance is a
quantity with magnitude and direction that is
(Eq. 25) 0.1 directly pro-portional to frequency. To construct a
universal impedance diagram valid for all
If detection of the presence of the steel part is
frequencies, the impedance must be normalized.
required, the depth of penetration could be reestab-
Figure 1 illustrates a normalization process.
lished at 7.6 mm (0.3 in.) in the aluminum plate and Figure 1(a) shows the effect on primary imped-
a new frequency can be calculated:
ance ZP with changes in frequency (ω = 2πf).
Figure 1(a) represents primary impedance
19.6 without a secondary circuit or test object.
(Eq. 26) f = 2 =
0.09
Figure 1(b) illustrates the effect of frequency on
0.3
primary impedance with a secondary circuit or test
object present. The primary resistance R, in Figure
f = 218 Hz 1(a), has been subtracted in Figure 1(b) because
resistance is not affected by frequency. The
Another approach to frequency selection uses
term ωLsG in Figure 1(b) represents a reference quan-
argument A of the bessel function where argument
tity for the secondary impedance. The units are sec-
A is equal to unity or 1:
ondary conductance G and secondary reactance ωLs.
Further normalization is accomplished by divid-
µ σ ing the reactive and resistive components by the
rel
term ωLo or the primary inductive reactance
without a secondary circuit present.
=
(Eq. 27) A 5066
36
Selection of Test Frequency
F 0.1
AZP (10 ω1) 0.2
0.3 0.4
ZP (8 ω1) E 0.5
ReactanceX(
relativescale
ReactanceX(
relativescal
e)
)
0.6 LSG
1.4 ω
0.7
ω D 0.8
ZP (6 1) 0.9
1.0
ZP (4 ω1) C 1.2
ZP (2 ω1) B
ZP (ω1)
0 R1 0
(a) (b) Resistance R (relative scale)
Resistance R (relative scale)
Figure 1: Effect of frequency change: (a) primary impedance without secondary circuit; (b) primary
impedance with secondary circuit.
37
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 5
.
Selection of Test Frequency
39
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 5
Review Questions
1. What frequency is required to establish a standard 5. Using the example in Question 4, what is the f/fg ratio
depth of penetration of 7.6 mm (0.1 in.) in if the test frequency is 60 kHz?
zirconium?
a. 1.2
a. 19.6 kHz b. 120
b. 196 Hz c. 60
c. 3.4 kHz d. 600
d. 340 Hz
6. In Figure 1(b) the value ωLsG equaling 1.4 would be
2. To reduce effects of far-surface indications, the indicative of:
test frequency:
a. a high-resistivity material.
a. must be mixed. b. a high-conductivity material.
b. must be raised. c. a low-conductivity material.
c. must be lowered. d. a nonconductor.
d. has no effect.
7. Primary resistance is subtracted from Figure 1(b)
3. The frequency required to establish the bessel because:
function argument A equal to 1 is called:
a. resistance is always constant.
a. an optimum frequency. b. resistance is not frequency dependent.
b. a resonant frequency. c. resistance does not add to the impedance.
c. a limit frequency. d. resistance is offset by secondary resistance.
d. a penetration frequency.
8. The reference quantity is different for the solid
4. Calculate the limit frequency for a copper bar (σ = cylinder and thin-wall tube in Figure 2 because:
50.6 meter/ohm mm2) 1 cm in diameter. The
correct limit frequency is: a. the frequency is different.
b. the conductivity is different.
a. 50 kHz c. the skin effect is no longer negligible.
b. 50.6 Hz d. the thin-wall tube has not been normalized.
c. 100 Hz
d. 100 kHz
40
Selection of Test Frequency
9. A 25% deep crack open to the near surface gives a 10. When using multifrequency systems, low subtractor
response __________ times greater than the same frequencies are used to suppress:
crack 3.3% of diameter under the surface. (Refer to
Figure 4.) a. conductivity changes.
b. far-surface signals.
a. 10 c. near-surface signals.
b. 3 d. permeability changes.
c. 2
d. 5
Answers
1a 2b 3c 4c 5d 6b 7b 8c 9b 10b
41
Chapter 6
Instrument Systems
43
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
Ellipse
where
M= slit value
A = amplitude of the measurement in the slit
θ = angle between base signal and measurement
effect
45
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
46
Instrument Systems
coil response to an array of EDM notches on a Figure 9 shows a block diagram for a multifre-
calibration standard. Figure 8 shows a block quency instrument operating at three frequencies
diagram of a stepped, single-frequency, phase- simultaneously. In modern systems, this is referred to
amplitude instrument. as simultaneous injection. This diagram shows three
The circuit in Figure 8 is capable of operating at dedicated frequency modules, but more recent
any of the four frequencies. If the four frequencies adaptations use multiple variable frequency circuits.
are spread over a wide range, several different test In Figure 9, excitation currents at each selected
coils may be required to use the instrument over the frequency are impressed across the coil at the same
entire range. Most modern single-frequency instru- time. You may recall from earlier chapters that the
ments use this principle; however, one variable- electromagnetic envelope around an alternating cur-
frequency generator with a wide operating range rent driven coil is very dynamic. It is very difficult to
usually replaces the four individually fixed model what the combined electromagnetic flux pat-
generators. A typical frequency range for such an tern would look like with more than one frequency
instrument is from low hertz (10 Hz) to megahertz affecting the coil at a given moment in time.
(12 MHz). This large dynamic range gives these Multiple circuits are used throughout the instru-
units a wide variety of possible applications. ment. The test coil output carrier frequencies are
For deep subsurface crack detection (more than separated by filters. Multiple dual-phase amplitude
5 mm [0.2 in.]) the lower frequency range is detectors are used and their outputs summed to
required. This test could also be performed with provide separation of several test object parameters.
hybrid (driver/pickup) coils to improve detection A system similar to this is described in Inservice
of the low amplitude responses from smaller Inspection of Steam Generator Tubing Using Multiple
disconti-nuities deeper in a product. Frequency Eddy Current Techniques.
For detection of very small stress or fatigue Another approach to the multifrequency tech-
cracks in a near-surface inspection process, the nique uses a sequential coil drive called multiplexing.
higher frequency range could improve sensitivity to The frequencies are changed in a step-by-step
smaller cracks. The compromise at very high fre- sequence with such rapidity that the test parameters
quencies is the issue of skin effect or surface noise. remain unchanged. The multiplex technique has the
Special probes or scanning processes may be advantages of lower cost, continuously variable fre-
required for this type of test also. quencies, and little or no crosstalk between channels.
47
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
Generator
Generator
Generator
Multiple
Compensation
Filters and amplitude-
or balance Analyzers
amplifiers phase
circuits
detectors
Test object
Multiple
readouts
Figure 10 pictures a multifrequency instrument personnel. These instruments can also interface
capable of generating up to 16 channels of data with robotic or computer-based systems for both
sequentially. Each channel or time slot may be adjust- process control and raw data recording purposes.
ed over a wide range of frequencies. In addition, this A test system using pulsed excitation is shown in
digital system provides for the creation of mixed Figure 11. A pulse is applied to the test coil, compen-
channel combinations for suppression of unwanted sating networks, and analyzers simultaneously.
test variables. Results of such suppression are Systems having analyzers with one or two
described in Multifrequency Eddy Current Method and sampling points perform similarly to a single-
the Separation of Test Specimen Variables. frequency tester using sinusoidal excitation.
This type of digital instrumentation allows all of Pulsed electromagnetic systems having multiple
the test setup parameters to be stored to either sampling points perform more like the
internal or external storage media. This allows pre- multifrequency tester shown in Figure 10.
programmed test setups to be recalled and used by Readout Mechanisms
semi-skilled personnel. Systems can be created with
programs having supervisory code interlocks that
prevent reprogramming by other than authorized Electromagnetic test data may be displayed or indi-
cated in a variety of ways. The type of display or
readout depends on the test requirements. Some
common readout mechanisms are indicator lights,
audio alarms, meters, digital displays, cathrode ray
tubes, recorders, and computer interfaces.
Indicator Lights
A simple use of the indicator light is to monitor
the electromagnetic signal amplitude with an
amplitude gate circuit. When the signal reaches a
preset amplitude limit, the amplitude gate
switches a relay that applies power to an indicator
light or automatic sorting device. With the
amplitude gate circuit, high-low limits could be
48
preset to give GO/NO-GO indications.
