Third Edition

ASNT

LEVEL
STUDYGUIDE III
Electromagnetic
Testing Method

The American Society for

Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
Copyright © 2014 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing.

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first printing 09/14
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ii
FOREWORD
Purpose
This study guide is intended to aid individuals
preparing to take the ASNT NDT Level III exami-
nation for electromagnetic testing. The material in
this study guide addresses the body of knowledge in
ANSI/ASNT CP-105: ASNT Standard Topical
Outlines for Qualification of Nondestructive Testing
Personnel (2011) and includes an example of a pro-
cedure, the kind of technical document from which
“applications” questions are sometimes derived.
The study guide is not intended to comprehensively
cover all possible technical issues that may appear
on the Level III exam, but rather it is intended to
reflect the breadth of the possible technology topics
that comprise potential questions.
The ASNT NDT Level III certification program
is a service offered by The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc., that gives NDT per-
sonnel an opportunity to have their familiarity with
the principles and practices of NDT assessed by an
independent body. The program uses the independ-
ent body to review credentials and uses comprehen-
sive written examinations to identify those who
meet the criteria for becoming an ASNT NDT Level
III.
How to Use the Study Guide
This study guide is intended to provide ASNT Level
III candidates with a concise reference with which
to prepare for the ASNT Level III examination in
electromagnetic testing. The Level III candidate
should use this study guide only as a review, as it
may not contain all of the information necessary to
pass a typical ASNT Level III qualifying examina-
tion. The study guide provides a general overview
of subject matter covered by the examination so
that students can identify those areas of the body of
knowledge in which they need further study. It is
not intended to be the only source of preparation.
Typical Level III questions are available at the end
of each chapter to aid in determining comprehension
of the material. If the individual finds questions in a
certain chapter of the study guide to be difficult, it is
suggested that the individual carefully study the
information presented in that chapter. References
where additional detailed information can be obtained
are listed at the beginning of the book.
Successfully answering the questions will help
determine if more concentrated study in particular
areas is needed. Those familiar with some of the
topics may wish to go directly to the review ques-
tions. If the questions can be answered confidently
and correctly, additional study may be optional.
Additional Information
The electromagnetic testing method has several sub-
disciplines. The general consensus at the time of this
revision is that there are three specific techniques:
alternating current field measurement, eddy current
testing, and remote field testing. Each of these tech-
niques may provide some information in specific
material testing applications that the others may not
be able to provide in the same test situation.
This edition builds on the second edition coor-
dinated by Jim Cox of JECNDT, LLC. Changes to
this edition include the following:
● All questions are now multiple choice with
four unique answers to more closely match
ASNT exam format.
● New, expanded, separate chapters on alternating
current field measurement and remote field
testing with separate question sets for each
are provided.
● A change in terminology from eddy current to
electromagnetic testing is employed throughout
to reflect the overall method as designated in
CP-105, when it is the method and not the eddy
current technique that is being addressed.
ii
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. is grateful for the volunteer contributions, technical
expertise, knowledge, and dedication of the following individuals who assisted with this edition of the
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Electromagnetic Testing Method:

Ankit Vajpayee, Senior Technical Editor – Russell NDE Systems Inc.

Michael C. Brown – Metal-Matic, Inc.
William G. Hoffman – Magnetic Analysis Corporation
Martin C. Lugg – TSC Inspection Systems
Dave Russell – Russell NDE Systems Inc.

The Publication Review Committee includes:

Glenn M. Light, Chair – Southwest Research Institute

Martin T. Anderson – Alaska Technical Training
Joe Mackin – Reel Group

iv
REFERENCES

Recommended References
Information in this study guide has been drawn from the following recommended training references for
electromagnetic testing as listed in ANSI/ASNT CP-105: ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification
of Nondestructive Testing Personnel (2011).
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 03.03, Nondestructive Testing. Philadelphia, PA: American Society
for Testing and Materials. Latest edition.
Cecco, V.S., G. Van Drunen, and F.L. Sharp, Eddy Current Testing, U.S. Edition. Columbia,
MD: GP Courseware. 1987.
Libby, H.L., Introduction to Electromagnetic Nondestructive Test Methods. New York, NY: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 1979.
Sadek, H., Electromagnetic Testing Classroom Training Book. Columbus, OH: American Society
for Nondestructive Testing. 2006.
Udpa, S.S., technical editor, P.O. Moore, editor, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume
5, Electromagnetic Testing. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 2004.

Additional References
The following references were also used in the development of this study guide:

ASTM STP 722, Eddy Current Characterization of Materials and Structures. Philadelphia, PA:
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1981.
Cox, J.E. editor, ET-CT-6-5, Eddy Current Testing, Classroom Training Book. General Dynamics
(Revised Edition). Harrisburg, NC: PH Diversified. 1997.
Eddy Current Nondestructive Testing. NBS Special Publication 589. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau
of Standards. 1981.
Hagemaier, D.J., Fundamentals of Eddy Current Testing. Columbus, OH: American Society
for Nondestructive Testing. 1990.
Hagemaier, D.J., and A.P. Steinberg, “Low Frequency Eddy Current Inspection of Aircraft Structure.”
Materials Evaluation, Vol. 40, No. 2 (Feb. 1982). Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing. 206-210.
Harvey, D.E., ASNT Reference Manual – Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice. Columbus,
OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 1995.
McGonnagle, W.J., Nondestructive Testing, second edition. New York, NY: Gordon and Breach
Publishing Company. 1975.
McMaster, R.C., editor, Nondestructive Testing Handbook. Columbus, OH: American Society
for Nondestructive Testing. 1959.

v
Metals Handbook, Vol.1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys. Metals
Park, OH: American Society for Metals. Latest edition.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 2, Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose
Materials. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals. Latest edition.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control. Metals Park, OH:
American Society for Metals. Latest edition.
Nondestructive Evaluation in the Nuclear Industry. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals. 1981.
Sharpe, R.S., Research Techniques in Nondestructive Testing, Vol. 1. New York, NY: Academic Press. 1970.

vi
CONTENTS

FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................................................................ iii

Purpose ............................................................................................................................................................................ iii
How to Use the Study Guide ...................................................................................................................................... iii
Additional Information................................................................................................................................................. iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................................................................... iv

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................................ v

Chapter 1: Principles of Electromagnetic Testing ....................................................................................................... 1

Historical Background .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Generation of Eddy Currents..................................................................................................................................... 2
Field Intensity .................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Current Density .............................................................................................................................................................. 4
Phase/Amplitude and Current/Time Relationships ............................................................................................. 6
Review Questions .......................................................................................................................................................... 8

Chapter 2: Test Coil Arrangements .............................................................................................................................. 11

Surface Coils ................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Encircling Coils ............................................................................................................................................................ 12
Internal Coils for Pipes and Tubes .......................................................................................................................... 12
Coil Electrical Connections ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Absolute Coils ...................................................................................................................................................... 13
Differential Coils................................................................................................................................................... 13
Hybrid Coils ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
Additional Coil Characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 14
Alternative Coil Terminology ................................................................................................................................... 14
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................................... 16

Chapter 3: Test Coil Design ............................................................................................................................................ 19

Resistance .................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Inductance .................................................................................................................................................................. 19
Inductive Reactance ............................................................................................................................................... 20
Impedance ................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Q or Figure of Merit ..................................................................................................................................................... 22
Permeability and Shielding Effects ........................................................................................................................ 22
Coil Fixtures .................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................................... 25

vii
Chapter 4: Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils ........................................................................................................ 27
Electrical Conductivity ............................................................................................................................................. 27
Magnetic Permeability ............................................................................................................................................. 29
Skin Effect ..................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Edge Effect .................................................................................................................................................................. 29
End Effect ..................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Liftoff .............................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Fill Factor....................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Signal-to-Noise Ratio ................................................................................................................................................. 31
Discontinuities ............................................................................................................................................................. 31
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................................... 33

Chapter 5: Selection of Test Frequency ...................................................................................................................... 35

Frequency Selection ................................................................................................................................................. 35
Single-Frequency Systems ................................................................................................................................ 35
Multifrequency Systems .................................................................................................................................... 37
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................................... 40

Chapter 6: Instrument Systems ...................................................................................................................................... 43

Impedance Testing ................................................................................................................................................... 44
Phase Analysis Testing ............................................................................................................................................... 44
Vector Point........................................................................................................................................................... 44
Ellipse ...................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Linear Timebase .................................................................................................................................................. 45
Impedance Plane Testing ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Mode of Operation .................................................................................................................................................... 46
Signal Compensation ............................................................................................................................................... 46
Test Coil Excitation ..................................................................................................................................................... 46
Readout Mechanisms............................................................................................................................................... 48
Indicator Lights .................................................................................................................................................... 48
Audio Alarms ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
Meters .................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Digital Displays ..................................................................................................................................................... 50
Cathode Ray Tubes ........................................................................................................................................... 50
Recorders .............................................................................................................................................................. 50
Computer Interfaces ......................................................................................................................................... 52
Test Object Handling Equipment .......................................................................................................................... 53
Probe Delivery Systems ............................................................................................................................................. 53
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................................................... 55

viii
Chapter 7: Eddy Current Applications ......................................................................................................................... 57
Electromagnetic Techniques................................................................................................................................... 57
Eddy Current Overview ............................................................................................................................................. 57
Discontinuity Detection ............................................................................................................................................. 58
Dimensional Measurements ..................................................................................................................................... 61
Conductivity Measurements ................................................................................................................................... 62
Hardness Measurements........................................................................................................................................... 62
Alloy Sorting .................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 63

Chapter 8: Alternating Current Field Measurement ................................................................................................. 65

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 65
Overview ....................................................................................................................................................................... 65
How Alternating Current Field Measurement Works ......................................................................................... 66
Sensor Coverage and Lateral Displacement ..................................................................................................... 68
Advantages and Disadvantages of a Uniform Field ........................................................................................ 68
Advantanges ........................................................................................................................................................ 68
Disadvantages ..................................................................................................................................................... 69
Applications ................................................................................................................................................................. 69
Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 70

Chapter 9: Remote Field Testing .................................................................................................................................... 71

Overview ....................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Principles........................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Remote Field Testing Zones ...................................................................................................................................... 72
Near-Field Zone .................................................................................................................................................... 73
Transition Zone ...................................................................................................................................................... 74
Remote-Field Zone .............................................................................................................................................. 74
Phase and Amplitude ................................................................................................................................................ 74
Phase ....................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Amplitude (Voltage) ........................................................................................................................................... 75
Applications ................................................................................................................................................................. 75
Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 76

Chapter 10: Electromagnetic Testing Procedures, Specifications, and Standards ......................................... 77

American Society for Testing and Materials ........................................................................................................ 77
Military Standard ......................................................................................................................................................... 78
American Society of Mechanical Engineers ....................................................................................................... 78
Document QA 3 .......................................................................................................................................................... 79
Procedure Title ...................................................................................................................................................... 79
Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 84

Figure Sources ..................................................................................................................................................................... 85

ix
Chapter 1
Principles of Electromagnetic Testing

Historical Background

Before discussing the principles of electromagnetic

testing, it seems appropriate to briefly discuss the
facets of magnetism and electromagnetism that
serve as the foundation for this study.
In the period from 1775 to 1900, scientific
Motion
experimenters André-Marie Ampère, Françios
Arago, Charles Augustin Coulomb, Michael
Faraday, Lord William Thomson Kelvin, James
Clerk Maxwell, and Hans Christian Oersted investi-
gated and cataloged most of what is known about
magnetism and electromagnetism.
Arago discovered that the oscillation of a mag-
net was rapidly damped when a nonmagnetic con-
Magnet
ducting disk was placed near the magnet. He also
observed that by rotating the disk, the magnet was
attracted to the disk. In effect, Arago had intro-
duced a varying magnetic field into the metallic
disk causing eddy currents to flow in the disk. This
produced a secondary magnetic field in the disk Conducting plate
that affected the magnet. Arago’s simple model is a
basis for many automobile speedometers used
today. This experiment can be modeled as shown
in Figure 1.
Oersted discovered the presence of a magnetic
field around a current-carrying conductor and
observed a magnetic field developed in a perpendi-
cular plane to the direction of current flow in a Motion
wire. Ampère observed that equal and opposite cur-
rents flowing in adjacent conductors cancelled this
magnetic effect. Ampère’s observation is used in
differential coil applications and to manufacture
noninductive, precision resistors. Faraday’s first
experiments investigated induced currents by the
relative motion of a magnet and a coil (Figure 2).
Faraday’s major contribution was the discovery
of electromagnetic induction. His work can be sum- Magnet
marized by the example shown in Figure 3. A coil,
A, is connected to a battery through a switch, S. A
second coil, B, connected to a voltmeter, V, is near-
by. When switch S is closed, it produces a current in
coil A in the direction shown (a). A momentary Conducting plate
current is also induced in coil B in a direction (b)

Figure 1: Arago’s experiment (1821).

1
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 1
N
0
– +
0 base that mathematically describes most of what is
– +
S
Figure 2: Induced current with coil and
magnet.
opposite to the current flow in coil A. If S is now
opened, a momentary current will appear in coil B
having the direction of (c). In each case, current
flows in coil B only while the current in coil A
is changing.
The electromotive force (voltage) induced
in coil B of Figure 3 can be expressed as follows:
φ of a test coil. Conductor B represents a portion of a
(Eq. 1)E= K t
where
E = average induced voltage
N = number of turns of wire in coil B
Φ/ t = rate of change of magnetic lines of
force affecting coil B
8 magnitude of φE is directly proportional to the magnitude
K = 10
Maxwell produced a two-volume work, A
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, first pub-
lished in 1873. Maxwell not only chronicled most of
the work done in electricity and magnetism at that
time, but he also developed and published a group
of relations known as Maxwell’s equations for the
electromagnetic field. These equations form the
2
Coil A Coil B
b
S Core
V
a c
Figure 3: Induced current,
electromagnetic method.
known about electromagnetism today.
In 1849, Lord Kelvin applied Bessel’s equation
to solve the elements of an electromagnetic field.
The principles of electromagnetic testing
depend on the process of electromagnetic induc-
tion. This process includes a test coil through which
a varying or alternating current is passed. A varying
current flowing in a test coil produces a varying
electromagnetic field about the coil. This field is
known as the primary field.
Generation of Eddy Currents
When an electrically conductive test object is placed
in the primary field, an electrical current is induced
in the test object. This current is known as an eddy
current. Figure 4 is a simple model that illustrates
the relationships of primary and secondary electro-
magnetic events. Conductor A represents a portion
test object.
Following Lenz’s law and indicating the instan-
taneous direction of the primary current (IP), a pri-
mary field (φP) is developed about conductor A.
When conductor B is brought into the influence of φP an
eddy current (IE) is induced in conductor B. This current
(IE) produces a secondary electromag-netic field (φE) that
opposes the primary electro-magnetic field (φP). The
of IE.
Characteristic changes in conductor B such as
conductivity, permeability, or geometry will cause IE
to change. When IE varies, φE also varies. Variations
of φE are reflected to conductor A by changes in φP.
These changes are detected and displayed on some
type of readout mechanism that relates these varia-
tions to the characteristic that is of interest.
 Principles of Electromagnetic Testing

Conductor B Ip φp
(Test object)
Coil

IE@1δ = 37%
φE

Ip IE@2δ = 13.5%

IE@3δ = 5%
Φp

Conductor A Figure 5: Generation of eddy current in a test object.