Instrument Systems
Pulse
generato
r
Balance
Amplifiers Analyzers Indicators
circuits
Test object
Meters
Meters operate on the d’Arsonval galvanometer prin-
ciple. The principle is based on the action between two
magnetic fields. A common meter uses a perma-nent
magnet to produce one magnetic field, while the other
magnetic field is produced by a movable coil wound
on a core. The coil and core are suspend-ed on jeweled
bearings and attached to a pointer or needle. The
instrument output current is passed through the coil
and produces a magnetic field about the coil that
reacts to the permanent magnetic field surrounding
the assembly. The measuring coil is
49
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
the number indicated on the scale should correlate information. More recently, many electromagnetic
to a specific percent IACS value if the system has systems have become available with digital
been properly set up. represen-tations of CRT-type screens.
Some meter-based devices (Figure 13) that In the original analog system, there were three
might be used for simple discontinuity detection do main elements: the electron gun, the deflection
not give the operator a numerical value other than a plates, and a fluorescent screen. The electron gun
percent of full scale. A given crack could generate would generate, focus, and direct the electron beam
either a small amplitude voltage at a low gain set- toward the face or screen of the CRT. The deflection
ting or a larger amplitude response at a higher gain plates were situated between the electron gun and
setting. This would be a qualitative type response. the screen, arranged in two pairs, usually called hor-
These systems are not used for discontinuity sizing. izontal and vertical or X and Y. The plane of one
pair would be perpendicular to the other pair.
The screen is the imaging portion of the CRT.
The screen consists of a coating or coatings that
produce photochemical reactions when struck by
the electron beam. The photochemical action
appears in two stages. Fluorescence occurs as the
0 20 40 60 80 100 electron beam strikes the screen. Phosphorescence is
the chemical process that allows the screen to con-
tinue to give off light after the electron beam has
been removed or has passed over a section of the
screen. All analog CRT screen materials possess
both fluorescence and phosphorescence.
The duration of the photochemical effect is
Figure 13: A qualitative analog meter response showing only called persistence. Persistence can be categorized as
percent of full scale. either low, medium, or high. To display repetitive
signals, a low- or medium-persistence CRT may have
A qualitative meter response could be used in a been used. To display nonrecurrent or single events,
test situation where a minimum discontinuity a high-persistence CRT would have been used.
amplitude response can be accurately defined. This Many digital CRT-type systems are available.
might be an EDM notch of a specified depth in a Because analog CRTs are no longer manufactured,
calibration block. As long as the meter stays below those systems are being replaced with other options.
the preset voltage level from the selected disconti- Digital systems provide the additional flexibility for
nuity, then the sample is acceptable. If that voltage the selection of various color and contrast condi-
level is exceeded, then the part is deemed unaccept- tions (Figure 14). This allows the operator a
able. In some online inspections, this type of choice of color options that can be established on
voltage threshold or gate is used to rapidly sort the same system to compensate for use in different
or grade materials. lighting conditions. Because the data are output to
The use of these types of output displays should the screen in a digital format, varying persistence
be limited to applications where a qualitative value values can be selected by defining the timing factor
or discontinuity threshold can be established and of a rolling data buffer or memory. This selection
would be acceptable to meet test criteria. process allows the operator to choose how long the
digital images created stay on the screen for
Digital Displays viewing.
Numerical digital displays can also be used to pro-
vide qualitative information. These might have sev- Recorders
eral applications, but the most common would be Data recorders might be required to meet the
for measuring conductivity values. inspection criteria. Recording is sometimes accom-
plished on analog paper strip charts or on magnetic
Cathode Ray Tubes tape formats. With most newer equipment provid-ing
Cathode ray tubes (CRTs), or CRT-type displays, play recording capability, some form of digital media
an important role in the display of electromagnetic would be used. The data could be stored internally
50
Instrument Systems
Figure 15: Computerized system response during a heat exchanger tubing examination.
51
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
The amplitude of the X-Y lissajous (looped, These digital images can be colorized to indicate
curved) response in Figure 15 (6.66 V) is an indica- specific conditions. They can also be processed to
tor of the volume of the discontinuity. The phase create a three-dimensional view that can be rotated
angle with respect to the X axis (114°) represents in multiple dimensions or planes.
discontinuity depth (in this case, 41%) and disconti-
nuity origin (tube outside diameter), indicating Computer Interfaces
whether the discontinuity originated on the inside Most electromagnetic testers use an integral visual
or outside surface of the tube. output device of some sort. Advanced electromag-
Many computer-based systems have multiple netic testers may include such options as an electro-
display modes available for the same raw data set. magnetic testing card that extends the functionality
One way of displaying the data is in a top or plan of a standard PC with electromagnetic testing capa-
view of the specimen. These are commonly called bility. Field-hardened electromagnetic testing sys-
C-scans. This is sometimes a composite view of tems may just be a box of electronic components
repetitive mechanized scans of a coil over a large and connectors that are linked to a remote comput-
area in multiple passes. Each time the coil travels er via a local area network (LAN) cable. The com-
over the surface of the part, the coil is offset by puter itself handles data display and processing
about 0.5 coil diameters to ensure 100% coverage functions as well as adjusting tester operating
of critical areas. This same type of information can parameters, such as frequency, gain, probe drive
also be generated by scanning an array of coils over voltage, mode of operation, and so on. Figure 16
a region of the test specimen in one pass. shows multimode output responses of a rotating
Figure 16: Multimode output responses: rotating pancake coil inspection in a bolthole application. The same
crack response can be seen in all four display formats: X-Y, sweep, X-Y-Z, and C-scan.
52
Instrument Systems
pancake coil inspection in a bolthole application. to perform in situ inspections on existing materials.
The same crack response can be seen in all four dis- The term spinning probes originally comes from
play formats. the pipe manufacturing environment.
Test Object Handling Equipment The coil is typically a fairly small, specialized coil
to improve detection potential for small cracks. A
probe is rotated around the circumference of a tube
Test object handling equipment is often a necessary or bar. The tested material is moved past the
component of an online test system. Bars and tubes inspection point at a controlled rate of speed. The
can be fed through encircling coils by means of probe rotational speeds are set to be compatible with
roller feed assemblies. Consistent centering of the instrument response and translation speeds to obtain
material is essential. The stock being fed through the desired inspection coverage and
the coil(s) is usually transported at a constant speed. test sensitivity.
The transport speed needs to be adjusted to allow As technology has improved, it has been possi-ble
adequate time for testing and for the reject, cutting, to create other types of spinning probe possibili-ties.
or marking systems to perform their tasks. Should There are now many situations where spinning probes
product centering or speed change during the can be used. High-speed probe guns are used to
examination, system performance could be limited. perform bolthole inspections after the removal of
Automatic sorting devices are very common in metal fasteners in aerospace structures. Small motors
online inspection systems used in a manufacturing can also be used to perform a motor-ized rotating
environment. When a volumetric test is required for pancake coil (MRPC) inspection from the inside
heat-treatment or hardness verification, the probe surface of thin-walled tubes. Multiple coils of different
assembly may interrogate the entire test specimen designs can be used at the same time to enhance both
(or some critical region of the specimen) in one discontinuity detection and characterization. (See
view. For small specimens, such as ball bearings, Figure 17.)
this could take just fractions of a second per sample. In the case of large heat exchangers, a probe
In larger specimens, the volumetric test may take a positioning device or robot might be used to posi-tion
few seconds per sample. a bobbin, array, or MRPC-type test probe on the
When crack detection is required, the part is centerline of each tube to be inspected. Tubes to be
normally rotated with one or more coils positioned inspected are identified and their coordinates are
near the surface of the specimen. This type of loaded into a database. Positive feedback is supplied to
inspection ensures 100% inspection of critical areas a computerized positioning system by encoders or
in one test. (Figure 16 shows responses from a bolt- digital pattern recognition routines. Although these
hole inspection using a rotating pancake probe.) systems are quite automated, visual verification of
The electromagnetic testing method can often
demonstrate much higher discontinuity sensitivity 1. Demag coil
and more rapid economical testing for surface dis- 2. Hardness test station
continuities in parts than any of the other nonde- 3 2
3. Crack detection station
structive testing processes.
If unacceptable material conditions are encoun-
tered at any inspection station, the part would be
dropped into a reject bin. A digital counter and/or
remote sensors can be used to track the number of 1
rejects and to alert the plant staff of potential prob-
lems in the manufacturing process. Reject limits
should be adjusted to ensure the identification of
unacceptable parts or components.