(Test coil)

Ip current
φp = Primary magnetic field
IE = Secondary (eddy) current

φE = Secondary magnetic field

Figure 4: Induced current relationships. Ip

Field Intensity

The electromagnetic field produced about an

unloaded test coil can be described as decreasing in
intensity with distance from the coil and also vary-
ing across the coil’s cross-section. The field is most
intense near the coil’s surface.
The field produced about this coil is directly
proportional to the magnitude of applied current,
rate of change of current or frequency, and the
coil parameters. Coil parameters include
inductance, diameter, length, thickness, number
of turns of wire, and core material.
To better understand the principles under dis-
cussion, it is important to again look at the instan-
taneous relationships of current and magnetic
flux. The exciting current is supplied to the coil by
an alternating current generator or oscillator.
With a primary current IP flowing through the
coil, a primary electromagnetic field φP is produced
about the coil. When this excited test coil is placed on
an electrically conductive test object, eddy cur-rents
IE will be generated in that test object.
Figure 5 illustrates this concept.
Note the direction of the primary current (IP) and
the resultant eddy current (IE). The eddy cur-rent IE
extends some distance into the test object.
IE
Figure 6: Induced current flow in a cylindrical
part.
Another important observation is that IE is
generat-ed in the same plane in which the coil is
wound. Figure 6 emphasizes this point with a loop
coil sur-rounding a cylindrical test object.
A more precise method of describing the rela-
tionships of magnetic flux, voltage, and current is
the phase vector diagram or phasor diagrams.
Figure 7 compares the electromagnetic events asso-
ciated with an unloaded test coil and what happens
when that same coil is placed on a nonferromagnet-
ic test object. The components of phasor diagrams
are as follows:

.
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 1

Figure 7(a)
Ep = primary coil voltage
I = excitation current EP
φP = primary magnetic flux
φS = secondary magnetic flux

Figure 7(b)
Ep = primary coil voltage
I = excitation current
φP = primary magnetic flux
ES = secondary coil voltage
φS = secondary magnetic flux
ET = total coil voltage Ι φP φS = 0
φT = total magnetic flux
(a)
In Figure 7(a) the current (I) and primary mag-
netic flux (φP) are plotted in phase. The primary
voltage (EP) is shown separated by 90 electrical
ES
degrees. The secondary magnetic flux (φS) is
plotted at zero because without a test object, no EP
secondary flux exists.
Figure 7(b) represents the action of placing the
coil on a nonferromagnetic test object.
Observing Figure 7(b), one can see by vectorial ET
addition of EP and ES that a new coil voltage (ET) is
arrived at for the loaded condition. The primary
φS φT
magnetic flux φP and secondary magnetic flux φS are
also combined by vectorial addition to arrive at a new φS
magnetic flux (φT) for the loaded coil.
Notice that for the condition of the test object Ι φP
in the test coil, φT is no longer in phase with the (b)
excitation current I. Also observe that the included
(a)Figurewithout7:Phatestorobject;diagram(b) ofwithcoiltestvoltage:object.
angle between the excitation current and the new
coil voltage ET is no longer at 90 electrical degrees.
These interactions will be discussed in detail later
in this study guide.
Current Density significant changes in Y-axis values from 100%
to 37% and, below 37%, changes in X-axis values
produce less significant changes in Y-axis values.
The distribution of eddy currents in a test object Applying this logic to electromagnetic testing, a
varies exponentially. The current density in the test term is developed to describe current distribution
object is most dense near the test coil. This expo- in the test object. The eddy current generated at the
nential current density follows the mathematical rules surface of the test object nearest the test coil is
for a natural exponential decay curve (1/ε) where ε 100%. The point in the test object thickness where
(epsilon) is 2.718. Usually, a natural expo-nential this current is diminished to 37% of its previous
curve is illustrated by a graph with the ordinate (Y strength is known as the standard depth of penetra-
axis) representing magnitude and the abscissa (X tion. The Greek letter δ (delta) is used to represent
axis) representing time or distance. this point in the material. Figure 8 is a relative eddy
A common point described on such a graph is the current density curve for a plane wave of infinite
“knee” of the curve. The knee occurs at the 37% extent with magnetic field parallel to the conduct-
value on the ordinate axis. This 37% point is ing test object surface.
chosen because changes in X-axis values produce

4
 Principles of Electromagnetic Testing

The current density at any depth can be calcu- Magnetic permeability μ is a combination of
lated as: terms. For nonmagnetic materials:
x π f µσ
(Eq. 2) JX=JOe

(Eq. 3) µ π×

where For magnetic materials: µ µ r × µo

Jx = current density at depth x
Jo = current density at surface, amperes per where
square meter r = relative permeability
π = 3.1416
o = 4  10–7 H/m
f = frequency in hertz
μ = magnetic permeability, henries per meter The standard depth of penetration can be
(H/m) calculated as follows:
x = depth from surface, meters
(Eq. 4) δ = πfµσ
σ = electric conductivity, siemens per meter
e = 2.718

where
δ = standard depth of penetration, meters
ace)
surf

1.2
π = 3.1416
f = frequency in hertz
ofcurrentatthe
currentdensity

1.0 μ = magnetic permeability, H/m

of density at the surface σ = electric conductivity, siemens per meter
0.8
Standard depth of pen-
It should be observed at this point that as fre-
etration where density quency, conductivity, or permeability is
0.6 of eddy current = 37%
increased, the penetration of current into the test
object will be decreased.
percentage

0.4
Eddy

The graph in Figure 8 is used to demonstrate

many eddy current characteristics. Using an exam-
0.2
ple of a very thick block of stainless steel being
interrogated with a surface or probe coil operating
(in

at a test frequency of 100 kHz, the standard depth

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
of penetration can be determined and current den-
sities observed at other depths.
Units of depth
Stainless steel (300 Series) is nonferromagnetic.
(in multiples of the Magnetic permeability μ is 4π  10–7 H/m and the
standard depth of conductivity is 0.14  10–7 siemens (mhos) per
penetration) meter for 300 Series stainless steel.

Figure 8: Relative eddy current density.

δ= π f µσ
1
δ= 7 7
3 .1 4 16 × 1 00 0 00 × 4 π × 10 × 0 .1 4 × 10

1
δ=
7 4 3.4 38
δ = 0.00135 meters

δ = 1.35 mm

5
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 1
Using 1.35 mm as depth x from the surface, a
ratio of depth/depth of penetration would be 1.
Referring to Figure 8, a depth/depth of penetration
of 1 indicates a relative eddy current density of 0.37
or 37%. What is the relative eddy current density at
3 mm?
Depth x equals 3 mm and depth of penetration
is 1.35 mm; therefore:
3÷1.35 = 2.222
This ratio indicates a relative eddy current den-
sity of about 0.1 or 10%. With only 10% of the avail-
able current flowing at a depth of 3 mm, variables
such as conductivity, permeability, and discontinu-
ities would be very difficult to detect. The obvious
solution for greater detectability at the 3 mm depth
is to lower the test frequency. Frequency selection
will be covered in detail later in this text.
Phase/Amplitude and Current/Time
Relationships
Figure 9 reveals another facet of eddy currents.
Eddy currents are not generated at the same
instant in time throughout the part. Eddy currents
require time to penetrate the test part. Phase and
time are analogous in that phase is an electrical
term used to describe timing relationships of
electrical waveforms.
Phase is usually expressed in either degrees or
radians. There are 2π radians per 360°. Each radian,
therefore, is about 57°. Using the surface eddy cur-
rent near the test coil as a reference, eddy currents
occurring deeper in the test object lag the surface
current. The amount of phase lag is determined by:
(Eq. 5) θ= π µσ
where
θ = phase angle lag in radians
X= depth of interest below the test object
surface π = 3.1416
f = frequency in hertz
μ = magnetic permeability, H/m
σ = electric conductivity, siemens per meter
Figure 9 should be used as a relative indicator of
phase lag expressed as depth of interest X/depth of
penetration. The exact phase relationship for a
particular system may be different due to other
6
variables, such as coil parameters and excitation
methods.
The amount of phase lag for a given part thick-
ness is an important factor when considering
resolution. Resolution is the ability to separate
variables occurring in the test object; for example,
distinguishing two discontinuities occurring at dif-
ferent depths in the same test object.
As an example, using a standard depth of pene-
tration at 1 mm in a 5 mm thick test object, refer to
Figure 9 and observe the phase lag of the current at
one standard depth of penetration. Where depth of
interest X is 1 mm and depth of penetration δ is
1 mm, the X/δ ratio is 1 and the current at depth X
lags the surface current by 1 radian or 57°.
Projecting this examination, observe the phase
lag for the entire part thickness. The standard depth
of penetration is 1 mm and the part thickness is
5 mm; therefore, the ratio X/δ equals 5. This pro-
duces a phase lag of 5 radians or about 287° for the
part thickness. Having a measurement capability of 1°
increments, the part thickness could be divided into
287 parts, each part representing 0.017 mm. That
would be considered excellent resolution.
There is an obvious limitation. Refer to Figure 8
and observe the resultant relative current density
with an X/δ ratio of 5. The relative current density
is near 0.
It should become apparent that the frequency
can be adjusted to achieve optimum results for a
particular variable. These and other variables will
be discussed in Chapter 5 of this study guide.
In summary, eddy currents have been
explained, how they are created, and how they
move through electrically conductive materials.

Once the application of these rules in the real world
is understood, electromagnetic testing can be used
for a wide range of inspection applications in elec-
trically conductive materials to:
● measure the size or shape of parts,
● measure variations in the grade or chemistry
(alloy) of those parts,
Principles of Electromagnetic Testing
● determine if and how those parts have been
heat-treated,
● help determine if there are manufacturing
discontinuities that need to be addressed, and
● determine if there are service-induced
discontinuities that may limit the use of the part.
7
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 1

Review Questions

1. Generation of eddy currents depends on the 5. Eddy currents generated in a test object flow:
principle of:
a. in the same plane as magnetic flux.
a. wave guide theory. b. in the same plane as the coil is wound.
b. electromagnetic induction. c. 90° to the coil winding plane.
c. magnetorestrictive forces. d. in no predictable direction.
d. lorentz forces.
6. The discovery of electromagnetic induction is
2. A secondary field is generated by the test object credited to:
and is:
a. Arago.
a. equal and opposite to the primary field. b. Oersted.
b. opposite to the primary field but much smaller. c. Maxwell.
c. in the same plane as the coil is wound. d. Faraday.
d. in phase with the primary field.
7. A standard depth of penetration is defined as the
3. When a nonferromagnetic part is placed in the test point in a test object where the relative current
coil, the coil’s voltage: density is reduced to:

a. increases. a. 25%
b. remains constant because this is essential. b. 37%
c. decreases. c. 50%
d. shifts 90° in phase. d. 100%

4. Refer to Figure 7(b). If ET was produced by the test 8. Refer to Figure 8. If one standard depth of
object being stainless steel, what would the effect be if penetration was established at 1 mm in an object 3
the test object were copper? mm thick, what is the relative current density on
the far surface?
a. ET would decrease and be at a different angle.
b. ET would increase and be at a different angle. a. 3
c. Because both materials are nonferromagnetic, no b. <0.1
change occurs. c. 1/3
d. Current (I) and primary magnetic flux (φP) will d. indeterminate
be out of phase.

8
 Principles of Electromagnetic Testing

9. Refer to Figure 9. Using the example in question 8, 10. Calculate the standard depth of penetration at
what is the phase difference between the near and far 10 kHz in copper. Cu has σ = 5.7 × 107
surfaces? siemens per meter.

a. The far-surface current leads the near- a. 0.1 mm (3.9 × 10–3 in.)
surface current by 57°. b. 0.02 mm (7.9 × 10–4 in.)
b. The far-surface current leads the near- c. 0.66 mm (0.026 in.)
surface current by 171°. d. 66 mm (2.6 in.)
c. The far-surface current lags the near-surface
current by 171°.
d. The far-surface current lags the near-surface
current by 570°.

Answers
1b 2b 3c 4a 5b 6d 7b 8b 9c 10c

9
.
Chapter 2
Test Coil Arrangements

Test coils can be categorized into three main
mechanical groups: surface coils, encircling
coils, and internal coils.
Surface Coils
Surface coil, surface probe, surface probe coil, flat
coil, and pancake coil are all common terms
used to describe the same test coil type. Surface
probe coils provide a convenient method of
examining the surface of a test object. Figure 1
illustrates a typical set of probe coils used for
several surface scanning applications.
This careful scanning is very time-consuming. For
this reason, surface probe coil inspections of large
test objects are usually limited to critical areas.
Surface probe coils are used extensively in air-
craft inspection for crack detection near fasteners
and fastener holes. In the case of fastener holes
(boltholes, rivet holes), the surface probe coil may
be rotated either manually or mechanically to
pro-vide a helical scan of the hole using a
spinning probe technique (Figure 2).

Figure 1: Surface probe coils.

Surface probe coils and coil forms can be shaped

to fit particular geometries to solve complex inspec-
tion problems. As an example, surface probe coils
fabricated in a pencil shape (pencil probe) are used
to inspect threaded areas of mounting studs and
nuts or serrated areas of turbine wheels and turbine
blade assemblies. Surface probe coils may be used
where high resolution is required by adding
coil shielding.
When using a high-resolution surface probe
coil, the test object surface must be carefully
Figure 2: Bolthole inspection probes.
scanned to ensure complete inspection coverage.

11
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 2

Encircling Coils
encircling coil. The additional advantage that a
probe coil would have over the encircling coil is
Encircling coil, outside diameter coil, and feed- that the probe coil could define where within the
through coil are terms commonly used to describe circumferential plane the discontinuity exists. The
a coil that surrounds the test object. Figure 3 illus- encircling coil cannot make that distinction. If there
trates a typical encircling coil. are multiple signal sources within the coil’s field of
view, the encircling coil response will indicate the
average of all of those events.
When using an encircling coil, it is important to
Crack
keep the test object centered in the coil. If the test
object is not centered, a uniform discontinuity
response is difficult to obtain. To ensure proper
Direction of centering, it is common practice to run the calibra-
tube travel
tion standard several times, each time indexing the
artificial discontinuities to a new circumferential
location in the coil.
Encircling coil As in all discontinuity detection schemes, it is
essential to select a reasonable operating frequency,
properly adjust the system display parameters, and
ensure that the tube is centered in the coil at all
Tube times to achieve optimum test sensitivity.
Internal Coils for Pipes and Tubes

Internal coils, inside diameter coils, inside probes,

and bobbin coils are terms that describe coils used
to inspect from the inside diameter or bore of a
tubular test object. Internal coils are inserted and
withdrawn from the tube inside diameter by long,
semiflexible shafts or simply blown in with air and
retrieved with an attached pull cable. These mecha-
nisms will be described later in the text. Internal
coil information follows the same basic rules stated
for encircling coils. Figure 4 illustrates a typical
internal (bobbin) coil.

Tube
Differential coils
Shaft

Figure 3: Encircling coil.

Figure 4: Bobbin coil.

Encircling coils are primarily used to inspect
tubular and bar-shaped products. The tube or bar Coil Electrical Connections
is fed through the coil at relatively high speed. The
cross section of the test object within the test coil is
simultaneously interrogated. For this reason, the Surface probe coils, encircling coils, and internal
circumferential location of discontinuities cannot coils can be additionally classified. These additional
be determined with an encircling coil. classifications are determined by how the coils are
The volume of material examined at one time is electrically connected. The three coil categories are
greater using an encircling coil than a probe coil; absolute, differential, and hybrid.
therefore, the relative sensitivity is lower for an
12

Figure 5 shows various types of absolute and
differential coil arrangements.
Absolute Coils
An absolute coil makes its measurement without
direct reference or comparison to a standard as the
measurement is being made. Some applications for
absolute coil systems would be measurements of
conductivity, permeability, dimensions,
and hardness.
Differential Coils
Differential coils consist of two or more coils
electrically connected to oppose each other.
Differential coils can be categorized into two
types: self-comparison differential and
external reference differential.
The self-comparison differential coil compares
one area of a test object to another area on the same
test object. A common use is two coils, connected
opposing, so that if both coils are affected by identi-
cal test object conditions, the net output is 0 volts or
no signal change. The self-comparison arrange-
ment is insensitive to test object variables that occur
Test Coil Arrangements
gradually. Variables such as slowly changing wall
thickness, diameter, or conductivity are effectively
discriminated against with the self-comparison dif-
ferential coil.
Only when a different condition affects one or the
other test coils will an output signal be generat-ed.
The coils usually being mechanically and elec-
trically similar allows the arrangement to be very
stable during temperature changes. Short disconti-
nuities such as cracks, pits, or other localized dis-
continuities with abrupt boundaries can be readily
detected using the self-comparison differential coil.
The external reference differential coil uses an
external reference to affect one coil while the other
coil is affected by the test object. Figure 6 illustrates
this concept. This system is used to detect differ-
ences between a standard object and test object. It is
particularly useful for comparative conductivity,
permeability, and dimensional measurements.
Obviously in Figure 6 it is imperative to normalize
(or balance) the system with one coil affected by the
standard object and the other coil affected by an
acceptable test object. The external reference differ-
ential coil system is sensitive to all measurable
13
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 2

magnitude and frequency applied to the excitation

coil, coil parameters of the exciting and sensing
R R
coils, and the test object characteristics.
Hybrid coils may or may not be the same size
Voltmeter and are not necessarily adjacent to each other. In
AC the through-transmission arrangement (Figure 7),
v
the excitation coil is on one side of the test object
R R and the sensing coil is on the other. The excitation
Inspection Reference coil induces eddy currents and a secondary magnet-
ic field in the test object. Any variation of these sec-
coil coil
ondary events should be detected by the smaller
probe coil on the opposite side of the thin plate.
Test Reference Most hybrid coils are designed to improve test
sample sensitivity for a specific application. One example of
sample
this is for better detection of subsurface discontinu-
ities in multilayer structures. The concept of using a
Figure 6: External reference differential system. smaller pickup coil enhances the ability to detect
lower level impedance variations from small-
differences between the standard object and test volume discontinuities deeper in the test sample.
object. For this reason it is often necessary to pro- It should be pointed out that if larger volume dis-
vide additional discrimination to separate and continuities are encountered that a measurable
define variables present in the test object. impedance change might be generated by both the
exciter and the pickup coil(s).
Hybrid Coils
Additional Coil Characteristics
Hybrid coils may be defined as driver/pickup,
through-transmission, reflection, or
primary/sec-ondary coil assemblies. Coil configuration is but one of many factors to
A hybrid coil arrangement consists of an excita- consider when setting up test conditions. Other coil
tion coil and a sensing coil. In most cases, a single characteristics of importance are mechanical, ther-
probe housing assembly contains both the driver and mal, and electrical stability, as well as sensitivity,
the pickup coil(s). The primary magnetic flux resolution, and dimensions. For example, a self-
interacts with both coils. The voltage developed comparison differential coil has better thermal sta-
in the sensing coil is a function of the current bility than a bobbin, an encircling, or an absolute
coil. The geometry of the coil is usually dictated by
the geometry of the test object. Selection of smaller
probe sizes may affect test sensitivity and/or resolu-
tion. The relative importance of test coil character-
Transmitting circuit istics depends on the nature of the test.
A blend of theory and experience usually suc-
ceeds in selection of proper coil parameters. Coil
Alternating current design and interactions with test objects will be dis-
Excitation coil cussed later in this study guide.
source
Alternative Coil Terminology

Material
From a designer’s perspective, electromagnetic coils
may also be defined by three parameters: diameter
(D), height (h), and orientation of the axis (usually
Indicating
Sensing coil instrument relative to the inspection surface). Number of turns of
wire and wire thickness are not as significant as far as
measured signals are concerned. Given these
Receiving circuit parameters, pancake coils have h < D and bobbin

Figure 7: Hybrid through-transmission arrangement.

14

coils have h > D. Coils may be described as square if
h is roughly equal to D. Note that direction of coil
movement is not included in the above definitions.
Conventional eddy current testing uses surface
(pancake) coils with axes perpendicular to the sur-
face. Alternating current field measurement uses
bobbin coils (with the axis parallel to the surface)
for induction and square coils (with axes parallel
Test Coil Arrangements
and perpendicular to the surface) for sensors.
With remote field testing, bobbin coils are used
but with an orientation optimized to detect the
axial magnetic field in the tube wall.
When tube inspection is considered as a special
application, the use of internal or surface comes
into play to further differentiate the type of probe.
15
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 2

Review Questions

1. A hybrid coil arrangement consists of: 5. When inspecting a tubular product with an
encircling coil, which statement is not true?
a. bobbin coils.
b. probe coils. a. Outside diameter discontinuities can be found.
c. outside diameter coils. b. Axial discontinuity locations can be noted.
d. an excitation coil and a sensing coil. c. Circumferential discontinuity locations can
be noted.
2. When using a surface probe coil to scan a test object: d. Inside diameter discontinuities can be found.

a. the object must be dry and polished. 6. An absolute coil measurement is made:
b. the object must be scanned carefully to ensure
inspection coverage. a. by comparing one spot on the test object to
c. the object must be scanned in circular motions at another.
constant speeds. b. without reference to or direct comparison with a
d. the probe must be moving at all times to get a standard.
reading. c. only with probe coils.
d. by comparative measurement to a
3. A spinning probe would most likely be: known standard.

a. a bobbin coil. 7. When coils in a self-comparison differential

b. an inside diameter coil. arrangement are affected simultaneously with the
c. an outside diameter coil. same test object variables, the output signal:
d. a surface probe coil.
a. is directly proportional to the number of
4. A feed-through coil is: variables.
b. is 0 or near 0.
a. a coil with primary/secondary windings c. is indirectly proportional to the number of
connected so that the signal is fed through the variables.
primary to the secondary. d. is primarily a function of the exciting current.
b. an encircling coil.
c. a bobbin coil. 8. Which coil type inherently has better thermal
d. a hybrid coil. stability?

a. Bobbin.
b. Absolute.
c. Outside diameter.
d. Self-comparison differential.

16
 Test Coil Arrangements

9. A hybrid coil is composed of two or more coils. The 10. Proper selection of the test coil arrangement is
coils: determined by the:

a. must be aligned coplanar to the driver axis. a. shape of the test object.
b. may be of widely different dimensions. b. test equipment.
c. must be impedance matched as closely as c. operator’s skills.
possible. d. standard depth of penetration.
d. are very temperature sensitive.

Answers
1d 2b 3d 4b 5c 6b 7b 8d 9b 10a

17
Chapter 3
Test Coil Design
As discussed earlier, test coil design and selection is
a blend of theory and experience. Many factors
must be considered. These important factors are
determined by the inspection requirement for reso-
lution, sensitivity, impedance, size, stability, and
environmental considerations.
To better understand coil properties and
electri-cal relationships, a short refresher in
alternating current theory is necessary.
First, the electrical units must be examined. For
example, current and its representative symbol I.
Current not only suggests electron flow but also the
amount. The number of electrons flowing past a
point in a circuit in 1 second is expressed in
amperes: 2π  1018 electrons passing a point in
1 s is called 1 ampere (1 A).
Resistance
Resistance is an opposition to the flow of electrons
and is measured in ohms. Ohm’s law is stated by
the equation:
(Eq. 6) IR
where
I = current in amperes
R = resistance in ohms
E = electrical potential difference in volts
The resistance of a coil is determined primarily
by the length of wire used to wind the coil; its spe-
cific resistance is determined by the type of wire
(for example, copper or silver) and the cross-
sectional area of the wire.
(Eq. 7) resistance 
area 
where
resistance = ohms
specific resistance = ohms/circular mil-foot
area = circular mils
length = feet
Thus, the resistance of a 10 ft (3 m) length of
40 gage (0.0787 mm) copper wire with a specific
resistance of 10.4 circular mil ohm/ft (1.7 μΩ-cm)
at 20 °C (68 °F) would be found as follows:
R  9.888  10.518 ohms

In an alternating current circuit containing
only resistance, the current and voltage are in
phase. In phase means the current and voltage reach
their minimum and maximum values, respectively,
at the same time. The power dissipated in a resistive
cir-cuit appears in the form of heat. For example,
elec-tric toasters are equipped with resistance wires
that become hot when current flows through them,
pro-viding a heat source for toasting bread.
Inductance
Heat generation is an undesirable trait for an eddy
current coil. If the 3 m (10 ft) length of wire used in
the previous example was wound into the shape of a
coil, it would exhibit characteristics of alternating
current other than resistance. By forming the wire
into the shape of a coil, the coil also would have the
property of inductance. The role of inductance is
analogous to inertia in mechanics, because inertia is
the property of matter that causes a body to oppose
any change in its velocity.
The unit of inductance is the henry (H). A coil is
said to have the property of inductance when a
change in current through the coil produces a volt-
age in the coil. More precisely, a circuit in which an
electromotive force of 1 V is induced when the cur-
rent is changing at a rate of 1 A/s will have an
inductance of 1 H.
19
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 3

The inductance of a multilayer air-core coil can would have an inductance of:
be expressed by its physical properties or coil i
(6  0.1)  (9  0.1)  (10  0.1)
parameters. Coil parameters such as length,
 
diame-ter, thickness, and number of turns of wire
affect the coil’s inductance.
Figure 1 illustrates typical coil dimensions i  0.6  0 .9  1  2.5  32
required to calculate coil inductance. (Variables  
refer to those listed for Equation 8 below.)

= µ
In alternating current circuits, the current is
r always changing; therefore, inductance is always
opposing this change. As the current tries to
change, the inductance reacts to oppose that
change. This reaction is called inductive reactance.
l Inductive Reactance

The unit of inductive reactance (XL) is in ohms. For

a given coil, the inductive reactance is a function of
b the rate of change of current or frequency. A
formu-la relating frequency, inductance, and
inductive reactance is:

Figure 1: Multilayer coil. (Eq. 9) L  

An approximation of small, multilayer, air- where

core coil inductance is: XL = inductive reactance (in ohms) f
i = frequency (in hertz)
(Eq. 8) 6 r  9 l 10b L = inductance (in henries)

For example, using the 32 μH coil calculated
earlier, operating at 100 kHz, its inductive
reactance would be found as follows:
where
i = self-inductance in microhenries (μH) L = 32 µH or 0.000032 H
N = total number of turns f = 100 kHz or 100 000 Hz
r = mean radius in inches 2π = 6.28
l = length of coil in inches
XL = 6.28 × 100 000 × 0.000032
b = coil depth or thickness in inches
XL = 20.096 ohms
For example, a coil whose dimensions
Therefore, this coil would present an opposition
(imperial) are as follows:
of 20.096 Ω to currents with a rate of change of 100
r = 0.1 in.
kHz due to its reactive component. Unlike a resistive
l = 0.1 in.
circuit, the current and voltage of an inductive circuit
b = 0.1 in.
do not reach their minimum and maximum values at
N = 100 turns
the same time. In a pure induc-tive circuit, the voltage
leads the current by 90 elec-trical degrees. This means
that when the voltage reaches a maximum value, the
current is at 0.

20

Power is related to current and
voltage as follows:
(Eq. 10)  
where
P = power in watts
E = volts
I = current in amperes
Notice that in a pure inductive circuit, when the
voltage is maximum, the current is 0. Therefore, the
product E  l = 0. Inductive reactance consumes no
alternating power, whereas resistive elements
consume power and dissipate power in the form
of heat.
In terms of the opposition to current flow, the
resistive element of the coil and the reactive element
of the coil do not occur at the same time; therefore,
they cannot be added as scalar quantities.
A scalar quantity is one having only magnitude,
that is, a quantity fully described by a number but
that does not involve any concept of direction.
Gallons in a tank, temperature in a room, and miles
per hour, for example, are all scalars.
Impedance
To explain the addition of reactance and resistance
with a minimum of mathematical calculations, it is
possible to use vector or phasor diagrams. A vector
diagram constructed with imaginary units on the
ordinate or Y axis and real units on the abscissa or
X axis is shown in Figure 2.
Z The importance of knowing the impedance
XL
a considera-tion than coil design.
0 R
Figure 2: Vector diagram.
Test Coil Design
Observation of Figure 2 reveals XL, R, and Z
appear to form the sides of a right triangle. The
mathematical solution of right triangles states the
square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides, or:
(Eq. 11)  
Substituting Z, XL, and R, the
statement becomes:
(Eq. 12) = L+
Further simplified:
2 2
Z= X +R
(Eq. 13) L
Substituting inductive reactance (XL) and
resist-ance (R), it is possible to find the resultant of
the vector addition of XL and R. This resultant
vector Z is known as impedance. Impedance is the
total opposition to current flow.
Example: What is the impedance of a coil hav-
ing an inductance of 100 μH and a resistance of 5 Ω
operating at 200 kHz?
 
L
XL =6 . 28 × 200 0 00 Hz × 0 . 0001 H
XL =6 . 28 × 20 = 125 . 6 Ω
2 2
Z= (125 . 6) + (5) = 15 800 . 36
Z = 125 . 7 Ω
First, convert inductance to inductive reactance
and then, by vector addition, combine inductive
reactance and resistance to obtain the impedance.
of the test coil is more one of instrument
Maximum transfer of power is accomplished
when the driving impedance and load impedance
are matched. If, for instance, an electromagnetic
testing instrument has a driving impedance of 50 Ω,
the most efficient test coils would also have imped-
ances of 50 Ω. Other, more common examples of
impedance matching are home stereo systems rated
at 100 W per channel into 8 ohms.
21
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 3

Q or Figure of Merit
Impedance can be discussed in a more detailed
manner by mathematically noting variables using
imaginary numbers. The square root of a negative The term used to describe coil efficiency is Q or
number is known as an imaginary number. The merit of the coil. The higher the Q or merit of a
imaginary number √–16 can be written √(–1)16 or coil, the more efficiently the coil performs as an
√(–1) √(–16) or √(–1)  4. The notation √(–1) is inductor. The merit of a coil is mathematically
used extensively and is mathematically noted by a stated as:
lower case letter “i.” Because i is also used in electri-
cal terms for current, the i notation for electrical (Eq. 18)  L 
calculations is changed to the letter “j.” The symbol
j, often called operator j, is equal to √(–1). Instead
of noting √–16 as √(–1)  4, note it as j4. Because where
L
reactance is known as an imaginary component, R = resistance
then impedance is expressed as:

(Eq. 14)   m   For example, a coil having an inductive reac-

tance of 100 Ω and a resistance of 5 Ω would have
a Q of 20.
where
Permeability and Shielding Effects
(Eq. 15)  L 
The addition of permeable core materials in certain
coil designs dramatically improves the Q factor.
The term R + jXm is known as a rectangular
Permeable cores are usually constructed of high
notation. As an example, a resistance of 4 Ω in
permeability powdered iron. Probe coils, for exam-
series with an inductive reactance of 3 Ω could be
ple, are wound on a form that allows a powdered
noted as Z = 4 + j3 Ω. The impedance calculation
iron rod or slug to be placed in the center of the
is then:
2 2
coil. It is common to increase the coil impedance by
(Eq. 16) Z    Ω a factor of 10 by the addition of core materials. This
increase in impedance without additional winding
greatly enhances the Q of the coil.
In coil design, it is often helpful to know also Some core materials are cylinder or cup shaped.
the included angle between the resistive component A common term is cup core (Figure 3). The coil is
and impedance. A convenient method of notation first wound and then placed into the cup core. In
is the polar form where tan θ = XL ÷ R and θ is the the case of a probe coil in a cup core, not only is the
included angle between resistance and impedance. impedance increased, but the benefit of shielding is
In the previous example, the impedance magnitude also gained. Shielding with a cup core prevents the
is 5 Ω, but at what angle? electromagnetic field from spreading at the sides of
the coil. This greatly reduces the signals produced
(Eq. 17)arctan  36.9 by the edge effect of adjacent members to the test
 L  area, such as fasteners on an aircraft wing.
Shielding, while improving resolution, usually
sacrifices some amount of penetration into the part.
Z = 536.9 Another technique of shielding uses high con-
ductivity material, such as copper or aluminum, to
Electromagnetic test coils with included imped- suppress high-frequency interference from other
ance angles of 60° to 90° usually make efficient test sources and also to shape the electromagnetic field
coils. As the angle between resistance and impedance of the test coil. A copper cup would restrict the
approaches 0°, the test coil becomes very inefficient electromagnetic field in much the same manner as
with most of its energy being dissipated as heat. the powdered iron cup core. A disadvantage of
high-conductivity, low-, or no-permeability shield-
ing is that the coil’s impedance is reduced when the
shielding material is placed around the test coil. The
22