Probe Delivery Systems
53
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
the inspection is confirmed by an inspector via a enhance electromagnetic testing systems in hostile
remote video system. As the probe is inserted and environments. These electromechanical devices can
withdrawn from each tube, the test results are mon- be used to perform a wide array of nondestructive
itored in real time for data quality, but the data are testing tasks. This could include applications for
also recorded for later analysis. underwater electromagnetic testing array probe
Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) can also be inspection of welds in either piping or support
looked at as part of the array of technology to structures for offshore platforms.
54
Instrument Systems
Review Questions
1. Signal preparation is usually accomplished by: 6. The type of display used depends upon:
2. Most electromagnetic testing instruments have 7. Amplitude gates provide a technique for controlling:
__________ coil excitation.
a. amplitude levels.
a. square wave b. instrument response.
b. triangular wave c. display scale.
c. sawtooth wave d. reject or acceptance limits.
d. sine wave
8. Alarms and lights offer only:
3. Signal-to-noise ratio may be improved by:
a. qualitative information.
a. detectors. b. quantitative information.
b. meters. c. reject information.
c. filters. d. accept information.
d. relays.
9. The length of a strip chart presentation can indicate:
4. A multifrequency instrument that excites the test coil
with several frequencies sequentially uses the a. discontinuity severity.
__________ concept. b. distance or time.
c. orthogonality.
a. multiplexing d. noise level.
b. timebase
c. broadband 10. A top-view display of the test results from a specimen
d. cartesian can be referred to as:
Answers
1c 2d 3c 4a 5c 6a 7d 8a 9b 10b
55
Chapter 7
Eddy Current Applications
Electromagnetic Techniques
about 5.08 mm (0.2 in.) below the test
Eddy current testing is just one of a group of tech- surface. For material thicknesses of greater than 5.08
niques that as a whole are defined as the electro- mm (0.2 in.), special probes and/or electronics
magnetic testing method. The subdisciplines or packages are needed to improve the performance of
techniques listed within the method continue to eddy current testing. Although there are applications
expand. Following are the techniques that fall under for eddy current tests on ferritic materials, eddy cur-
this method at the time of publication: rent has no ability to provide subsurface discontinu-
1. Method: Electromagnetic Testing ity detection in ferromagnetic alloys. Surface-crack
2. Techniques: detection in ferromagnetic materials, especially
● alternating current field measurement for weld inspection, is a very viable eddy current
● eddy current testing process when the right technology is applied. Eddy
● remote field testing current is often more sensitive and more cost-
The ASNT Electromagnetics Committee, at the effective than either magnetic particle inspec-tion
time of this revision, has selected these three tech- or liquid penetrant inspection in this role.
niques because they are currently available and fair- Alternating current field measurement and remote
ly well established to perform specific nondestruc- field testing are special electromagnetic testing
tive testing inspections in the field. In this chapter, techniques that, if used properly, can provide useful
the focus will be on eddy current testing. nondestructive testing information about fer-
Note: In ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT- romagnetic components. The deciding factor of one
TC-1A: Personnel Qualification and Certification in over the other is the type of material, part size, or
Nondestructive Testing (2011) and ANSI/ASNT CP- geometry, as well as the type and size of discontinu-
105: ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for ities that need to be detected. There is no reason to
Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel believe that either of these techniques would show any
(2011), flux leakage has been removed as an significant advantage over eddy current in the
electromagnetic testing technique. Magnetic flux nonferromagnetic world except for material thick-
leakage is still regarded as a separate method. nesses over 5.08 mm (0.2 in.), where remote field
The borders are sometimes a little gray between testing may be used to provide enhanced sensitivity to
one process and another. These techniques have outside-diameter discontinuities.
been grouped in this fashion more on the basis of Manufacturers and users will debate the
their specific market area or specialized applications various capabilities of one of these techniques over
in the field testing environment rather than on a another. The discussion in this and the following
purely scientific basis. Electromagnetics is a very two chapters will be made as generic as possible.
broad term. It covers a wide range of energy levels, Eddy Current Overview
sources, and measurement tools. Some other tech-
nologies that have been suggested to be included in
electromagnetic testing are: Electromagnetic induction and the eddy current
● microwave systems, principle can be affected in many different ways.
● superconducting quantum These effects may be grouped by
interference devices, and discontinuity detection, measurement of material
● magneto-optical inspection devices. properties, dimensional measurements, and
Eddy current testing is most commonly used for other special applications.
detection of surface or near-surface discontinuities in With the discontinuity, or the detection group,
nonferromagnetic materials. In materials with little or we are concerned with locating cracks, corrosion,
no permeability, eddy current testing is effective to erosion, and mechanical damage. The material
57
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 7
TSP
58
Eddy Current Applications
100%
60%
Depth
40%
20%
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
ID Degrees
discontinuity OD discontinuity plane
plane
The signal amplitude is an indicator of disconti- impedance change is also a source of error. This, of
nuity volume. For volumetric tube wall loss condi- course, is dependent on the size of the discontinuity
tions, such as wear and fretting, a volts-to-depth and its resultant eddy current signal in relation to
calibration curve can be created (Figure 3). When the tube support signal. This follows the basic prin-
used properly, these curves will provide a more ciple of signal-to-noise ratio.
accurate sizing process for mechanically driven The signal-to-noise ratio can be improved
discontinuity mechanisms. at tube-to-tube support intersections by the use
The geometry of real discontinuities may differ of multifrequency techniques.
from reference standard discontinuities. This In multifrequency applications, an optimum (or
difference produces interpretation errors as prime) frequency is chosen for response to disconti-
discussed by Sagar. Placement of real discontinuities nuities within the tube wall. A lower than optimum
near tube support members causing a complex coil or suppression frequency is chosen for response to
100%
80%
Depth
60%
40%
20%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Volts
59
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 7
A-B
A-B
A: The response to a tube support plate with
a discontinuity at the prime frequency.
B: The response to a tube support plate with
a discontinuity at the subtractor frequency.
A-B: The mixer channel response to the disconti-
nuity after support plate suppression.
60
Eddy Current Applications
61
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 7
Conductivity is an important measured variable. In Alloy sorting can also be accomplished with a two-
the aircraft industry, aluminum is used extensively. coil comparator bridge process, but again it is not a
Aluminum conductivity varies not only with alloy strict requirement. Other types of coil arrangements
but also with hardness and tensile strength. may also provide useful information. The key ele-
Eddy current instruments scaled in percent ment to keep in mind with alloy sorting is that this
IACS are normally used to inspect for conductivity is not the same as material identification. Two very
variations. Secondary conductivity standards are different materials may provide the same load to the
commonly used to check instrument calibration. coil. Alloy sorting using electromagnetics must
Common secondary conductivity standards range undergo additional verification of the mechanical
from 8% IACS to about 100% IACS. properties of these materials.
The secondary standards are usually certified In the inspection of nonferromagnetic alloys, it
accurate to within ±0.35% or ±1% of value, whichev- is easiest to separate one alloy or heat-treat type
er is less. Temperature is an important variable when from another when there is a unique range of con-
making conductivity measurements. Most instru- ductivities associated with each material. This is
ments and standards are certified at 20° C (68 °F). not always the case within families of alloys.
Primary conductivity standards are maintained at a Different alloys and heat-treats of the aluminum
constant temperature by oil bath systems. family may have the same conductivity value. This
Primary standards are measured with precision could lead to misidentification of the materials
maxwell bridge-type instruments. This circuit being inspected.
design increases measurement accuracy and mini- All comparative tests are strongly influenced by
mizes frequency dependence of the measurement. the selection of correct and accurate reference spec-
The secondary standards used for field tester setup imens. Because most eddy current instruments
and calibration are often required to have their respond to a wide range of variables, the reference
listed values recertified on an annual basis. specimen parameters must be controlled carefully.
Hardness Measurements Test object and reference specimens must be the
same or very similar in the following characteristics:
● geometry,
Hardness measurements can be performed on both ● heat-treatment,
ferritic and nonferritic materials. Some hardness ● surface finish,
measurements are performed with a two-coil com- ● residual stresses, and
parative process, but this is not a strict requirement. ● metallurgical structure.
When using a two-coil system, the reference and In addition, it is advisable to have more than
test coils are both balanced with sample parts of one reference specimen for backup in case of loss
known hardness. As parts of unknown hardness or damage. In the case of steel parts, they should be
affect the test coil, the instrument output (imped- completely demagnetized to remove the effects of
ance) varies. The amount of output variation residual magnetism on instrument readings. As
depends on the degree of imbalance created by in most comparative tests, the temperature of
the unknown test object hardness. specimen and test object should be the same
The detected signal variations can be correlated or compensated.
to test object hardness. If an X-Y type display were Many other measurements can be made using
to be used to display this hardness information, the eddy current techniques. This electromagnetic tech-
specimens exhibiting an acceptable hardness could nique produces so much information about a mate-
be adjusted to one region of the screen while those rial that its application is only limited by the ability
specimens defined as unacceptable, or unhardened, to decipher this information. With the right equip-
could appear in a different region of the screen. ment, probes, techniques, and training, the experi-
Once this calibration process is completed, a high- enced operator should be capable of making the
speed automated system can make the measure- required distinctions between relevant and
ments using an alarm gate process. nonrelevant indications.
62
.
Eddy Current Applications
Review Questions
1. Conductivity, hardness, and composition are part 5. In the aircraft industry, a common problem in
of the __________ group. gas turbine engines is:
2. Using an inside diameter coil on tubing and applying 6. Subsurface discontinuities located in thick or
the phase-amplitude technique of inspection, a signal multilayered aircraft structures could be detected by:
appearing at 90° on a CRT would be caused by:
a. low-frequency sinusoidal continuous
a. an inside-diameter discontinuity. wave instruments.
b. an outside-diameter discontinuity. b. high-frequency sinusoidal continuous
c. a dent. wave instruments.
d. a bulge. c. multifrequency sinusoidal continuous
wave instruments.
3. Discontinuities in heat exchangers at tube support d. using encircling coils.
locations are __________ to detect because the
support plate concentrates the electromagnetic field 7. Response to multilayer varying conductivity
at that point. structures follow __________ loci.
a. easier a. orthogonal
b. harder b. spiral
c. neither easier nor harder c. linear
d. virtually impossible d. stepped
4. When using multifrequency techniques on installed 8. Nitride case thickness variations can be detected in
heat exchanger tubing, a tube support plate signal can stainless steel cylinders by measuring:
be suppressed by subtracting a __________
frequency signal from the optimum frequency signal. a. conductivity.
b. dimensions.
a. low c. permeability.
b. high d. liftoff.
c. stepped
d. high-band
63
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 7
9. It is possible to sort various nonmagnetic alloys of a 10. Which of the following is not applicable to eddy
metal by means of an eddy current test when: current testing?
a. there is a unique range of permeability values for a. It can be used for high-speed testing.
each alloy. b. It can accurately measure conductivity.
b. there is a unique range of conductivity values for c. It can be set up to provide high sensitivity to
each alloy. small discontinuities.
c. the direction of induced eddy currents varies for d. It can penetrate up to 152 mm (6 in.) into the
each alloy. center of a test part.
d. the magnetic domains for each alloy are different.
Answers
1d 2b 3b 4a 5b 6a 7b 8c 9b 10d
64
Chapter 8
Alternating Current Field Measurement
Introduction
crack to measure path length and hence give an
In its simplest form, the alternating current field accurate estimate of crack depth, regardless of
measurement technique uses a handheld probe mate-rial property changes at the weld. As long as
containing a uniform field induction system and the input electric field is uniform, the depth can be
two magnetic field sensors. cal-culated using a simple analytical formula,
The induced alternating current is generated in a eliminat-ing the need for onsite calibration.
limited region of the test specimen where the alter- ACPD was an obvious technique to try under-
nating electric current is considered to be linear. In water, but it was much less successful in this medi-
this region, a magnetic field is produced, which is also um because of the need to maintain good electrical
linear. Any disturbances in this region produced by contact. The solution was to adapt ACPD to a
surface discontinuities will affect the components of version that did not require electrical contact.
this linear magnetic field. Two or more air-wound Assuming the same uniform input currents, theo-
coils mounted with orthogonal axes within a probe retical modeling work was undertaken to calculate
will detect these disturbances. This is the foundation the perturbations to the magnetic field distribution
of alternating current field measurement, which is above the surface produced by surface-breaking dis-
different than eddy current testing. continuities. Although the modeling could be
Overview applied to any regular crack shape, it was restricted
to semi-ellipses as being the typical shape of real
fatigue cracks. The theory showed that measure-
In order to understand how and why the alternating ments of the amplitudes of perturbations in any
current field measurement technique differs from eddy direction (X, Y, or Z) could be used to determine
current testing, it is useful to know some history. both the length and depth of a crack, but that the
The alternating current field measurement tech- most practical solution was to use a combination of
nique was originally developed in the UK in the 1980s the X and Z components, because the Y component
to provide depth (height) information for cracks was of smaller amplitude, and was zero directly
detected underwater on offshore structures. At that above the line of the discontinuity.
time, detection of surface-breaking fatigue cracks was In order to produce a current in a metal surface
achieved by magnetic particle testing (MT), but there without electrical contact, it is necessary to use
were no satisfactory methods for obtaining the induction. Currents induced in this way then must
through-thickness penetration (depth) and, therefore, flow in closed loops and technically are eddy cur-
the severity, of the cracks. Ultrasonic methods are not rents. However, the need to produce an input cur-
well suited to surface-breaking dis-continuities, while rent field as uniform as possible and the require-
eddy current methods could not accurately size ment to measure two components of a magnetic
discontinuities greater than 2 or field result in an alternating current field measure-
3 mm (0.08 or 0.12 in.) deep. Also, both techniques ment probe having a very different design than con-
require clean, uncoated surfaces. The UK oil and ventional eddy current probes. In particular, the
gas industry was interested in a technique that inducing coil is always separate from the sensor
could reliably depth-size fatigue cracks underwater, coils and has to be much larger and higher above
preferably without the need for extensive cleaning. the surface than in an eddy current probe. Also, the
The alternating current potential drop (ACPD) axis of the inducer is always tangential to the sur-
technique was used extensively topside to monitor face (and parallel to the expected line of the discon-
crack depths during fatigue tests. It employs a uni- tinuity). In this way, the currents produced by an
form injected current on either side of the crack and alternating current field measurement probe consist
uses measurements of voltage drop across the of a large double loop, with the sensor coils located
65
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 8
n
field strength is highest but nonuniform. By con-
lux de
vention, the direction of this electric field is desig-
ic f
nated as the Y axis, and the direction of the associ- Z
et
ated uniform magnetic field (at right angles to the gn
electric field and parallel to the metal surface) is Ma Y
designated as the X axis. The Z axis is then the
X
66
Figure 2: Coordinates conventionally used in
alternating current field measurement.
Alternating Current Field Measurement
direction normal (perpendicular) to the surface circulation around the discontinuity ends also pro-
(Figure 2). duces a non-zero Bz component. The flow is clock-
With no discontinuity present and a uniform wise around one end, producing a negative value of
current flowing in the Y direction, the magnetic Bz (that is, pointing into the surface), and counter-
field is uniform in the X direction, perpendicular to
clockwise around the other end, producing a posi-
the current flow. Thus, designating the three
tive value of Bz (out of the surface). The location of
orthogonal components of the magnetic field Bx,
the maximum (positive and negative) values of Bz are
By, and Bz, Bx will have a constant positive value, close to, but not coincident with, the physical ends of
while By and Bz will both be zero. the discontinuity.
The presence of a discontinuity diverts current The By component also becomes non-zero in the
away from the deepest parts and concentrates it near presence of a discontinuity, producing peak-trough
the ends of a crack (Figure 3). The effect of this is to pairs at both ends of the discontinuity, but these are
produce a broad dip in Bx along the dis-continuity antisymmetric across the line of the dis-continuity.
with the minimum value coinciding with the deepest This means that a By sensor scanning exactly along
point of the discontinuity. The ampli-tude of this dip the line of a discontinuity would see no response and
is larger for a deeper discontinuity of a given length. so the By component is not usually measured in
At the same time, concentration of current lines where alternating current field measurement.
it flows around the disconti-nuity ends produces small
Measurements of Bx and Bz from sensors in the
peaks in Bx. The same probe are used together with software algorithms to
determine the accurate length and depth of the dis-
continuity. In order to aid interpretation, the Bx and
Bz components are often plotted against each other. In
Amplitude(relat
Current lines
x
close together
Bx
uxdensity(re
Magneticfluxdensity(
BMagneticfl
lativescale)
gives Bx peak
relativescale)
apart gives Bx
trough Time or scan distance 0
Bz
ale)
Bx
T 0
(relative scale)
Magnetic flux density Bz
Legend
Bx = magnetic flux component normal to electric (a) (b) (relative scale)
field and parallel to test surface Figure 4: Data displays from a longitudinal discontinuity:
Bz = magnetic flux component normal to test surface (a) timebase chart recorder plot; (b) butterfly plot.
T = time or scan distance (relative scale)
67
Figure 3: Effect of surface-breaking
discontinuity on the magnetic field.