(a)
Core
(b)
Figure 3: Effects of cup cores: (a) unshielded
coil – field spread might be up to twice the coil
diameter; (b) shielded coil – magnetic field
extension restricted to the core geometry.
net effect is that the coil’s Q is less than it was when
the coil was surrounded by air.
A predominant variable that prevents eddy cur-
rent penetration in ferromagnetic material is called
permeability. Permeability effects exhibited by the
test object can be reduced by means of magnetic
saturation (Figure 4). Thus, another coil design
used for inspection of ferromagnetic materials is the
saturation approach. Saturation coils for steels are
usually very large and surround the test object and
test coil. A steady-state (DC) current is applied to
the saturation coil. When the steel test object is
magnetically saturated, it may be inspected in the
same manner as a nonferromagnetic material. In
the case of mild steel, many thousands of tesla are
required to produce saturation.
Large saturation Smaller eddy
coil (DC) current coil (AC)
Ferritic (steel) tube
Figure 4: Magnetic saturation inspection
process.
Test Coil Design
In some inherently nonferromagnetic tubing
materials, such as high-temperature nickel chromi-um
alloy, there may be low-level permeability variations
because of manufacturing discontinuities. In this case,
the use of small permanent magnets adjacent to the
bobbin probe coils may improve
the inspection quality by reducing the permeability
effects.
Figure 5 shows the use of disk-type magnets
placed close to the coil. It is also possible to use an
array of bar magnets arranged around the probe
housing if higher magnetic potential is required to
offset the material permeability characteristics.
Coil Fixtures
Coil fixtures or holders may be as varied as the
imagination of the designers and users. After the
size, shape, and style have been decided on, the next
consideration should be the test environment.
Characteristics of wear, temperature, atmos-
phere, mechanical stress, and stability must
be considered.
Normally, wear can be reduced by selection of
wear-resistant compounds to protect the coil wind-
ings. If severe wear is expected, artificial or genuine
jewels may be used. Less expensive and very effec-
tive wear materials, such as aluminum oxide or
ceramics, are more commonly used.
Temperature stability may be accomplished by
using coil holder material with poor heat transfer
characteristics. Metals have high heat transfer char-
acteristics, and often coils made with metal holders
are sensitive to temperature variations caused by
human touch. For high-temperature applications,
23
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 3
materials must be chosen carefully. Most
common commercial copper coil wire may be
used up to 150 °C to 200 °C (302 °F to 392 °F).
For temperatures above 200 °C (392 °F), silver or
aluminum wire with ceramic or high-
temperature silicone insulation must be used.
Materials must be chemically compatible with
the test object. As extreme examples, a polystyrene
coil form would not be used to inspect an acetone
cooler or a lead or graphite housing allowed to
come in contact with a high-temperature nickel
chromium alloy jet engine tail cone. The chemical
24
interactions between these material combinations
could cause cracking and lead to component failure.
Mechanical and electrical stability of the test coil
can be enhanced by an application of epoxy resin
between each layer of coil winding. This accom-
plishes several objectives: 1) it seals the coil to
exclude moisture, 2) it provides additional electrical
insulation, and 3) it provides mechanical stability.
Characteristics listed are not in order of impor-
tance. The importance of each characteristic is
determined by specific test requirements.
 Test Coil Design

Review Questions

1. A coil’s resistance is determined by: 6. The impedance of a 100 μH coil with a resistance of
20 ohms operating at 100 kHz would be:
a. wire hardness.
b. wire permeability. a. 62.8 ohms
c. wire cross-sectional area. b. 4343.8 ohms
d. wire weight. c. 628 ohms
d. 65.9 ohms
2. Inductance might be referred to as being
analogous to: 7. The Q or merit of a coil is denoted by the ratio:

a. force. a. Z ÷ XL
b. volume. b. XL ÷ Z
c. inertia. c. XL ÷ R
d. velocity. d. R ÷ XL

3. The unit of inductance is the: 8. The incorporation of ferromagnetic

shielding materials around a coil:
a. henry.
b. maxwell. a. improves resolution.
c. ohm. b. increases field extension.
d. farad. c. reduces impedance.
d. reduces the figure of merit Q of the coil.
4. The inductance of a multilayer air-core coil with the
dimensions l = 0.2, r = 0.5, b = 0.1, and N = 20, is: 9. The purpose of a steady-state winding used near a
test coil is to:
a. 1.38 H
b. 13.8 μH a. increase material permeability effects.
c. 13.8 ohms b. reduce magnetic permeability effects.
d. 1.38 ohms c. provide a balance source for the sensing coil.
d. reduce signal-to-noise ratio.
5. The inductive reactance of the coil in Question 4,
operating at 400 kHz, would be: 10. The most important consideration when selecting a
test coil is:
a. 1380 ohms
b. 5520 ohms a. sensitivity.
c. 34.66 ohms b. resolution.
d. 3466 ohms c. stability.
d. meeting established inspection criteria.

Answers
1c 2c 3a 4b 5c 6d 7c 8a 9b 10d

25
Chapter 4
Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils
As previously seen, the electromagnetic testing
method depends on the generation of induced
currents within the test object. Disturbances in
these small induced currents affect the test coil.
The result is a variance of the test coil impedance
due to test object variables. These variances are
called operating or test variables. The range of test
variables encountered might include electrical con-
ductivity, magnetic permeability, skin effect, edge
effect, end effect, liftoff, fill factor, and signal-to-
noise ratio.
Coil impedance was discussed at length in
Chapter 3. In this chapter, coil impedance changes
will be represented graphically to more effectively
explain the interaction of the operating variables.
Electrical Conductivity
In electron theory, the atom consists of a positive
nucleus surrounded by orbiting negative electrons.
Materials that allow these electrons to be easily
moved out of orbit around the nucleus are
classified as conductors. In conductors, electrons
are moved by applying an outside electrical force.
The ease with which the electrons are made to
move through the conductor is called conductance.
A unit of con-ductance is the siemen (mho). The
siemen is the reciprocal of the ohm or conductance
G = 1/R, where G is conductance in siemens and R
is resist-ance in ohms.
In electromagnetic testing, instead of describing
conductance in absolute terms, an arbitrary unit
has been assigned. Since the relative conductivity of
metals and alloys varies over a wide range, the need
for a conductivity benchmark is of prime
importance.
The International Electrochemical Commission
established in 1913 a convenient technique of com-
paring one material to another. The commission
established that a specific grade of high purity cop-
per, 1 m in length, with a uniform cross section of
1 mm2, measuring 0.017241 ohms at 20 °C would
be arbitrarily considered to be 100% conductive.
The symbol for conductivity is σ (sigma) and
the unit is percent International Annealed
Copper Standard (IACS).
Table 1 lists materials by their electrical proper-
ties: conductivity and resistivity. Note that a good
conductor is a poor resistor. Conductance and
resistance are direct reciprocals, as stated earlier.
Conductivity and resistivity, however, have
different origins and units; therefore, the
conversion is not so direct.
As previously discussed, conductivity is
expressed on an arbitrary scale in percent IACS.
Resistivity is expressed in absolute terms of micro-
ohm-centimeters. To convert values on one scale
to the other system of units, a conversion factor of
172.41 is required. Once you know either the con-
ductivity or the resistivity value for a material, the
other electrical property can be calculated.
%IACS 
(Eq. 19) resistivity (in micro-ohm-cm)
or
resistivity (in micro-ohm-cm)  %IACS
These numerical values are necessary when addi-
tional calculations are needed to determine issues of
frequency choice, depth of penetration, and/or phase
spread to meet specific inspection criteria.
As the test coil is influenced by different con-
ductivities, its impedance varies inversely to con-
ductivity. A higher conductivity causes the test coil
to have a lower impedance value. Figure 1 illustrates
a measured conductivity locus.
The coil’s inductive reactance is represented
by the Y axis and coil resistance appears on the X
axis. The 0% conductivity point, or air point, is
when the coil’s empty reactance (XLO) is at its maxi-
mum. Conductivity is influenced by many factors.
27
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 4

Table 1: Electrical resistivity and conductivity of several metals and alloys.

Resistivity Conductivity
Material
micro-ohm-cm (μΩ-cm) %IACS
Admiralty brass 6.90 25.00
Aluminum (99.9) 2.65 64.94
6061-T6 4.10 42.00
7075-T-6 5.30 32.00
2024-T4 5.70 30.00
Aluminum bronze 12.00 14.00
Copper 1.72 100.00
Copper nickel 90-10 18.95 9.10
Copper nickel 70-30 37.00 4.60
Gold 2.35 75.00
Corrosive resistant nickel alloy 130.00 1.30
High-temperature nickel chromium alloy 100.00 1.72
Lead 20.77 8.30
Magnesium (99%) 4.45 38.60
Stainless steel 304 72.00 2.39
Stainless steel 316 74.00 2.33
Titanium 99% 48.60 3.50
Tungsten 5.65 30.00

Zirconium 40.00 4.30

Table 1 is a comparative listing of materials

with various chemical compositions.
There are various manufacturing or in situ
fac-tors that must be considered when trying to
0%
meas-ure the conductivity of various alloys.
In metals, as the temperature is increased, the (air) Conductivity
conductivity decreases. This is a major factor to
consider when accurate measurement of
conductiv-ities is required.
Heat-treatment affects electrical conductivity
Reactance

2%
by redistributing elements in the material.
Dependent on materials and degree of heat-
treatment, conduc-tivity can either increase or 5%
decrease as a result of heat-treatment.
Stresses in a material due to cold working pro-duce 10%
lattice distortion or dislocation. This mechani-cal
process changes the grain structure and hardness of
100% IACS
the material, changing its electrical conductivity.
Hardness in age hardenable aluminum alloys
changes the electrical conductivity of the alloy. The Resistance
electrical conductivity decreases as hardness
increases. As an example, a brinell hardness of 60 is
Figure 1: Conductivity curve.
represented by a conductivity of 23 and a brinell
hardness of 100 of the same alloy would have a
conductivity of 19.

28
 Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils

Magnetic Permeability
coil’s field precedes the coil by some distance
deter-mined by coil parameters, operating
Magnetic permeability of any material is a measure frequency, and test object characteristics. As the
of the ease with which its magnetic domains can be coil approaches the edge of a test object, eddy
aligned or the ease with which it can establish lines current flow in the test sample becomes distorted
of force. Materials are rated on a comparative basis. by the edge. This is known as the edge effect.
Air is assigned a permeability of 1. Diamagnetic The edge effect can create a change in the
materials have a permeability less than air. In con- coil’s impedance that is similar to a discontinuity
trast, ferromagnetic metals and alloys including (Figure 2). The response would move back along
nickel, iron, and cobalt tend to concentrate magnet- the conductivity curve toward the air point. The
ic flux lines. As discussed in Chapter 3, some ferro- coil is responding to a slightly less conductive
magnetic materials or sintered ionic compounds are situation (air) at the leading edge of the coil’s field
also useful in concentrating magnetic flux. of view. It is therefore essential that the edge
Magnetic permeability is not constant for a effect be eliminated as a variable during a surface-
given material. The permeability in a test sample scanning test.
depends on the magnetic field acting on it. As an
example, consider a magnetic steel bar placed in an
encircling coil. As the coil current is increased, the Good coupling Decreased coupling
magnetic field of the coil will increase. The magnet-
ic flux within the steel will increase rapidly at first
and then will tend to level off as the steel approach-
es magnetic saturation. This phenomenon is called
the barkhausen effect.
When increases in the magnetizing force produce
little or no change on the flux within the steel bar, the
bar is magnetically saturated. When ferromagnetic
materials are saturated, permeability becomes con-
stant. With magnetic permeability constant, ferro-
magnetic materials may be inspected using the elec-
tromagnetic testing method. Without magnetic
saturation, ferromagnetic materials exhibit such a wide
range of permeability variation that signals pro-duced
by discontinuities or conductivity variations are
masked by the permeability signal.
Figure 2: Edge effect.
Skin Effect

Response to the edges of test objects can be

Electromagnetic tests in many applications are
most sensitive to test object variables nearest the
test coil because of the skin effect. The skin effect is
a result of the mutual interaction of eddy currents,
operat-ing frequency, test object conductivity, and
perme-ability. The skin effect — the concentration
of eddy currents in the test object nearest the test
coil — becomes more evident as test frequency, test
object conductivity, and permeability are increased.
For current density or eddy current distribution in
the test object, refer to Figure 8 in Chapter 1.
Edge Effect
The electromagnetic field produced by an excited
test coil extends in all directions from the coil. The
reduced by incorporating magnetic shields around
the test coil, increasing the test frequency, reducing
the test coil diameter, or changing the scanning
pat-tern used. Edge effect is most applicable to the
inspection of sheets or plates with a probe coil.
End Effect
The end effect follows the same logic as the edge
effect. End effect is the signal observed when the
end of a product approaches the test coil. Response
to the end effect can be reduced by coil shielding or
reducing coil width in outside-diameter encircling
or inside-diameter bobbin coils. End effect is
most applicable to the inspection of bar or
tubular products.

29
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 4
Liftoff
Electromagnetic coupling between test coil and test
object is of prime importance when conducting an
electromagnetic test. The coupling between test coil
and test object varies with spacing between the test
coil and test object. This spacing is called liftoff.
The effect on the coil impedance is called the
liftoff effect.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between air,
conductive materials, and liftoff. The electromag-
netic field, as previously discussed, is strongest near
the coil and dissipates with distance from the coil.
This fact causes a pronounced liftoff effect for small
variations in coil-to-object spacing. As an example,
a spacing change from contact to 0.0254 mm (0.001
in.) will produce a liftoff effect many times greater
than a spacing change of 0.254 mm
(0.010 in.) to 0.2794 mm (0.011 in.). The
liftoff effect is generally an undesired effect
causing increased noise and reduced
coupling, resulting in poor measuring ability.
90˚
0% IACS
Angle B
Cond
u
c
tivity
Angle
Liftoff
n
e
a
c
A
100%
IACS
0 Resistance 0˚
In some instances, equipment having phase dis-
crimination capability can readily separate liftoff from
conductivity or other variables. Liftoff can be used to
advantage when measuring nonconductive coatings
on conductive bases. A nonconductive
30
coating such as paint or plastic causes a space
between the coil and conducting base, allowing
liftoff to represent the coating thickness. Liftoff is
also useful in profilometry and proximity applica-
tions. Liftoff is most applicable to testing objects
with a surface or probe coil.
Fill Factor
Fill factor is a term used to describe how well a test
object will be electromagnetically coupled to a test
coil that surrounds or is inserted into the test
object. Fill factor then pertains to inspections using
bobbin or encircling coils. Like liftoff, electromag-
netic coupling between test coil and test object is
most efficient when the coil is nearest the surface of
the part.
The area of a circle (A) is determined using the
equation:
(Eq. 20) A 4
Fill factor can be described as the ratio of test
object diameter to coil diameter squared (Figure 4).
The diameters squared is a simplified equation
resulting in the division of effective coil and part
areas. Because the term π/4 appears in both the
numerator and the denominator of this fractional
equation, the term π/4 cancels out, leaving the ratio
of the diameters squared:
(Eq. 21) D2  fill factor
Fill factor will always be a number less than 1
and efficient fill factors approach 1. A fill factor of
0.99 is more efficient than a fill factor of 0.75. The
effect of fill factor on the test system is that poor fill
factors do not allow the coil to be sufficiently cou-
pled to the test object. This is analogous to the
effect of drawing a bow only slightly and releasing
an arrow. The result is, with the bow slightly drawn
and released, little effect is produced to propel
the arrow.
In electrical terms it is said that the coil is
loaded by the test object. How much the coil is
loaded by the test object due to fill factor can be
calculated in relative terms. A test system with
constant current capabilities being affected by
 Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils

OR
Compare either:

Tube to Bobbin Rod to Encircling

ID coil OD OD coil ID

Figure 4: Fill factor ratios.

a conductive nonmagnetic bar placed into an encir- It is suggested that the reader calculate the
cling coil can be used to demonstrate this effect. resultant loaded voltage developed by a 12.7 mm
For this example, the system parameters are (0.5 in.) bar of the same material and observe the
as follows: relative sensitivity difference.
● Unloaded coil voltage equals 10 V. Signal-to-Noise Ratio
● Test object effective permeability equals 0.3.
● Test coil inside diameter equals
25.4 mm (1 in.). Signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of signals of interest
● Test object outside diameter equals to unwanted signals. Common noise sources are
22.9 mm (0.9 in.). test object variations of surface roughness, geome-
try, and homogeneity. Other electrical noises can be
(Eq. 22) fill factor  =  1
 0.81

due to such external sources as welding machines,
  electric motors, and generators. Mechanical vibra-
tions can increase test system noise by physical
movement of test coil or test object. In other words,
An equation demonstrating coil loading is anything that interferes with a test system’s ability
given by: to define a measurement is considered noise.
Signal-to-noise ratios can be improved by sever-
(Eq. 23) E  EO 1 µeff 
al techniques. If a part is dirty or scaly, the signal-
to-noise ratio can be improved by cleaning the part.
Electrical interference can be shielded or isolated.
where
Phase discrimination and filtering can improve the
E0 = coil voltage with coil affected by air signal-to-noise ratio.
E = coil voltage with coil affected by test object It is common practice in nondestructive testing
η = fill factor to require a minimum signal-to-noise ratio of
μeff = effective permeability 3 to 1. This means a signal of interest must have a
response at least three times that of the noise at
When a nonferromagnetic test object is inserted that point.
into the test coil, the coil’s voltage will decrease.
Discontinuities
E = 10[(1 – 0.81) + (0.81) (0.3)]
E = 10[0.19 + 0.243] Any discontinuity that appreciably changes
E = 10[0.433] the normal eddy current flow can be detected.
E = 4.3 V Discontinuities, such as cracks, pits, gouges, vibra-
tional damage, and corrosion, generally cause the
This allows 10 – 4.3 = 5.7 V available to respond effective conductivity of the test object to be reduced.
to test object changes caused by discontinuities or Discontinuities open to the surface are more
decreases in effective conductivity of the test object. easily detected than subsurface discontinuities.

31
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 4
Discontinuities open to the surface can be detected
with a wide range of frequencies; subsurface investi-
gations require a more careful frequency selection.
Discontinuity detection at depths greater than
12.7 mm (0.5 in.) in stainless steel is very difficult.
This is due in part to the sparse distribution of
magnetic flux lines at the low frequency required
for such deep penetrations.
Figure 8 in Chapter 1 is again useful to illustrate
discontinuity response because of current distribu-
tion. As an example, consider testing a nonferro-
magnetic tube at a frequency that establishes a stan-
dard depth of penetration at the midpoint of the
tube wall. This condition would allow a relative cur-
rent density of about 20% on the far surface of the
32
tube. With this condition, identical near- and far-
surface discontinuities would have greatly different
responses. Due to current magnitude alone, the near-
surface discontinuity response would be nearly five
times that of the far-surface discontinuity.
Discontinuity orientation has a dramatic effect
on response. As seen earlier, discontinuity response
is at its maximum when eddy currents and disconti-
nuities are at 90° or perpendicular. Discontinuities
parallel to the eddy current flow produce little or no
response. The simplest technique to ensure
detectability of discontinuities is to use a reference
standard or model that provides a consistent means
of adjusting instrumentation.
 Effects of Test Objects on Test Coils

Review Questions

1. Materials that hold their electrons loosely are 5. Materials that tend to concentrate magnetic flux lines
classified as: are:

a. resistors. a. conductive.
b. conductors. b. permeable.
c. semiconductors. c. resistive.
d. insulators. d. inductive.

2. 100% IACS is based on a specified copper bar having 6. Diamagnetic materials have:
a resistance of:
a. a permeability greater than air.
a. 0.01 ohms b. a permeability less than air.
b. 100 ohms c. a permeability greater than ferromagnetic
c. 0.017241 ohms materials.
d. 172.41 ohms d. no permeability.

3. A resistivity of 13 μΩ-cm is equivalent to a 7. Edge effect is a term most applicable to the

conductivity in percent IACS of: inspection of:

a. 11.032 a. bars.
b. 0.0625 b. tubes.
c. 1652 c. plates or sheets.
d. 13.26 d. castings.

4. A term used to describe the effect observed due to a 8. Calculate the effect of fill factor when a conducting
change in the electromagnetic coupling between a bar 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) in diameter with an effective
test specimen and a probe coil when the distance of permeability of 0.4 is placed into a 25.4 mm (1 in.)
separation between them is varied is: diameter coil with an unloaded voltage of 10 V.
The loaded voltage is:
a. fill factor.
b. edge effect. a. 2V
c. end effect. b. 4.6 V
d. liftoff. c. 8.5 V
d. 3.2 V

33
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 4

9. The thickness of nonconductive coatings on a 10. Temperature changes, vibration, and environmental
conductive base can be most simply measured by: effects are test coil inputs that generate:

a. observing the liftoff caused by the coating. a. unwanted signals.

b. testing both sides of the specimen. b. magnetic fields.
c. varying the current in the coil. c. eddy currents.
d. varying the test frequency over a given range d. drift.
during the test.

Answers
1b 2c 3d 4d 5b 6b 7c 8c 9a 10a

34
Chapter 5
Selection of Test Frequency
It is the responsibility of nondestructive testing engi-
neers and technicians to provide and perform non-
destructive testing that in some way ensures the
quality or usefulness of industry products. To apply
a nondestructive test, it is essential that the parame-
ters affecting the test be understood. Usually, indus-
try establishes a product or component and then
seeks a method to inspect it.
This practice establishes test object geometry,
conductivity, and permeability before the application
of the electromagnetic examination. Instrumentation,
test coil, and test frequency selection become the tools
used to solve the problem of inspection. Test coils were
discussed previously and instrumentation will be
discussed later in this text. Test frequencies and their
selection will be examined in detail in
this chapter.
Frequency Selection
In Chapter 1, it was observed that eddy currents
are exponentially reduced as they penetrate the test
object. In addition, a time or phase difference in
these currents was observed. The currents near the
test coil occur first or lead the current deeper into
the object. A high current density allows good
detectability, and a wide phase difference between
near and far surfaces allows good resolution.
Single-Frequency Systems
Unfortunately, if a low frequency is selected to pro-
vide good penetration and detectability, the phase
difference between near and far surfaces is reduced.
Selection of frequency often becomes a compro-
mise. It is common practice in inservice inspection
of thin-wall, nonferromagnetic tubing to establish a
standard depth of penetration just past the midpoint
of the tube wall. This permits about 25% of the
available eddy current to flow at the outside surface
of the tube wall. In addition, this establishes a phase
difference of about 150° to 170° between the inside
and outside surface of the tube wall. The combina-
tion of 25% outside, or surface, current and 170°
included phase angle provides good detectability
and resolution for thin-wall tube inspection.
The depth of penetration formula discussed in
Chapter 1, although correct, has rather cumbersome
units. Conductivity is usually expressed in percent of
the International Annealed Copper Standard
(%IACS). Resistivity is usually expressed in terms of
micro-ohm-centimeters (μΩ-cm). Depth of penetra-
tion is normally much less than 12.7 mm (0.5 in.). A
formula using these units may be more appropriate
and easier to use.
In Chapter 1, a formula for calculating depth of
penetration in metric units was presented. Another
derivative of this formula using resistivity,
frequency, and permeability with δ expressed in
either millime-ters or inches can be expressed as:
ρ
µ
(Eq. 23) δ=K f rel
where
δ = standard depth of penetration
K = 50 (for millimeters) or 1.98 (for inches)
ρ = resistivity (in micro-ohm-centimeters)
f = frequency (in hertz)
μ =
rel 1 (for nonferromagnetic materials)
For nonferromagnetic materials, such as unal-
loyed zirconium, μrel is ignored. The equation
then becomes:
(Eq. 24) δ = K f
The prime variable is frequency. By adjusting
frequency, technicians can be selectively responsive
to test object variables. Solving the nonferromagnet-
ic depth of penetration formula for frequency
requires a simple algebraic manipulation as follows:
35
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 5


(a) K f where
 f = frequency (in hertz)
σ = conductivity (meter/ohm-mm2) d
(b) K  f = diameter of test object (cm) μrel =
  relative permeability


2 A frequency can always be selected to establish

(c) K 2 f
factor A equal to 1. This frequency is known as the
limit frequency and is noted by fg. By substituting
K 2 f 1 for factor A and fg for f, the equation becomes:
(d) 2 

 µ σ
2 rel
K 2   1.98 
=
(Eq. 28) 1 = 5066 or fg µ rel σd2
2 2
(e)   f or f   Limit frequency (fg) is then established in
As an example of how this may be used, consider terms of conductivity, permeability, some
inspecting a 7.6 mm (0.3 in.) thick aluminum plate, dimensional property, and a constant (5066).
fastened to a steel plate at the far surface. Effects of Because limit frequency is based on these param-
the steel part are undesirable and require discrimi- eters, a technique of frequency determination using a
nation or elimination. The aluminum plate has a
test frequency to limit frequency ratio f/fg can be
resistivity of 5 μΩ-cm. By establishing a depth of
penetration at 2.54 mm (0.1 in.), the far-surface accomplished. High f/fg ratios are used for near-surface
current will be less than 10% of the available tests and lower f/fg ratios are used for subsur-face tests.
current, thus reducing response to the steel part.
Often results of such tests are represented by dia-
The frequency required for this can be calculated by
grams. These diagrams are called impedance dia-grams.
applying:
Impedance, illustrated by vector diagrams in Chapter
3, shows inductive reactance represented on the Y axis
  19.6 and resistance on the X axis.
=
f =
f = 1960 Hz
 2 0.01 The vector sum of the reactive and resistive
com-ponents is impedance. This impedance is a
quantity with magnitude and direction that is
(Eq. 25) 0.1 directly pro-portional to frequency. To construct a
universal impedance diagram valid for all
If detection of the presence of the steel part is
frequencies, the impedance must be normalized.
required, the depth of penetration could be reestab-
Figure 1 illustrates a normalization process.
lished at 7.6 mm (0.3 in.) in the aluminum plate and Figure 1(a) shows the effect on primary imped-
a new frequency can be calculated:
ance ZP with changes in frequency (ω = 2πf).
Figure 1(a) represents primary impedance
  19.6 without a secondary circuit or test object.
(Eq. 26) f =  2 =
0.09
Figure 1(b) illustrates the effect of frequency on
0.3
primary impedance with a secondary circuit or test
object present. The primary resistance R, in Figure
f = 218 Hz 1(a), has been subtracted in Figure 1(b) because
resistance is not affected by frequency. The
Another approach to frequency selection uses
term ωLsG in Figure 1(b) represents a reference quan-
argument A of the bessel function where argument
tity for the secondary impedance. The units are sec-
A is equal to unity or 1:
ondary conductance G and secondary reactance ωLs.
Further normalization is accomplished by divid-
µ σ ing the reactive and resistive components by the
rel
term ωLo or the primary inductive reactance
without a secondary circuit present.
=
(Eq. 27) A 5066

36
 Selection of Test Frequency

F 0.1
AZP (10 ω1) 0.2

0.3 0.4

ZP (8 ω1) E 0.5

ReactanceX(
relativescale
ReactanceX(

relativescal

e)
)

0.6 LSG
1.4 ω

0.7

ω D 0.8
ZP (6 1) 0.9

1.0

ZP (4 ω1) C 1.2

ZP (2 ω1) B

ZP (ω1)
0 R1 0
(a) (b) Resistance R (relative scale)
Resistance R (relative scale)

B, C, D, E, F = loci for selected values of ZP

G = secondary conductance
ZP = primary impedance

Figure 1: Effect of frequency change: (a) primary impedance without secondary circuit; (b) primary
impedance with secondary circuit.

Figure 2 shows a typical normalized impedance response to subsurface discontinuities is not

diagram.
The terms ωL/ωLo and R/ωLo represent the
rela-tive impedance of the test coil as affected by
the test object.
Signals generated by changes in ωL or R caused
by test object conditions such as surface and subsur-
face discontinuities may be noted by ΔωL or R. The
ΔωLo and R notation indicates a change in the
impedance. Differences in reference quantity
between the solid cylinder and thin-wall tube are
due to the skin effect.
Figure 3 shows the impedance variation in a
nonferromagnetic cylinder caused by surface and
subsurface discontinuities.
Figure 3 also illustrates a sensitivity ratio for sur-
face and subsurface discontinuities. Notice with an
f/fg ratio of 50, a relatively high frequency, the
very pronounced.
Figure 4 shows responses to the same disconti-
nuities with an f/fg ratio of 15. This lower frequency
allows better detection of subsurface discontinuities.
Multifrequency Systems
It becomes obvious that the technician must have
a good working knowledge of current density and
phase relationships to make intelligent frequency
choices. The frequency choice discussed so far deals
with coil systems driven by only one frequency. Test
systems driven by more than one frequency are
called multifrequency or multiparameter systems. It
is common for a test coil to be driven with three or
more frequencies. Although several frequencies may
be applied simultaneously or sequentially to a test
coil, each of the individual frequencies follows rules

37
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 5

.
 Selection of Test Frequency

Another approach to multiparameter

techniques is to use a multiplexing process. The
multiplexing process places one frequency at a time
on the test coil. This results in zero crosstalk
between frequen-cies and eliminates the need for
channel-specific bandpass filters. The major
advantages of a multi-plex system, in addition to
the crosstalk reduction issues, are lower cost and
greater flexibility in frequency selection.
If the multiplex switching rate is sufficiently
high, both broadband and multiplex systems have
essentially the same results. The characterization of
electromagnetic signals by their phase angle and
amplitude is a common practice and provides a
basis for signal mixing to suppress unwanted
signals from test data. Two frequencies are required
to remove each unwanted variable.
Practical multiparameter frequency selection
can be demonstrated by the following example:

Problem: Electromagnetic inspection of installed

thin-wall nonferromagnetic heat exchanger
tubing. Tubing is structurally supported by
ferromagnetic tube supports at several locations.
It is desired to remove the tube support response If the prime and subtractor channels have been
signal from tube wall data. selected properly, then signal subtraction algo-
rithms should be able to suppress the tube support
Solution: Apply a multiparameter technique
signal, leaving only slightly attenuated prime data
to suppress the tube support signal response. (discontinuity) information. For suppression of
inside or near-surface signals, a higher subtractor
First, a frequency is selected to give optimum
frequency would be chosen.
phase and amplitude information about the tube
A combination of prime, low, and high subtrac-
wall. This is called the prime frequency. At the
tor frequencies is often used to suppress both near-
prime frequency, the responses to the tube
and far-surface signals, leaving only data pertaining
support and to a calibration through-wall hole
to the part thickness and its condition. Bandwidth
are about equal in amplitude. They may also have
of the coil is of prime importance when operation
about the same phase angle. over a wide frequency range is required in multi-
A second frequency called the subtractor fre- frequency/multiparameter testing.
quency is selected on the basis of the phase angle of
Optimization of a test frequency (or
the tube support response. Because the tube support
frequencies) will therefore depend on the desired
surrounds the outside diameter of the tube, a lower
measurement or parameter(s) of interest.
frequency is selected. At the subtractor frequency,
the tube support signal response is about 10 times
greater than the calibration through-wall hole. The
phase difference between the support signal and the
through-wall hole in this lower frequency will be
about 90°. Parameter separation limitations are
greatest for those parameters producing nearly
similar signals, such as dents.