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 8
● The minimum value of Bx at the deepest part The main advantages are:
of the discontinuity. This value is used in ● Ability to inspect through coatings several
68
Alternating Current Field Measurement
compared with PT or MT, it also saves time on A third disadvantage is that the signals obtained
removing discontinuities of insignificant depth. In from a discontinuity are dependent on the orienta-
addition, the technique is relatively insensitive to tion of the discontinuity. The uniform field theoret-
material property changes, making it ideal for the ical model would suggest that no signal is produced
inspection of welds. when a probe scans across a transverse discontinu-ity
A third advantage of a uniform field arises when (for example, one running perpendicular to the weld),
inspecting at a weld or other boundary between two since the current flow is then parallel to the
metals of different permeability or conductivity. In discontinuity and would not be perturbed. In prac-
this case, assuming the probe is scanning for dis- tice, however, there is a flux leakage signal produced in
continuities parallel to the boundary, there is no this situation (caused by magnetic flux lines jumping
probe motion required across the boundary, so over the discontinuity). These signals are very
there are no signals caused by the change in materi- different from those produced from a longitu-dinal
al property. Also, the currents are flowing perpen- discontinuity but allow the operator to recog-nize a
dicularly across the boundary, so the effect of this transverse discontinuity and to make addi-tional scans
material change is reduced, even when scanning up along the line of the discontinuity in order to size it.
to it. The simple scanning pattern required for Alternatively, probes can include two orthogonal
alternating current field measurement is of great inducer coils, which are energized alternately so that
benefit when carrying out inspections using discontinuities in any orientation can be detected and
crawlers, scanners, or other remote robotic devices. sized.
Finally, a uniform field can be produced by a Applications
single large inducing coil, under which an array of
sensor coils can be placed. Since the inducer can be
energized continuously, and the sensor outputs are The alternating current field measurement tech-
obtained by simple multiplexing, there is no nique is used by inspection companies and owners
crosstalk between sensors, as is the case where coils of fabricated components for weld inspection in
double up as inducers and sensors. This makes petrochemical process plants, pharmaceutical
manufacture and control of multisensor array plants, offshore well structures, highway bridges,
probes more straightforward. and roller coasters. Originally introduced to the off-
shore industry for subsea weld inspection, the use
Disadvantages of alternating current field measurement has now
As well as the advantages of using a uniform field broadened to include inspection of pressure vessels,
described above, there are some disadvantages. The process piping, and drill-pipe threads and risers.
main disadvantage of using a uniform field is that Recent developments have included automated and
sensitivity is reduced. This is most apparent on semiautomated systems to reduce the reliance on
smooth, clean surfaces, where alternating current field operators and the use of array technology to
measurement is less sensitive to short and/or shallow increase inspection speeds.
discontinuities than conventional eddy cur-rent Alternating current field measurement can be used
techniques. The smallest detectable discontinu-ity on for the inspection of nonferromagnetic materi-als but
a good surface with alternating current field is less effective in this role. The effective depth of
measurement is around 2 mm (0.08 in.) long or penetration in nonferritic materials with alternating
0.3 mm (0.01 in.) deep. current field measurement is dramati-cally reduced.
A second disadvantage of a uniform field is This is in sharp contrast to standard eddy current
that since the currents spread out farther over the
philosophy. It should also be noted that volumetric
inspection surface, signals are affected by local
discontinuities, such as corrosion pitting or porosity,
geometry changes, such as plate edges and corners.
Although these signals do not usually have the same give much weaker signals than planar discontinuities,
form as a signal from a discontinuity, they can con- so it is not recommended that alternating current field
fuse the operator. If many similar geometries are measurement be used in this role.
being inspected, the operator can learn what signals
are due to the geometry alone and then ignore
these, or scans from discontinuity-free sites with the
same geometry can be stored and displayed
for comparison.
69
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 8
Review Questions
1. Which of the following electromagnetic testing 5. For alternating current field measurement
techniques or methods should provide the best discontinuity sizing techniques using standard
discontinuity depth and length sizing capability for theoretical models to produce the sizing look-up
cracks in ferromagnetic weldments? tables, what is the common assumption?
a. fatigue cracks.
b. weld bursts.
c. intergranular attack.
d. conductivity variations.
Answers
1a 2b 3c 4a 5d 6b 7a
70
Chapter 9
Remote Field Testing
Overview
For the purpose of generic discussion, this chap-
Remote field testing (RFT) should not be looked at ter discusses remote field testing as it applies to the
as a typical eddy current test because it achieves inspection of ferromagnetic tubing in various heat
penetration of ferromagnetic material without the exchangers; that is, as an internal bobbin coil tech-
use of magnets to reduce permeability effects. The nique, consisting of at least one exciter coil and one
technique achieves this in tubes or plates that are up detector coil separated by approximately two or three
to 5 mm (0.2 in.) thick — in the case of inline tube diameters. Per ASTM E-2096, the defini-tion of
inspection tools for pipelines, thicknesses may be remote field is “the electromagnetic field which has
up to 15 mm (0.6 in.) in steel and over 25 mm been transmitted through the test object and is
(1 in.) in cast iron — by the use of very low fre- observable beyond the direct coupling field of the
quencies (usually lower than those used in conven- exciter.” Thus, according to this standard prac-tice,
tional eddy current testing), large exciter coils, and remote field testing is an electromagnetic test-ing
high-voltage drive. technique “that measures changes in the remote field
It is true that the exciter coils used in RFT to detect and characterize discontinuities.”
probes generate eddy currents in the material, but Principles
the eddy currents are not the dominant form of
energy generated in the material. Because ferrous
materials are poor electrical conductors but are very Remote field testing is an electromagnetic test that
good conductors of magnetism, the dominant ener- uses an alternating current excitation source. This
gy source is the magnetic field. The magnetic field is alternating current electromagnetic energy travels
concentrated in the material, and it obeys the law of along the tube wall for some distance in both direc-
all magnetic energy: that it must flow from pole to tions from an exciter coil. The distribution of the
pole. Exciter coils, used in RFT to generate the primary field is dependent on the magnetic proper-
primary field, can be likened to permanent bar ties of the tube, the tube wall thickness, the proxim-
magnets, except that the north and south poles are ity of the coil (fill factor), and the presence of sur-
alternating from end to end at the same rate as the rounding support structures. The transmitted field
exciter frequency. may be affected by discontinuities within the tube
Exciter coils generate magnetic fields that wall or in nearby support structures. The changes in
flow in loops. The loops of magnetic energy get the strength (amplitude) and phase lag (also
concentrated in any ferrous material that is brought referred to as phase shift or phase angle) of the
into close proximity of the exciter coil, and, because received signal are measured by a receiver coil
the magnetic field is alternating, eddy currents also placed a few tube diameters away from the exciter
flow in the material, orthogonal to the magnetic coil. Essentially, phase lag is the time delay of the
field. electromagnetic energy as it moves deeper in the
Some academic papers and other reference mate- conductive material.
rials use the term remote field eddy current; however, Special hybrid (driver/pickup) coils are necessary
to prevent confusion on the range of applications and to perform RFT inspections. Because of the need for a
material test situations, the attempt has been made to significant spacing between the exciter coil(s) and the
phase out that terminology. Both the American Society receiver or pickup coil(s), the probes tend to be longer
for Testing and Materials (ASTM International) and than typical eddy current probes. Remote field testing
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers probe types are shown in Figure 1.
(ASME) list remote field test-ing (rather than remote The high magnetic permeability of ferromagnet-ic
field eddy current testing) as a specific technique materials dramatically impacts standard eddy cur-rent
within electromagnetic testing. electromagnetic testing inspection techniques
71
.