39
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 5

Review Questions

1. What frequency is required to establish a standard 5. Using the example in Question 4, what is the f/fg ratio
depth of penetration of 7.6 mm (0.1 in.) in if the test frequency is 60 kHz?
zirconium?
a. 1.2
a. 19.6 kHz b. 120
b. 196 Hz c. 60
c. 3.4 kHz d. 600
d. 340 Hz
6. In Figure 1(b) the value ωLsG equaling 1.4 would be
2. To reduce effects of far-surface indications, the indicative of:
test frequency:
a. a high-resistivity material.
a. must be mixed. b. a high-conductivity material.
b. must be raised. c. a low-conductivity material.
c. must be lowered. d. a nonconductor.
d. has no effect.
7. Primary resistance is subtracted from Figure 1(b)
3. The frequency required to establish the bessel because:
function argument A equal to 1 is called:
a. resistance is always constant.
a. an optimum frequency. b. resistance is not frequency dependent.
b. a resonant frequency. c. resistance does not add to the impedance.
c. a limit frequency. d. resistance is offset by secondary resistance.
d. a penetration frequency.
8. The reference quantity is different for the solid
4. Calculate the limit frequency for a copper bar (σ = cylinder and thin-wall tube in Figure 2 because:
50.6 meter/ohm mm2) 1 cm in diameter. The
correct limit frequency is: a. the frequency is different.
b. the conductivity is different.
a. 50 kHz c. the skin effect is no longer negligible.
b. 50.6 Hz d. the thin-wall tube has not been normalized.
c. 100 Hz
d. 100 kHz

40
 Selection of Test Frequency

9. A 25% deep crack open to the near surface gives a 10. When using multifrequency systems, low subtractor
response __________ times greater than the same frequencies are used to suppress:
crack 3.3% of diameter under the surface. (Refer to
Figure 4.) a. conductivity changes.
b. far-surface signals.
a. 10 c. near-surface signals.
b. 3 d. permeability changes.
c. 2
d. 5

Answers
1a 2b 3c 4c 5d 6b 7b 8c 9b 10b

41
Chapter 6
Instrument Systems

Most electromagnetic instrumentation is catego-

rized by its final output or display mode. There are Excitation Generator
basic requirements common to all types of electro-
magnetic instrumentation.
Five different elements are usually required Modulation Coil Object
to produce a viable electromagnetic instrument.
These functions are excitation, modulation,
signal preparation, signal analysis, and signal Balancing
display. An optional sixth component would be Signal preparation
network
test object handling equipment.
Figure 1 illustrates how these components Object handling
interrelate. Detectors equipment
The generator provides excitation signals to the Analyzers
Discriminator
test coil. The signal modulation occurs in the elec- Signal analysis s
tromagnetic field of the test coil assembly. Next, the Filters
Sampling
signal preparation section, usually a balancing net- circuits
work, prepares the signal for demodulation and
analysis. In the signal preparation stage, balance
Oscilloscope
networks are used to null out steady value alternat-
Meters
ing current signals. Amplifiers and filters are also
Recorders
part of this section to improve signal-to-noise ratio
Signal display Alarms Relays
and raise signal levels for the subsequent demodula-
tion and analysis stage. Automatic
The signal demodulation and analysis section is mechanisms
made up of detectors, analyzers, discriminators, fil-
ters, and sampling circuits. Detectors can be a sim-
ple amplitude type or a more sophisticated Figure 1: Internal functions of the electromagnetic
phase/amplitude or coherent type. nondestructive test.
The signal display section is the key link
A series of simple electromagnetic instruments
between the test equipment and its intended pur-
is shown in Figure 2. In Figure 2(a), the voltage
pose. The signals generated can be displayed in
across the inspection coil is monitored by an alter-
many different ways. The type of display or readout
nating current voltmeter. This type of instrument
depends on the test requirements. In some tests, a
could be used to measure large liftoff variations
simple GO/NO-GO indicator circuit may be all that
where accuracy is not critical. Figure 2(b) shows an
is required. However, some applications may
impedance bridge circuit. This instrument consists
require recording 100% of all raw data generated
of an alternating current exciting source, dropping
during a test. This data may be imported into other
digital devices that allow sophisticated data analysis resistors, and a balancing impedance.
or engineering statistics to be generated. One exam- Figure 2(c) is similar to Figure 2(b). In
ple of this is the inspection of large inservice Figure 2(c), a balance coil similar to the inspection
nuclear components so that discontinuity growth coil is used to provide a balanced bridge. Figure 2(d)
can be monitored for determining potential failure illustrates a balancing coil affected by a reference
rates or replacement cycles. Signal display processes sample. This is commonly used in external reference
are discussed more in Chapter 7. differential coil tests. In all cases, because only
the voltage change or magnitude is
monitored, these systems can all be grouped
as impedance magnitude types.

43
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
Electromagnetic testing can be divided into
three broad groups. The groups are impedance test-
ing, phase analysis testing, and modulation analysis
testing. Impedance testing is based on gross
changes in coil impedance when the coil is placed
near the test object. Phase analysis testing is based
on phase changes occurring in the test coil and the
test object’s effect on those phase changes.
Modulation analysis testing depends on the test
object passing through the test coil’s magnetic field
at a constant feed rate or speed. These systems act
like a tuned circuit. The operating frequency of the
tester is changed (modulated) as a discontinuity
passes through the test coil’s field. The amount of
modula-tion is a function of the transit time of the
disconti-nuity through the coil’s field. The faster
the transit time, the greater the modulation. If a
system is set up for one speed and then the parts
are scanned at a much slower speed, the
discontinuities may not be detected.
Impedance Testing
With impedance magnitude instrumentation, it is
often difficult to separate desired responses, such as
changes in conductivity or permeability, from
dimensional changes. A variation of the impedance
magnitude technique is the reactance magnitude
instrument. In reactance magnitude tests, the test
coil is part of the fundamental frequency oscillator
circuit. This operates like a tuned circuit where the
oscillator frequency is determined by the test coil’s
inductive reactance. As the test coil is affected by
the test object, its inductive reactance changes,
which in turn changes the oscillator frequency. The
relative frequency variation f/f is, therefore, an
indication of test object condition.
44
Reactance magnitude systems have many of the
same limitations as impedance magnitude systems.
Phase Analysis Testing
Phase analysis processes can be divided into many
subgroups depending on the type of data display.
Some of the earlier test system outputs are called
vector point, ellipse, and linear timebase.
Vector Point
The vector point display is simply a point of light
on an analog cathode ray tube (CRT) (Figure3). The
point is the vector sum of the Y-axis and X-axis
voltages present in the test coil. By proper selection
of frequency and phase adjustment, a response in
the vertical plane might represent dimensional
changes while a voltage shift in the horizontal plane
could represent changes in conductivity.
μ, D
90°
Point
of
light
σ
μ = permeability
D = dimensional properties
σ = conductivity
Figure 3: Vector point display logic.
 Instrument Systems

Ellipse

As with the vector point technique, the test object

and reference standard are used to provide a bal-
anced output. A normal balanced output is a
straight horizontal line. Figure 4 shows typical
ellipse responses.
Linear Timebase
An early test system that was better suited to
compensate for harmonic distortions present
in the fundamental waveform used the linear
timebase technique.
The linear timebase unit applies a sawtooth-
shaped voltage to the horizontal deflection plates of
a CRT. This provides a linear trace of the CRT beam
from left to right across the CRT screen. The timing
of the linear trace function is set to the same value
as the alternating current energy applied to the coil.
This allows one complete cycle of the sine wave
voltage applied to the coil to appear on the CRT.
Figure 5 illustrates a linear timebase display.
A slit or narrow vertical scale is provided to
measure the amplitude of signals present in the slit.
The base voltage is normally adjusted to cross the
slit at 0 volts, the 180° point on the sine wave.
The slit value M is used to analyze results. The
slit value M is described by the equation:

(Eq. 30) M A sin 

where
M= slit value
A = amplitude of the measurement in the slit
θ = angle between base signal and measurement
effect

In Figure 5, the angle difference A to B is

about 90°.
Impedance Plane Testing

The three tester types that have been defined so far

(vector point, ellipse, and linear timebase) were early
attempts to correlate electromagnetic changes detect-
ed by a test system with material variables. The cir-
cuits that they used were fairly primitive by today’s
standards. These techniques were limited by the level
of technology available at the time they were built.
They were not very sensitive to small changes in
materials and could not readily display small varia-
tions in the signal changes that they did detect.

45
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6

As the field of electronics advanced, more

sophisticated components became available. In
today’s marketplace, many electromagnetic test
sys-tems have the capability to display data in
multiple modes. The classic X-Y type display mode
is a sim-ple way of showing what is meant by an
impedance plane test system.
In Chapter 4, impedance plane diagrams were
defined. These graphs and curves allow technicians
to look at complex sets of information for a number
of test variables simultaneously. Test systems that
provide the ability to view both the direction
(phase) and amplitude (voltage) of the voltage shift
across an inspection coil provide much greater
detail than the early model test systems that have Figure 6: Null balance instrument with
been presented in this chapter. These modern sys- amplitude phase detectors.
tems give the ability to sort or measure material
parameters with a much higher degree of accuracy. A classic example of the advantage of this X-Y
Some impedance measurement systems may display screen presentation in surface-scanning applications
only part of the information derived (meter-based is to put liftoff responses on the horizon with dis-
technology) but most use a two-dimensional output continuities responding up on the screen.
device. Mode 3 systems are phase-sensitive systems
Mode of Operation although they have only amplitude detectors. They
achieve phase sensitivity by operating in a manually
selected off-balance condition. Based on this selec-
Test instruments may also be classified by their tion, the off null signal change can be set so that it
mode of operation. The mode of operation is may appear larger than the inherent impedance
determined by two functional areas within the change due to test object variables.
instrument. Test Coil Excitation
The first functional consideration is the degree
of compensation, or nulling, and the type of detec-
tor used. The second consideration is the method of The second consideration that was previously
test coil excitation. The types of excitation include mentioned for defining the mode of operation
single-frequency or multifrequency sinusoidal, single of a test unit is the way the probe is energized.
or repetitive pulse, and swept frequency. Figure 7 shows a typical surface-riding pancake
Signal Compensation

Mode 1. Null balance with amplitude detector.

Mode 2. Null balance with amplitude phase detec-
tors (Figure 6).
Mode 3. Selected off null balance with amplitude
detector.
Mode 1 responds to any signal irrespective of
phase angle. This would typically be meter-based
instrumentation capable of showing only the volt-
age change or amplitude of the signal of interest.
Mode 2, using amplitude and phase detectors,
can be used to discriminate against signals having a
particular phase angle. With this type of system, the
total demodulated signal can be displayed in an X-Y Figure 7: Typical surface-riding pancake coil
screen presentation format to show both amplitude response to an array of EDM notches on a
and phase relationships. calibration standard.

46

coil response to an array of EDM notches on a
calibration standard. Figure 8 shows a block
diagram of a stepped, single-frequency, phase-
amplitude instrument.
The circuit in Figure 8 is capable of operating at
any of the four frequencies. If the four frequencies
are spread over a wide range, several different test
coils may be required to use the instrument over the
entire range. Most modern single-frequency instru-
ments use this principle; however, one variable-
frequency generator with a wide operating range
usually replaces the four individually fixed
generators. A typical frequency range for such an
instrument is from low hertz (10 Hz) to megahertz
(12 MHz). This large dynamic range gives these
units a wide variety of possible applications.
For deep subsurface crack detection (more than
5 mm [0.2 in.]) the lower frequency range is
required. This test could also be performed with
hybrid (driver/pickup) coils to improve detection
of the low amplitude responses from smaller
disconti-nuities deeper in a product.
For detection of very small stress or fatigue
cracks in a near-surface inspection process, the
higher frequency range could improve sensitivity to
smaller cracks. The compromise at very high fre-
quencies is the issue of skin effect or surface noise.
Special probes or scanning processes may be
required for this type of test also.
Instrument Systems
Figure 9 shows a block diagram for a multifre-
quency instrument operating at three frequencies
simultaneously. In modern systems, this is referred to
as simultaneous injection. This diagram shows three
dedicated frequency modules, but more recent
adaptations use multiple variable frequency circuits.
In Figure 9, excitation currents at each selected
frequency are impressed across the coil at the same
time. You may recall from earlier chapters that the
electromagnetic envelope around an alternating cur-
rent driven coil is very dynamic. It is very difficult to
model what the combined electromagnetic flux pat-
tern would look like with more than one frequency
affecting the coil at a given moment in time.
Multiple circuits are used throughout the instru-
ment. The test coil output carrier frequencies are
separated by filters. Multiple dual-phase amplitude
detectors are used and their outputs summed to
provide separation of several test object parameters.
A system similar to this is described in Inservice
Inspection of Steam Generator Tubing Using Multiple
Frequency Eddy Current Techniques.
Another approach to the multifrequency tech-
nique uses a sequential coil drive called multiplexing.
The frequencies are changed in a step-by-step
sequence with such rapidity that the test parameters
remain unchanged. The multiplex technique has the
advantages of lower cost, continuously variable fre-
quencies, and little or no crosstalk between channels.
47
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
Generator
Generator
Generator
Compensation
Filters and
or balance
amplifiers
circuits
Test object
Figure 9: Multifrequency instrument operating at three frequencies simultaneously.
Figure 10 pictures a multifrequency instrument
capable of generating up to 16 channels of data
sequentially. Each channel or time slot may be adjust-
ed over a wide range of frequencies. In addition, this
digital system provides for the creation of mixed
channel combinations for suppression of unwanted
test variables. Results of such suppression are
described in Multifrequency Eddy Current Method and
the Separation of Test Specimen Variables.
This type of digital instrumentation allows all of
the test setup parameters to be stored to either
internal or external storage media. This allows pre-
programmed test setups to be recalled and used by
semi-skilled personnel. Systems can be created with
programs having supervisory code interlocks that
prevent reprogramming by other than authorized
48
Multiple
amplitude-
Analyzers
phase
detectors
Multiple
readouts
personnel. These instruments can also interface
with robotic or computer-based systems for both
process control and raw data recording purposes.
A test system using pulsed excitation is shown in
Figure 11. A pulse is applied to the test coil, compen-
sating networks, and analyzers simultaneously.
Systems having analyzers with one or two
sampling points perform similarly to a single-
frequency tester using sinusoidal excitation.
Pulsed electromagnetic systems having multiple
sampling points perform more like the
multifrequency tester shown in Figure 10.
Readout Mechanisms
Electromagnetic test data may be displayed or indi-
cated in a variety of ways. The type of display or
readout depends on the test requirements. Some
common readout mechanisms are indicator lights,
audio alarms, meters, digital displays, cathrode ray
tubes, recorders, and computer interfaces.
Indicator Lights
A simple use of the indicator light is to monitor
the electromagnetic signal amplitude with an
amplitude gate circuit. When the signal reaches a
preset amplitude limit, the amplitude gate
switches a relay that applies power to an indicator
light or automatic sorting device. With the
amplitude gate circuit, high-low limits could be
preset to give GO/NO-GO indications.
 Instrument Systems

Pulse
generato
r

Balance
Amplifiers Analyzers Indicators
circuits

Test object

Figure 11: Pulsed waveform excitation.

Audio Alarms deflected, moving the meter pointer. The amount

Audio alarms can be used in much the same man-
ner as alarm lights. Usually, an audible alarm
would be used to indicate an abnormal condition.
These types of alarms are commonly incorporated
into online electromagnetic test equipment that
might be found in a manufacturing plant. These
alarms give only qualitative information about the
tested item. The degree or amount of the condition
that exceeded the preset threshold cannot normally
be determined with these devices.
Indicator lights and audible alarms are relatively
inexpensive. Both can easily be incorporated into
inspection systems found in manufacturing inspec-
tion applications where processes may be monitored
by uncertified or semi-skilled labor. Audible alarms
are also very useful in handheld portable testers when
the inspector may be doing manual scanning. Often
these inspectors have to pay very close atten-tion to
the probe position and speed, and they may not be
able to continuously monitor a visual display.
of pointer movement can sometimes be related to
spe-cific test object variables.
Even with the availability of digital electronics
that have many advanced features, some inspectors
are still more comfortable with analog technology.
As long as it can be demonstrated that these units
are still functional and can meet the inspection sen-
sitivity requirements, then they will continue to be
used. Good maintenance and electronic calibration
checks are essential with vintage test units.
The test information generated by any analog system
can be processed through an analog-to-digital
converter if additional signal processing is required.
Meter-based technology signal responses fall
into one of two categories: either quantitative or
qualitative. One example of a quantitative meter
response would be a system used for measuring
conductivity (Figure 12). When the needle is
deflected and reaches a specific point on the scale,

Meters
Meters operate on the d’Arsonval galvanometer prin-
ciple. The principle is based on the action between two
magnetic fields. A common meter uses a perma-nent
magnet to produce one magnetic field, while the other
magnetic field is produced by a movable coil wound
on a core. The coil and core are suspend-ed on jeweled
bearings and attached to a pointer or needle. The
instrument output current is passed through the coil
and produces a magnetic field about the coil that
reacts to the permanent magnetic field surrounding
the assembly. The measuring coil is

49
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
the number indicated on the scale should correlate
to a specific percent IACS value if the system has
been properly set up.
Some meter-based devices (Figure 13) that
might be used for simple discontinuity detection do
not give the operator a numerical value other than a
percent of full scale. A given crack could generate
either a small amplitude voltage at a low gain set-
ting or a larger amplitude response at a higher gain
setting. This would be a qualitative type response.
These systems are not used for discontinuity sizing.
0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 13: A qualitative analog meter response showing only
percent of full scale.
A qualitative meter response could be used in a
test situation where a minimum discontinuity
amplitude response can be accurately defined. This
might be an EDM notch of a specified depth in a
calibration block. As long as the meter stays below
the preset voltage level from the selected disconti-
nuity, then the sample is acceptable. If that voltage
level is exceeded, then the part is deemed unaccept-
able. In some online inspections, this type of
voltage threshold or gate is used to rapidly sort
or grade materials.
The use of these types of output displays should
be limited to applications where a qualitative value
or discontinuity threshold can be established and
would be acceptable to meet test criteria.
Digital Displays
Numerical digital displays can also be used to pro-
vide qualitative information. These might have sev-
eral applications, but the most common would be
for measuring conductivity values.
Cathode Ray Tubes
Cathode ray tubes (CRTs), or CRT-type displays, play
an important role in the display of electromagnetic
50
information. More recently, many electromagnetic
systems have become available with digital
represen-tations of CRT-type screens.
In the original analog system, there were three
main elements: the electron gun, the deflection
plates, and a fluorescent screen. The electron gun
would generate, focus, and direct the electron beam
toward the face or screen of the CRT. The deflection
plates were situated between the electron gun and
the screen, arranged in two pairs, usually called hor-
izontal and vertical or X and Y. The plane of one
pair would be perpendicular to the other pair.
The screen is the imaging portion of the CRT.
The screen consists of a coating or coatings that
produce photochemical reactions when struck by
the electron beam. The photochemical action
appears in two stages. Fluorescence occurs as the
electron beam strikes the screen. Phosphorescence is
the chemical process that allows the screen to con-
tinue to give off light after the electron beam has
been removed or has passed over a section of the
screen. All analog CRT screen materials possess
both fluorescence and phosphorescence.
The duration of the photochemical effect is
called persistence. Persistence can be categorized as
either low, medium, or high. To display repetitive
signals, a low- or medium-persistence CRT may have
been used. To display nonrecurrent or single events,
a high-persistence CRT would have been used.
Many digital CRT-type systems are available.
Because analog CRTs are no longer manufactured,
those systems are being replaced with other options.
Digital systems provide the additional flexibility for
the selection of various color and contrast condi-
tions (Figure 14). This allows the operator a
choice of color options that can be established on
the same system to compensate for use in different
lighting conditions. Because the data are output to
the screen in a digital format, varying persistence
values can be selected by defining the timing factor
of a rolling data buffer or memory. This selection
process allows the operator to choose how long the
digital images created stay on the screen for
viewing.
Recorders
Data recorders might be required to meet the
inspection criteria. Recording is sometimes accom-
plished on analog paper strip charts or on magnetic
tape formats. With most newer equipment provid-ing
recording capability, some form of digital media
would be used. The data could be stored internally

Figure 14: Numerical readouts/digital
conductivity tester.
Figure 15: Computerized system response during a heat exchanger tubing examination.
Instrument Systems
in some test systems, but more often than not the
data are exported to an external storage device.
Most of these digital recording media can retain the
files created for offline analysis and long-term
historical use. Early digital systems were write
once/read many devices. The more recent
recording media can be erased and reused.
The advantage of digital systems is that all of the
raw data created by a multifrequency test system
can be viewed in multiple display formats at the
same time. Tubing exam data are often reviewed
using both the X-Y and strip chart modes to opti-
mize discontinuity detection and sizing. The strip
chart format is often used where the discontinuity’s
location down the length of a rod or tube is critical.
The strip chart length is indexed to time or dis-
tance, and signal response deviation from the
baseline indicates various material conditions.
51
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
The amplitude of the X-Y lissajous (looped,
curved) response in Figure 15 (6.66 V) is an indica-
tor of the volume of the discontinuity. The phase
angle with respect to the X axis (114°) represents
discontinuity depth (in this case, 41%) and disconti-
nuity origin (tube outside diameter), indicating
whether the discontinuity originated on the inside
or outside surface of the tube.
Many computer-based systems have multiple
display modes available for the same raw data set.
One way of displaying the data is in a top or plan
view of the specimen. These are commonly called
C-scans. This is sometimes a composite view of
repetitive mechanized scans of a coil over a large
area in multiple passes. Each time the coil travels
over the surface of the part, the coil is offset by
about 0.5 coil diameters to ensure 100% coverage
of critical areas. This same type of information can
also be generated by scanning an array of coils over
a region of the test specimen in one pass.
Figure 16: Multimode output responses: rotating pancake coil inspection in a bolthole application. The same
crack response can be seen in all four display formats: X-Y, sweep, X-Y-Z, and C-scan.
52
These digital images can be colorized to indicate
specific conditions. They can also be processed to
create a three-dimensional view that can be rotated
in multiple dimensions or planes.
Computer Interfaces
Most electromagnetic testers use an integral visual
output device of some sort. Advanced electromag-
netic testers may include such options as an electro-
magnetic testing card that extends the functionality
of a standard PC with electromagnetic testing capa-
bility. Field-hardened electromagnetic testing sys-
tems may just be a box of electronic components
and connectors that are linked to a remote comput-
er via a local area network (LAN) cable. The com-
puter itself handles data display and processing
functions as well as adjusting tester operating
parameters, such as frequency, gain, probe drive
voltage, mode of operation, and so on. Figure 16
shows multimode output responses of a rotating

pancake coil inspection in a bolthole application.
The same crack response can be seen in all four dis-
play formats.
Test Object Handling Equipment
Test object handling equipment is often a necessary
component of an online test system. Bars and tubes
can be fed through encircling coils by means of
roller feed assemblies. Consistent centering of the
material is essential. The stock being fed through
the coil(s) is usually transported at a constant speed.
The transport speed needs to be adjusted to allow
adequate time for testing and for the reject, cutting,
or marking systems to perform their tasks. Should
product centering or speed change during the
examination, system performance could be limited.
Automatic sorting devices are very common in
online inspection systems used in a manufacturing
environment. When a volumetric test is required for
heat-treatment or hardness verification, the probe
assembly may interrogate the entire test specimen
(or some critical region of the specimen) in one
view. For small specimens, such as ball bearings,
this could take just fractions of a second per sample.
In larger specimens, the volumetric test may take a
few seconds per sample.
When crack detection is required, the part is
normally rotated with one or more coils positioned
near the surface of the specimen. This type of
inspection ensures 100% inspection of critical areas
in one test. (Figure 16 shows responses from a bolt-
hole inspection using a rotating pancake probe.)
The electromagnetic testing method can often
demonstrate much higher discontinuity sensitivity
and more rapid economical testing for surface dis-
continuities in parts than any of the other nonde-
structive testing processes.
If unacceptable material conditions are encoun-
tered at any inspection station, the part would be
dropped into a reject bin. A digital counter and/or
remote sensors can be used to track the number of
rejects and to alert the plant staff of potential prob-
lems in the manufacturing process. Reject limits
should be adjusted to ensure the identification of
unacceptable parts or components.
Probe Delivery Systems
Instead of moving the part through an inspection
station, there are situations where a motorized probe
delivery system is used. These are normally employed
outside of the manufacturing environment
Instrument Systems
to perform in situ inspections on existing materials.
The term spinning probes originally comes from
the pipe manufacturing environment.
The coil is typically a fairly small, specialized coil
to improve detection potential for small cracks. A
probe is rotated around the circumference of a tube
or bar. The tested material is moved past the
inspection point at a controlled rate of speed. The
probe rotational speeds are set to be compatible with
instrument response and translation speeds to obtain
the desired inspection coverage and
test sensitivity.
As technology has improved, it has been possi-ble
to create other types of spinning probe possibili-ties.
There are now many situations where spinning probes
can be used. High-speed probe guns are used to
perform bolthole inspections after the removal of
metal fasteners in aerospace structures. Small motors
can also be used to perform a motor-ized rotating
pancake coil (MRPC) inspection from the inside
surface of thin-walled tubes. Multiple coils of different
designs can be used at the same time to enhance both
discontinuity detection and characterization. (See
Figure 17.)
In the case of large heat exchangers, a probe
positioning device or robot might be used to posi-tion
a bobbin, array, or MRPC-type test probe on the
centerline of each tube to be inspected. Tubes to be
inspected are identified and their coordinates are
loaded into a database. Positive feedback is supplied to
a computerized positioning system by encoders or
digital pattern recognition routines. Although these
systems are quite automated, visual verification of
1. Demag coil
2. Hardness test station
3 2
3. Crack detection station
1
Figure 17: Multiple online electromagnetic test stations for
detection of unacceptable material conditions in a
manufacturing plant.
53
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 6
the inspection is confirmed by an inspector via a
remote video system. As the probe is inserted and
withdrawn from each tube, the test results are mon-
itored in real time for data quality, but the data are
also recorded for later analysis.
Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) can also be
looked at as part of the array of technology to
54
enhance electromagnetic testing systems in hostile
environments. These electromechanical devices can
be used to perform a wide array of nondestructive
testing tasks. This could include applications for
underwater electromagnetic testing array probe
inspection of welds in either piping or support
structures for offshore platforms.
 Instrument Systems

Review Questions

1. Signal preparation is usually accomplished by: 6. The type of display used depends upon:

a. detectors. a. test requirements.

b. samplers. b. records storage requirements.
c. balance networks. c. automatic control requirements.
d. discriminators. d. test coil excitation requirements.

2. Most electromagnetic testing instruments have 7. Amplitude gates provide a technique for controlling:
__________ coil excitation.
a. amplitude levels.
a. square wave b. instrument response.
b. triangular wave c. display scale.
c. sawtooth wave d. reject or acceptance limits.
d. sine wave
8. Alarms and lights offer only:
3. Signal-to-noise ratio may be improved by:
a. qualitative information.
a. detectors. b. quantitative information.
b. meters. c. reject information.
c. filters. d. accept information.
d. relays.
9. The length of a strip chart presentation can indicate:
4. A multifrequency instrument that excites the test coil
with several frequencies sequentially uses the a. discontinuity severity.
__________ concept. b. distance or time.
c. orthogonality.
a. multiplexing d. noise level.
b. timebase
c. broadband 10. A top-view display of the test results from a specimen
d. cartesian can be referred to as:

5. Reject limits should always be adjusted to: a. an X-Y display.

b. a C-scan.
a. one-half the screen height. c. a crosshatch presentation.
b. 5 volts. d. a sweep display.
c. ensure unacceptable components are
properly identified.
d. reduce operator training costs.