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 9
Detector Exciter
Standard probe - rigid
Double exciter
Flexible (small-bore)
Flexible (large-bore)
Detector
Centralizer
configurations
brushes
(available for all
probe types)
From top to bottom: Larger diameter tubing with either single or dual exciters, smaller diameter tubing,
because of the frequency that they typically operate at through-transmission, in both electromagnetic and
and the fact that eddy current coils measure the ultrasonic testing, implies that the power source is on
impedance of the interrogating or nearby coil. Some one side of the test product and the receiver ele-ment
electromagnetic testing techniques attempt to com- is on the opposite (through-wall) side of the material.
pensate for and/or suppress the permeability effects of In remote field testing, some of the alter-nating
ferrous materials by the use of strong magnets or current primary magnetic energy does extend to the
direct current-driven saturation coils. The RFT outside diameter of the tube. It travels down the tube
process requires no magnetic saturation. Instead it wall and eventually propagates back through the tube
makes use of the natural tendency of ferromagnetic
to the inside of the tube. The con-cept of calling
materials to channel magnetic energy. Like the keep-er
remote field testing a through-wall technique may be
of a horseshoe magnet, the magnetic lines of flux from
hard to visualize, but the energy path is actually twice
the exciter coil take the path of least reluc-tance. They
through the wall: once out at the exciter and then in at
flow down the tube wall, which acts
as a wave-guide, for a considerable distance. the detector. In other words, remote field testing relies
At distances in excess of two tube diameters upon a through-transmission field moving from the
from the internal exciter coil, the flux field becomes OD to the ID surface of a tube. It is for this reason that
homogenous and the passive receiver coils, posi- short dis-continuities often show two distinct signals
tioned two to three tube diameters away from the when the exciter and detector pass the discontinuity at
exciter, receive practically all of their energy from dif-ferent moments in time. The short discontinuity
the flux in the tube wall and the field that is exter- has interrupted the through-transmission path twice.
nal to the tube. The direct field from the exciter has Remote Field Testing Zones
been almost completely attenuated, or absorbed, by
the tube wall, and the external field is actually
stronger than the field inside the tube. In RFT inspection of tubing, it is probably more
Through-transmission is a term that is often used accurate to look at the tube wall as a conduit or
to describe the remote field testing process. This term waveguide. Magnetic fields are modeled as closed
normally implies that there is a source of ener-gy that loops. Magnetic flux lines travel out from the exciter
transmits through a medium. For example, coil and mix with incoming exciter energy in a
72
Remote Field Testing
transition zone (one to two diameters away from the To define the variations in the alternating cur-rent
exciter), finally becoming homogenous in the remote- energy distributions that are present in the tube wall,
field zone (two to three diameters away) where the the following terminology has been developed:
detector coil(s) should be located. Detector coil(s) ● Near-Field (Direct-Coupled) Zone –
placed within the near-field zone (near the exciter) or 0 to 1.5 tube diameters from the driver coil.
the transition zone will not work properly. ● Transition Zone – 1.5 to 2 tube diameters
Furthermore, the transition zone location is affected from the driver coil.
by the frequency applied to the exciter and the ● Remote-Field Zone – 2 to 3 tube diameters
material properties of the tube. It is therefore prudent from the driver coil.
to place the detector coil(s) at least three, and up to
Near-Field Zone
five, tube diameters away from the exciter(s) to ensure
that they will be in the remote-field zone regardless of The region of intense electromagnetic interaction at
these other variables. the interface between an alternating current coil’s
The driver or exciter coil, when energized with outside diameter surface and a tube wall’s inside
AC current, supplies a low-frequency alternating diameter surface is referred to as the near field. Within
magnetic field, which couples to the tube wall. the near-field zone, the eddy currents gener-ated in
Electromagnetic induction occurs twice. In the the tube wall by the alternating current-driven exciter
near-field or direct-coupled zone, eddy currents are coil create a shielding effect of the exciter’s flux. As
created in the tube wall. These actually decrease the eddy currents propagate through the material’s inner
efficiency of the process. Eddy currents are also cre- wall, an opposing secondary magnetic flux is
ated through induction as the field flux lines cut developed in the material that attenuates the primary
across the pickup coil windings on reentering the field strength and limits
tube inside diameter. its extension.
By making careful measurements, it is possible Logically, the near-field zone would be the area
to map the strength and distribution of the driver where there is the greatest sensitivity to discontinu-
coil’s flux density as it travels down the tube wall. A ities because of the high concentration of magnetic
graph can be generated, such as Figure 2, using flux. However, the field tends to be concentrated near
experimental data that show there are three distinct the inner surface of the tube, next to the exciter, and
signal zones. this strong field tends to mask any
10-1 360
10-2
-anglePhase
Transition zone
270
-3
10
degrees
10-4
180
volts
10-5
90
10-6
10-7 1 2 3 4 5 6
73
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 9
signals from the tube outside diameter, which are well-defined difference in phase angle responses for
much weaker. In remote field testing, the pickup inside diameter and outside diameter events; how-
coils are placed at some distance away from the ever, in remote field testing, data from inside diam-
exciter coil to enhance detectability of eter and outside diameter discontinuities of the
discontinu-ities on the outer wall of the tubes. same depth have about the same phase angle and all
wall-loss signals rotate counterclockwise with
Transition Zone
respect to the nominal tube-wall signal.
The region just outside the near-field zone is known The signals can be represented on the familiar
as the transition zone. It is an area that is currently X-Y lissajous display used by eddy current instru-
not considered to contain reliable data because the ments. (Note: The term lissajous refers to a charac-
location of the transition zone changes with teristic looped or curved figure traced by a point on
changes in frequency, proximity, wall thickness, a screen undergoing two independent simple har-
permeabili-ty, and conductivity. In this zone, there monic motions at right angles with frequencies in a
is a great deal of interaction between the flux of one simple ratio.) However, a more useful representa-
field that is diffusing outward from the exciter and tion is the voltage plane polar plot (VPPP) devel-
the flux of the returning energy that is diffusing oped by David Atherton of Queen’s University
inward from the outside surface of the tube. Department of Magnetics. (See Figure 3 for an
The total or resultant field strength in this area example of this type of display.) This VPPP shows
tends to be weaker because of the negative interac- the signal phase angle and the log of the amplitude,
tion of fields with differing directional characteris- and can be used to accurately measure remaining
tics. When the two opposing fields meet, the result wall thickness of discontinuities that are shorter or
is a cancellation of some of their respective energy. longer than the inspection probe. The VPPP also
has the advantage that one-sided discontinuities can
Remote-Field Zone be easily distinguished from discontinuities that
The third definable region, the remote-field zone, extend around the full circumference of the tube.
starts to occur at about two tube diameters from the
exciter coil. The detector coil’s signal amplitude bot-
toms out at the base of the logarithmic curve and starts
a linear decay. Notice that the curves (refer again to Absolute signals Differential signals
Phase
The phase change of the signals detected at the Strip chart signals Phase-amplitude
diagrams
pickup coil can be used to estimate the wall loss.
A thinner wall allows the flux traversing the wall to
arrive at the detector sooner (similar to the time of Figure 3: Voltage plane signals from long
discontinuity showing direction of wall thickness
flight of ultrasonic testing signals). Discontinuities
changes.
of differing depths can be evaluated accurately
based on measured phase shift (phase lag or
phase angle). In eddy current testing, there is a
74
.
Remote Field Testing
Amplitude (Voltage)
The remote field testing system senses a decrease in
wall thickness as a stronger alternating current mag-
netic field cuts across the pickup coil. This induces a
stronger voltage in the coil. Discontinuities of larger
volume increase the amplitude of the signal, while
smaller volume discontinuities produce small ampli-
tude signals, but the signal phase still represents the
wall loss of the discontinuity. Because some of the
primary magnetic field extends out beyond the tube
outside diameter, tube support plates or baffles
interfere with the magnetic field distribution. Any
metallic material on the tube outside diameter tends
to attenuate or partially block the energy transfer
down the length of the tube. Because of the spacing
between exciter and pickup coils, this could lead to
decreased sensitivity at these locations.
Applications Figure 4: Remote field testing inline inspection tool (smart pig).
Remote field testing is capable of detecting both phase signals when both coils are under the
small- and large-volume discontinuities in most fer- discon-tinuity. For these situations (such as tube-
romagnetic tubing found in a wide range of tubes to-tube fretting wear or steam erosion wall loss) an
and pipes, such as heat exchangers, boilers, piping, absolute probe coil is preferred.
and pipelines. Some limitations do exist, for exam- As tube diameters increase, such as in piping runs
ple, in fin-fan tubing found in air-fin coolers. The or pipelines, a single detector becomes inca-pable of
base tubing is carbon steel; however, to improve detecting wall loss that is localized on one side of the
heat transfer rates, large-diameter fins of high- pipe. Therefore, more detectors have to be added, in a
conductivity metal (normally aluminum) are circumferential array, in order to maintain good
installed on the tube outside diameter. The induced sensitivity. Figure 4 shows a typical RFT inline
energies in the fins themselves prevent the primary inspection tool (also referred to as a smart pig). RFT
magnetic field propagation along the outside diam- has the advantage that it can inspect through internal
eter surface of the tube, which dramatically limits liners of cement, epoxy, and high-density
the remote field testing inspection process. polyethylene (HDPE), whereas other tech-nologies,
While RFT has approximately equal sensitivity such as ultrasonic and magnetic flux leak-age testing,
to internal and external discontinuities, it is highly cannot usually penetrate the liner.
sensitive to discontinuity length. For short disconti- ASTM E-2096 is a good reference document for
nuities, such as pits or circumferential grooves, the anyone considering remote field testing for ferrous
data will often show one indication when the exciter heat exchanger tubes. It references remote field test-
coil(s) passes the discontinuity and a second indica- ing technology as well as personnel training criteria.
tion when the detector coil(s) passes the disconti- It also provides a guide to the types of minimum
nuity. Differential detector coils are particularly detection capability that should be demonstrated by
good for detecting such low-volume discontinuities. inspection personnel when they apply the proper
For wall loss that is longer than the exciter- tools and techniques while performing remote field
detector spacing, however, it is a different story. The testing examinations.
data will exhibit a doubling of the log-amplitude and
75
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 9
Review Questions
1. A generally accepted definition of remote field is: 4. The amplitude or voltage of the detected response
from a discontinuity is most often related to:
a. electromagnetic testing at remote locations.
b. the electromagnetic field that has been a. the width of the discontinuity.
transmitted through the test object and is b. the location of the discontinuity.
observable beyond the direct coupling of the c. the depth of the discontinuity.
exciter. d. the volume of the discontinuity.
c. through-transmission eddy currents, detected on
the far side of a material or object under test by a 5. Phase lag can be described as:
remote receiver coil.
d. the opposite of direct field. a. the speeding up of the eddy current signal in
dense solids.
2. The region of intense electromagnetic interaction at b. the speed of rotation of the probe.
the interface between an alternating current coil’s c. the interaction between signal angle
OD surface and a tube wall’s ID surface is called the: and magnitude.
d. the time delay of the electromagnetic energy as it
a. remote-field zone. moves deeper in a conductive material.
b. fresnel zone.
c. near-field zone. 6. The predominant energy that energizes the detector
d. transition zone. coils in an RFT probe comes from:
3. The operating frequencies that are selected to a. the through-transmission field moving from the
perform remote field testing inspections are: OD to the ID surface of the tube.
b. the eddy currents flowing in the wall next to the
a. usually higher than those used in conventional detector(s).
eddy current tests. c. the direct field from the exciter, inside the tube.
b. usually lower than those used in conventional d. residual magnetic events.
eddy current tests.
c. identical to those used in conventional eddy 7. Detector coils placed in the transition zone will:
current tests.
d. about one-half of those used in conventional eddy a. produce larger, more reliable differential
current tests. signals than a coil in the remote-field zone.
b. produce unpredictable signals.
c. produce a saturated signal for all discontinuities
due to its proximity to the exciter.
d. not produce any signal.
Answers
1b 2c 3b 4d 5d 6a 7b
76
.
Chapter 10
Electromagnetic Testing Procedures,
Specifications, and Standards
may include acceptance limits and the handling as other MIL-STD Military Specifications or
of components that are not acceptable. ASTM publications.
ASTM publishes several standards pertaining ● Definition contains precise definitions of
to the electromagnetic testing method. These stan- keywords and phrases used in the Standard.
dards are numbered; for example, E 571–98. ● Under General Requirements, equipment,
“E 571” refers to the standard and “98” refers to the reference specimen, and personnel requirements
year of revision. are described in sufficient detail to implement
Several ASTM standards that pertain to the the Standard. Included in this part are
electromagnetic testing method are: instrument sensitivity and response, test object
● E-215, Standard Practice for Standardizing variables, reference specimen requirements, and
Equipment for Electromagnetic Examination personnel qualification requirements.
of Seamless Aluminum-Alloy Tube ● Detail Requirements describe the specific
● E-243, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic procedure to implement the Standard.
(Eddy-Current) Examination of Copper and ● Notes contains pertinent statements about the
Copper-Alloy Tubes process and guidelines for reporting results.
● E-426, Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Testing American Society of Mechanical
of Seamless and Welded Tubular Products, Engineers
Austenitic Stainless Steel and Similar Alloys
● E-571, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic
(Eddy-Current) Examination of Nickel and In 1911, the American Society of Mechanical
Nickel Alloy Tubular Products Engineers (ASME) set up a committee to establish
● E-690, Standard Practice for In Situ rules of safety for design, fabrication, and inspec-
Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination tion of boilers and pressure vessels. These rules
of Nonmagnetic Heat Exchanger Tubes have become known throughout industry as the
● E-1316, Standard Terminology for ASME code. The ASME Boiler and Pressure
Nondestructive Testing Vessel Committee is a large group from industry
● E-2261, Standard Practice for Examination and the scientific community.
of Welds Using the Alternating Current Field The Committee has many subcommittees, sub-
Measurement Technique groups, and working groups. Each subcommittee,
● E-2928, Standard Practice for Examination of subgroup, and working group combines as a unit
Drillstring Threads Using the Alternating for a specific area of interest. For example, the
Current Field Measurement Technique Subcommittee on Pressure Vessels (SC VIII) has
Military Standard two working groups and five subgroups reporting to
it. The purpose of these groups is to interface with
industry to keep pace with changing requirements
The United States military uses the Military and needs of industry and public safety.
Standard document to control testing and The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
materials. Standard procedures are provided by is divided into 11 sections. ASME Section V,
a series of MIL-STD-XXXX documents. Special Nondestructive Examination, is divided into two
requirements are specified by the Military subsections, A and B. Subsection A deals with
Specification system. For example, MIL-STD-1537C Nondestructive Methods of Examination. Article 8
refers to Electrical Conductivity Test for Verification is Eddy Current Examination of Tubular Products.
of Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys, Eddy Article 15 is Alternating Current Field
Current Method. The Calibration System Measurement Technique. Subsection B is
Requirements for MIL-STD-1537C are contained Documents Adopted by Section V.
in Military Specification MIL-C-45662. Electromagnetic testing standards are described
The MIL-STD usually contains several parts in Article 26. In this case, the ASTM E215 docu-
and is very descriptive. These parts normally ment has been adopted by ASME and reassigned
include Scope, Applicable Documents, Definitions, the designation SE215.
General Requirements, Detail Requirements, ASME Section V, Article 8, Appendix I gives
and Notes. detailed procedure requirements for Eddy Current
● The Scope contains a general statement of Examination Method for Installed Nonferromagnetic
applicability and intent of the Standard. Heat Exchanger Tubing. A procedure designed to
● Applicable Documents pertains to other meet this requirement can be illustrated by the fol-
78 reference or controlling documents, such lowing example, Document QA 3.
Electromagnetic Testing Procedures, Standards, and Specifications
Document QA 3
Procedure Title
Eddy Current Inspection Of Nonferrous Tubing By Single-Frequency Techniques
A. PURPOSE
This procedure describes the equipment and methods as well as the personnel qualifications to be utilized for
the performance of the eddy current examination of steam generator tubes. It meets the requirements of the
NRC Regulatory Guide 1.83, ASME Section XI, Appendix IV and ASME Section V, Article 8 of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code.
B. SCOPE
The scope of the examination to be performed is contained in the eddy current inspection program document
applicable to the specific plant to be inspected.
C. PREREQUISITES
1. Plant Condition
The plant must be shut down with the primary system drained. The steam generators shall be open on
the primary side for access to the channel head and the shell cool down sequence shall be complete. Air
movers shall be attached to circulate air through the generator to dry the tube sheet.
2. Equipment
The examinations shall be performed utilizing an XXXX/XX multifrequency eddy current instrument with
bobbin coil probes designed for testing from the inside of the tubes. The inspection performance shall be
monitored by the use of a phase sensitive vector display and recorded for later evaluation.
a. Equipment utilized shall be:
i. XXXX/XX eddy current instrument.
ii. Bobbin coil probes capable of operation in the differential and absolute modes.
iii. Digital recording device(s).
iv. Communications system.
v. Reference standard
The reference standard shall be manufactured from a length of tubing of the same size and
type of material that is to be examined in the vessel. The standard shall contain 6 intentional
discontinuity areas as follows:
aa. 100% through the wall drill hole (0.052 in. for 0.750 in. outside diameter tubing and
smaller, and 0.067 in. for larger tubing).
bb. Flat bottomed drill hole 5/64 in. diameter X 80% through from the outer tube
wall surface.
cc. Flat bottomed drill hole 7/64 in. diameter X 60% through from the outer tube
wall surface.
dd. Flat bottomed drill hole 3/16 in. X 40% diameter through from the outer tube
wall surface.
ee. Four flat bottom holes, 3/16 in. diameter, spaced 90 degrees apart around the tube
circumference, 20% through the tube wall.
ff. Circumferential groove 20% deep by 1/16 in. long by 360 degrees on the inside tube wall
surface.
gg. Circumferential groove 10% deep by 1/8 in. long by 360 degrees on the outer tube wall
surface.
hh. Each standard shall be identified by a serial number etched on one end and be traceable
to the master standard stored at the facility.
79
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 10
b. Probe positioning and feeding shall be accomplished remotely for inservice inspection. Baseline
inspection may be done manually.
c. Personnel communications devices shall be provided.
3. Personnel Qualifications
Personnel collecting data in accordance with this procedure shall be qualified to Level I or higher in
accordance with Document QA 101. Personnel interpreting data collected in accordance with procedure
shall be qualified to Level II or higher in accordance with Document QA 101. Prior to receiving a
certification, the applicants shall have completed the program recommended by SNT-TC-1A
(1984 edition), Supplement E.
D. PRECAUTIONS
1. All personnel to be engaged in eddy current inspection programs at operating plants shall have received
instructions in and understand the radiation protection rules and guidelines in effect on the plant site.
2. All personnel to be engaged in the test program shall wear protective clothing to the extent of the type
defined by the exclusion area work permit.
3. All personnel entering a radiation work area will have proven their ability to work in a face mask by
successfully passing the pulmonary function test during their annual physical.
4. No entries shall be made into the steam generator channel head without the presence of a qualified
health physics technician.
5. Ensure that nozzle covers (when applicable) are securely in place inside the vessel before commencement
of the eddy current inspection program.
E. PERFORMANCE
1. Preparation
a. Establish location of data acquisition control center.
b. Arrange power distribution at data acquisition control center.
c. Install communications system control box at the data acquisition control center.
d. Establish communication with one or more headsets at the steam generator.
e. Install XXXX/XX eddy current test instrument, pusher puller and fixture control boxes at the
steam generator.
f. Install remote digital data acquisition computers and recording devices at the data acquisition
control center.
2. Equipment Calibration
a. Prior to the commencement of the eddy current examination of the steam generator tubes and after
the replacement of any component, the equipment shall be calibrated in accordance with the
following steps:
Insert the reference bobbin coil probe into a reference standard.
i. Insert the test bobbin coil probe into a section of the reference standard, which is free of
discontinuities.
ii. Select the desired frequencies as per the Site Specific Data Acquisition Procedure.
iii. Select the probe drive voltage and channel gain as per the Site Specific Data Acquisition
Procedure.
iv. Perform a hardware null.
v. Remotely pull the test probe through the reference standard at the speed selected for actual
testing in the heat exchanger. Data from the heat exchanger will also be acquired on the pull
unless noted.
vi. Set the display sensitivity setting for each channel per the site specific calibration procedures.
80
.
Electromagnetic Testing Procedures, Standards, and Specifications
vii. Set the rotation (phase) value so that the probe motion signals in the discontinuity sensitive
differential channels are horizontal (as per the specific calibration procedure) with the first lobe
of the 100% through the wall drill hole going down first as the probe is withdrawn from the
standard.
viii. Set the rotation (phase) value so that the probe motion signals in the discontinuity sensitive
absolute channels are horizontal (as per the specific calibration procedure) with the response
of the 100% through the wall drill hole going up as the probe is withdrawn from the reference
standard.
ix. Complete the digital calibration summary form, update it with all pertinent information and
store this information to the selected digital storage device.
81
.
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 10
signals from known tube reference locations (tube end, top of tube sheet, supports) on the display
screen.
h. If operating in the Auto Acquire mode, verify that the proper landmark tables have been installed,
axial encoders are functioning properly and that the correct voltage thresholds have been
established for auto locate of supports and tube ends.
i. If performing manually or automatically ensure that the tube alphanumeric identifier has been
properly updated. Monitor the withdrawal of the probe from the tube until the impedance signal on
the screen indicates that the probe is clear of the tube sheet. Concurrent with the probe withdrawal,
visually monitor the signals on the display screen while recording all data in real time.
j. Reposition the probe beneath the next tube selected for examination.
k. Repeat the procedures described in the preceding steps until all the tubes selected for inspection
have been examined.
1. Requirements
a. The data interpreter shall be certified to Level II or III as per Procedure QA 101.
b. Data shall be collected with an eddy current test system with a current certification of calibration as
per CSP procedure.
c. The data collection system shall be calibrated with an approved reference standard that is serialized
and traceable to a master reference standard.
d. The identify of the plant site, the steam generator, the operator’s name and certification, the date,
the test frequencies, the reference standard serial numbers, equipment serial numbers and
certification dates, software revisions and probe’s design and serial number shall be recorded at the
start of each calibration cycle.
e. The data collection station shall be set up and calibrated as per Procedure QA 3.
2. Performance
a. The data interpreter shall:
i. Determine that all tubes selected for inspection have been tested.
ii. Report tubes whose data are incomplete or uninterpretable.
iii. Require a retest of any tubes exhibiting excessive noise or unusual responses.
iv. Inservice inspections
aa. Report all discontinuities > 19%.
bb. Report all other indications that appear to be relevant.
cc. Identify the axial position of all indications with respect to a known structural member.
v. Preservice inspections
aa. Report all indications observed. Include the axial position of the indication with respect
to a known structural member.
b. Interpretation
i. All data shall be reported on a digital Final Report form.
ii. The conversion from signal phase angles (or amplitudes) to discontinuity depths shall be
accomplished per calibration curves established on the appropriate channels using the
calibration standards and techniques defined in the site specific data analysis specifications.
iii. All data shall be reviewed in its entirety.
iv. Any abnormal signals observed shall be reported.
82
.
Electromagnetic Testing Procedures, Standards, and Specifications
G. REFERENCES
The following documents or files are required for the performance of eddy current inspection programs
utilizing the methods described in this procedure.
1. Required Documentation
a. Eddy current inspection specific calibration procedure documents applicable to the plant to be
inspected.
b. Inspection plans showing tube sheet maps marked to designate the extent of examination to be
performed and extent of completion.
c. Final Reports including all indications resolved by the Data Resolution Analyst.
83
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 10
Review Questions
1. A precise statement of a set of requirements to be 5. The prime artificial discontinuity used to calibrate the
satisfied by a material, product, system, or service is a: system described in QA 3 is:
2. A statement that comprises one or more terms with 6. Equipment calibration must be verified at least:
explanation is a:
a. every hour.
a. practice. b. each day.
b. classification. c. every 4 h.
c. definition. d. every 8 h.
d. proposal.
7. QA 3 specifies a maximum probe traverse rate of:
3. A general statement of applicability and intent is
usually presented in the __________ of a standard. a. 355.6 mm/s (14 in./s).
b. 305 mm/s (12 in./s).
a. summary c. 152.4 mm/s (6 in./s).
b. scope d. not specified.
c. significance
d. procedure 8. The system in QA 3 is calibrated with an approved
standard that is traceable to:
Questions 4 – 9 apply to Document QA 3, Eddy
Current Inspection of Nonferrous Tubing by a. NBS.
Single-Frequency Techniques: b. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME).
4. Personnel interpreting results must be: c. a master standard.
d. American Society for Testing and
a. Trainee or higher. Materials (ASTM).
b. Level I or higher.
c. Level II or higher. 9. In accordance with QA 3, a tube whose data are
d. Level III. incomplete must be:
a. reinspected.
b. reported.
c. reevaluated.
d. removed from service.
Answers
1b 2c 3b 4c 5d 6c 7a 8c 9b
84
Figure Sources
All figures derive from sources published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., unless
noted otherwise below:
Chapter 1
Figure 2 — ASM Committee on Eddy Current
Figure 7 — Libby, H.L., Introduction to Inspection, Boyer, H.E., ed., “Eddy Current
Electromagnetic Nondestructive Test Methods. Inspection,” Metals Handbook, ninth edition:
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1979. Volume 11, Failure Analysis and Prevention.
Materials Park, OH: ASM International. 1989.
Chapter 2
Figures 1, 2 & 3 — Zetec, Inc. Figures 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 16 & 17 — Zetec, Inc.
Chapter 5 Chapter 7
Figures 3 & 4 — Institut Dr. Foerster Figures 4, 5 & 6 — Zetec, Inc.
Chapter 9
Chapter 6
Figures 1 & 4 — Courtesy Russell NDE Systems
Figures 1, 8, 9 & 11 — Libby, H.L., Introduction to
Electromagnetic Nondestructive Test Methods. New
York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1979
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