Answers
1c 2d 3c 4a 5c 6a 7d 8a 9b 10b

55
Chapter 7
Eddy Current Applications
Electromagnetic Techniques
Eddy current testing is just one of a group of tech-
niques that as a whole are defined as the electro-
magnetic testing method. The subdisciplines or
techniques listed within the method continue to
expand. Following are the techniques that fall under
this method at the time of publication:
1. Method: Electromagnetic Testing
2. Techniques:
● alternating current field measurement
● eddy current testing
● remote field testing
The ASNT Electromagnetics Committee, at the
time of this revision, has selected these three tech-
niques because they are currently available and fair-
ly well established to perform specific nondestruc-
tive testing inspections in the field. In this chapter,
the focus will be on eddy current testing.
Note: In ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-
TC-1A: Personnel Qualification and Certification in
Nondestructive Testing (2011) and ANSI/ASNT CP-
105: ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for
Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel
(2011), flux leakage has been removed as an
electromagnetic testing technique. Magnetic flux
leakage is still regarded as a separate method.
The borders are sometimes a little gray between
one process and another. These techniques have
been grouped in this fashion more on the basis of
their specific market area or specialized applications
in the field testing environment rather than on a
purely scientific basis. Electromagnetics is a very
broad term. It covers a wide range of energy levels,
sources, and measurement tools. Some other tech-
nologies that have been suggested to be included in
electromagnetic testing are:
● microwave systems,
● superconducting quantum
interference devices, and
● magneto-optical inspection devices.
Eddy current testing is most commonly used for
detection of surface or near-surface discontinuities in
nonferromagnetic materials. In materials with little or
no permeability, eddy current testing is effective to
about 5.08 mm (0.2 in.) below the test
surface. For material thicknesses of greater than 5.08
mm (0.2 in.), special probes and/or electronics
packages are needed to improve the performance of
eddy current testing. Although there are applications
for eddy current tests on ferritic materials, eddy cur-
rent has no ability to provide subsurface discontinu-
ity detection in ferromagnetic alloys. Surface-crack
detection in ferromagnetic materials, especially
for weld inspection, is a very viable eddy current
process when the right technology is applied. Eddy
current is often more sensitive and more cost-
effective than either magnetic particle inspec-tion
or liquid penetrant inspection in this role.
Alternating current field measurement and remote
field testing are special electromagnetic testing
techniques that, if used properly, can provide useful
nondestructive testing information about fer-
romagnetic components. The deciding factor of one
over the other is the type of material, part size, or
geometry, as well as the type and size of discontinu-
ities that need to be detected. There is no reason to
believe that either of these techniques would show any
significant advantage over eddy current in the
nonferromagnetic world except for material thick-
nesses over 5.08 mm (0.2 in.), where remote field
testing may be used to provide enhanced sensitivity to
outside-diameter discontinuities.
Manufacturers and users will debate the
various capabilities of one of these techniques over
another. The discussion in this and the following
two chapters will be made as generic as possible.
Eddy Current Overview
Electromagnetic induction and the eddy current
principle can be affected in many different ways.
These effects may be grouped by
discontinuity detection, measurement of material
properties, dimensional measurements, and
other special applications.
With the discontinuity, or the detection group,
we are concerned with locating cracks, corrosion,
erosion, and mechanical damage. The material
57
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 7
properties group includes measurements of
conductivity, permeability, hardness, alloy
sorting or chemical composition, and degree
of heat-treatment.
Dimensional measurements commonly made
are thickness, profilometry, spacing or location,
and coating or cladding thickness.
Special applications include measurements of
temperature, flow metering of liquid metals,
sonic vibrations, and anisotropic conditions.
Regardless of the specific application, once the
test system has been properly calibrated, there
should not be any fundamental changes made to it
during the testing process. If it has been determined
that the instrument has been set up incorrectly or is
not working as specified in the operational proce-
dures being used, all material should be retested
since the last time the correct setup and proper
system operation were verified.
In general, eddy current tests are applicable
only to test materials with significant electrical
conduc-tivity, including metals, alloys, and
composites with conducting layers. The technique
can be used, how-ever, to measure thicknesses of
nonconducting lay-ers on the surface of conducting
materials by use of the liftoff effect.
Eddy current tests provide maximum sensitivity
for surface and near-surface discontinuities. In
some cases, it may be difficult or impossible to pen-
etrate to the center of a thick test object because
of the skin effect and attenuation of the
electromag-netic field at certain depths.
Eddy current tests also tend to be insensitive to
laminar discontinuities that lie parallel to the
induced eddy currents. However, the technique
does tend to respond to discontinuities that lie
transverse to the flow of eddy currents within test
100% 80% 60% 40%
TSP - Simulated tube support plate
(1) - OD groove
(2) - ID groove
Figure 1: American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) thin-walled tubing standard.
58
materials, where these discontinuities
interrupt, lengthen, or distort the current flow.
Discontinuity Detection
The theoretical response to discontinuities has
been discussed in previous chapters. In this
chapter, some actual examples are given to enhance
the understanding of the applied theory.
A problem common to the chemical and
electric power industries is the corrosion of heat
exchanger tubing. This tubing is installed in
closed vessels in a high-density array. It is not
uncommon for a nuclear steam generator or main
condenser to contain many thousands of tubes.
This high density and limited access to the inspec-
tion areas often preclude the use of other nonde-
structive testing methods. A bobbin coil inspection
provides a volumetric inspection of the tube wall
in a cost-effective process.
Heat exchanger inspection systems and results are
described by Libby and Dodd, Sagar, and Davis.
Phase angle and amplitude relationships are
usually established by using reference standards
with artificial discontinuities of known and docu-
mented values. These discontinuities should
reflect expected damage modes as closely as
possible. (An ASME thin-walled tubing standard is
shown in Figure 1.)
In most thin-walled tubing cases, the severity of
the discontinuity can be determined by analyzing
the eddy current signal phase and/or amplitude.
The phase angle of small-volume discontinuities
(cracks, pits) is used to establish a phase-to-depth
calibration curve (Figure 2) and to verify the origi-
nating surface (inside diameter or outside
diameter) of that discontinuity.
TSP
20% (1) (2)
 Eddy Current Applications

100%

Prime frequency (fo)

80% Good phase spread

60%
Depth

40%

20%

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
ID Degrees
discontinuity OD discontinuity plane
plane

Figure 2: Phase-to-depth calibration curve.

The signal amplitude is an indicator of disconti-
nuity volume. For volumetric tube wall loss condi-
tions, such as wear and fretting, a volts-to-depth
calibration curve can be created (Figure 3). When
used properly, these curves will provide a more
accurate sizing process for mechanically driven
discontinuity mechanisms.
The geometry of real discontinuities may differ
from reference standard discontinuities. This
difference produces interpretation errors as
discussed by Sagar. Placement of real discontinuities
near tube support members causing a complex coil
impedance change is also a source of error. This, of
course, is dependent on the size of the discontinuity
and its resultant eddy current signal in relation to
the tube support signal. This follows the basic prin-
ciple of signal-to-noise ratio.
The signal-to-noise ratio can be improved
at tube-to-tube support intersections by the use
of multifrequency techniques.
In multifrequency applications, an optimum (or
prime) frequency is chosen for response to disconti-
nuities within the tube wall. A lower than optimum
or suppression frequency is chosen for response to

100%

80%
Depth

60%

40%

20%

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Volts

Figure 3: Volts-to-depth calibration curve.

59
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 7

the tube support. The two signals are processed

through comparator circuits called mixers where
the tube support response is subtracted from the
tube wall response signal, leaving only the response
to the tube wall discontinuity. (See Figures 4
and 5.) Both channels must be able to detect both
the discontinuity and the noise source that is
being suppressed.
A

A-B

A-B
A: The response to a tube support plate with
a discontinuity at the prime frequency.
B: The response to a tube support plate with
a discontinuity at the subtractor frequency.
A-B: The mixer channel response to the disconti-
nuity after support plate suppression.

A: The nominal response to a tube Figure 5: A multifrequency application with a

support plate at the prime frequency. discontinuity.
B: The nominal response to a tube
support plate at the subtractor
Another market sector that uses eddy current
frequency. testing extensively is the aerospace industry. Many
A-B: The mixer channel residual response after eddy current examinations are conducted on
support plate suppression. engine and airframe structures.
A common problem with turbines is fatigue
cracking of the compressor blades or disks in the
Figure 4: A multifrequency application without root areas. Given the potential safety risks if these
a discontinuity. components fail, the inspection criteria thresholds
are set to detect extremely small artifacts. Special
probe designs and inspection techniques are
required to deal with the difficult sample geome-
tries and small discontinuity detection limits.

60

Many other aircraft inspections are designed to
deal with cracking or corrosion processes that may
not lead to immediate catastrophic failures but that
do need to be handled in a timely manner. Portable
inspection devices are often used to perform these
tests. Careful test system calibration using appropri-
ate procedures and reference specimens is required
to maintain aircraft fleet serviceability.
The reference specimen and its associated dis-
continuities are critical to the success of the test.
Often models are constructed with artificial discon-
tinuities that are exact duplicates of the item being
inspected. Field-degraded specimens are also used
to verify test discontinuity sensitivity.
D.J. Hagemaier discusses low-frequency eddy
current inspection of aircraft structures for subsur-
face discontinuity detection in an article published
in Materials Evaluation in 1982. A low-frequency
(100 Hz to 1000 Hz) technique can be used to
locate cracks in thick or multiple-layer, bolted or
riveted aircraft structures. Again, models are con-
structed with artificial cracks, and their responses
are compared to responses in the actual test object.
Most of these examinations are performed using
single- or multifrequency sinusoidal alternating
current processes. Pulsed eddy current systems, if
available, might also be used for crack detection in
thick structures.
Dimensional Measurements
Dimensional measurements, such as thickness, shape,
and position, or proximity of one item to another, are
important uses of the eddy current technique.
Materials are often clad with other materials to
present a resistance to chemicals or to provide wear
resistance. Cladding or plating thickness then
becomes an important variable to the serviceability
of the unit.
For nonconductive coatings on conductive
bases, the probe-to-specimen spacing or liftoff tech-
nique can be applied.
The case of conductive plating or cladding on
conductive bases requires more refinement. The
thickness loci respond in a complex manner on the
impedance plane. The loci for multilayered objects
with each layer consisting of a material with a
different conductivity follow a spiral pattern. In
certain cases, two-frequency or multifrequency
systems are used to stabilize results or minimize
liftoff variations on the thickness measurement.
Figure 6 shows a single-frequency hardness
tester output presentation. The depth of case
Eddy Current Applications
Figure 6: A single-frequency hardness tester output
presentation.
hardening can be determined by measuring the
nitride case thickness in stainless steel. The nitride
case thickness produces magnetic permeability vari-
ations. The thicker the nitride layer, the greater the
permeability. The coil’s inductive reactance increas-
es with a permeability increase. This variable is
carefully monitored and correlated to actual metal-
lographic results.
Eddy current profilometry is another common
way to measure dimensions. One example is the
measurement of the inside diameters of tubes
using a liftoff technique. For this measurement,
several small pancake coils are mounted radially in
a coil form. The coil form is inserted into the tube,
and each coil’s proximity to the tube wall is moni-
tored. The resultant output of each coil provides
detailed information about the concentricity of the
tube. This is especially useful when the amount
of tube wall deformation due to either manufactur-
ing or operational conditions may require
corrective action.
An obvious problem encountered with this
tech-nique is centering of the coil holder assembly.
The center of the coil holder must be near the
center of the tube. When inspecting for localized
dimension-al changes, a long coil holder is effective
in main-taining proper centering. Another function
of the long coil form is to keep the coils from
becoming tilted in the tube. This also requires
higher probe fill factors than might normally be
used during other types of tube inspections.
61
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 7
Conductivity Measurements
Conductivity is an important measured variable. In
the aircraft industry, aluminum is used extensively.
Aluminum conductivity varies not only with alloy
but also with hardness and tensile strength.
Eddy current instruments scaled in percent
IACS are normally used to inspect for conductivity
variations. Secondary conductivity standards are
commonly used to check instrument calibration.
Common secondary conductivity standards range
from 8% IACS to about 100% IACS.
The secondary standards are usually certified
accurate to within ±0.35% or ±1% of value, whichev-
er is less. Temperature is an important variable when
making conductivity measurements. Most instru-
ments and standards are certified at 20° C (68 °F).
Primary conductivity standards are maintained at a
constant temperature by oil bath systems.
Primary standards are measured with precision
maxwell bridge-type instruments. This circuit
design increases measurement accuracy and mini-
mizes frequency dependence of the measurement.
The secondary standards used for field tester setup
and calibration are often required to have their
listed values recertified on an annual basis.
Hardness Measurements
Hardness measurements can be performed on both
ferritic and nonferritic materials. Some hardness
measurements are performed with a two-coil com-
parative process, but this is not a strict requirement.
When using a two-coil system, the reference and
test coils are both balanced with sample parts of
known hardness. As parts of unknown hardness
affect the test coil, the instrument output (imped-
ance) varies. The amount of output variation
depends on the degree of imbalance created by
the unknown test object hardness.
The detected signal variations can be correlated
to test object hardness. If an X-Y type display were
to be used to display this hardness information, the
specimens exhibiting an acceptable hardness could
be adjusted to one region of the screen while those
specimens defined as unacceptable, or unhardened,
could appear in a different region of the screen.
Once this calibration process is completed, a high-
speed automated system can make the measure-
ments using an alarm gate process.
62
.
Alloy Sorting
Alloy sorting can also be accomplished with a two-
coil comparator bridge process, but again it is not a
strict requirement. Other types of coil arrangements
may also provide useful information. The key ele-
ment to keep in mind with alloy sorting is that this
is not the same as material identification. Two very
different materials may provide the same load to the
coil. Alloy sorting using electromagnetics must
undergo additional verification of the mechanical
properties of these materials.
In the inspection of nonferromagnetic alloys, it
is easiest to separate one alloy or heat-treat type
from another when there is a unique range of con-
ductivities associated with each material. This is
not always the case within families of alloys.
Different alloys and heat-treats of the aluminum
family may have the same conductivity value. This
could lead to misidentification of the materials
being inspected.
All comparative tests are strongly influenced by
the selection of correct and accurate reference spec-
imens. Because most eddy current instruments
respond to a wide range of variables, the reference
specimen parameters must be controlled carefully.
Test object and reference specimens must be the
same or very similar in the following characteristics:
● geometry,
● heat-treatment,
● surface finish,
● residual stresses, and
● metallurgical structure.
In addition, it is advisable to have more than
one reference specimen for backup in case of loss
or damage. In the case of steel parts, they should be
completely demagnetized to remove the effects of
residual magnetism on instrument readings. As
in most comparative tests, the temperature of
specimen and test object should be the same
or compensated.
Many other measurements can be made using
eddy current techniques. This electromagnetic tech-
nique produces so much information about a mate-
rial that its application is only limited by the ability
to decipher this information. With the right equip-
ment, probes, techniques, and training, the experi-
enced operator should be capable of making the
required distinctions between relevant and
nonrelevant indications.
 Eddy Current Applications

Review Questions

1. Conductivity, hardness, and composition are part 5. In the aircraft industry, a common problem in
of the __________ group. gas turbine engines is:

a. discontinuity detection a. corrosion.

b. special b. fatigue cracking.
c. dimensional c. vibration damage.
d. material properties d. erosion.

2. Using an inside diameter coil on tubing and applying 6. Subsurface discontinuities located in thick or
the phase-amplitude technique of inspection, a signal multilayered aircraft structures could be detected by:
appearing at 90° on a CRT would be caused by:
a. low-frequency sinusoidal continuous
a. an inside-diameter discontinuity. wave instruments.
b. an outside-diameter discontinuity. b. high-frequency sinusoidal continuous
c. a dent. wave instruments.
d. a bulge. c. multifrequency sinusoidal continuous
wave instruments.
3. Discontinuities in heat exchangers at tube support d. using encircling coils.
locations are __________ to detect because the
support plate concentrates the electromagnetic field 7. Response to multilayer varying conductivity
at that point. structures follow __________ loci.

a. easier a. orthogonal
b. harder b. spiral
c. neither easier nor harder c. linear
d. virtually impossible d. stepped

4. When using multifrequency techniques on installed 8. Nitride case thickness variations can be detected in
heat exchanger tubing, a tube support plate signal can stainless steel cylinders by measuring:
be suppressed by subtracting a __________
frequency signal from the optimum frequency signal. a. conductivity.
b. dimensions.
a. low c. permeability.
b. high d. liftoff.
c. stepped
d. high-band

63
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 7

9. It is possible to sort various nonmagnetic alloys of a 10. Which of the following is not applicable to eddy
metal by means of an eddy current test when: current testing?

a. there is a unique range of permeability values for
each alloy.
b. there is a unique range of conductivity values for
each alloy.
c. the direction of induced eddy currents varies for
each alloy.
d. the magnetic domains for each alloy are different.
a. It can be used for high-speed testing.
b. It can accurately measure conductivity.
c. It can be set up to provide high sensitivity to
small discontinuities.
d. It can penetrate up to 152 mm (6 in.) into the
center of a test part.

Answers
1d 2b 3b 4a 5b 6a 7b 8c 9b 10d

64
Chapter 8
Alternating Current Field Measurement
Introduction
In its simplest form, the alternating current field
measurement technique uses a handheld probe
containing a uniform field induction system and
two magnetic field sensors.
The induced alternating current is generated in a
limited region of the test specimen where the alter-
nating electric current is considered to be linear. In
this region, a magnetic field is produced, which is also
linear. Any disturbances in this region produced by
surface discontinuities will affect the components of
this linear magnetic field. Two or more air-wound
coils mounted with orthogonal axes within a probe
will detect these disturbances. This is the foundation
of alternating current field measurement, which is
different than eddy current testing.
Overview
In order to understand how and why the alternating
current field measurement technique differs from eddy
current testing, it is useful to know some history.
The alternating current field measurement tech-
nique was originally developed in the UK in the 1980s
to provide depth (height) information for cracks
detected underwater on offshore structures. At that
time, detection of surface-breaking fatigue cracks was
achieved by magnetic particle testing (MT), but there
were no satisfactory methods for obtaining the
through-thickness penetration (depth) and, therefore,
the severity, of the cracks. Ultrasonic methods are not
well suited to surface-breaking dis-continuities, while
eddy current methods could not accurately size
discontinuities greater than 2 or
3 mm (0.08 or 0.12 in.) deep. Also, both techniques
require clean, uncoated surfaces. The UK oil and
gas industry was interested in a technique that
could reliably depth-size fatigue cracks underwater,
preferably without the need for extensive cleaning.
The alternating current potential drop (ACPD)
technique was used extensively topside to monitor
crack depths during fatigue tests. It employs a uni-
form injected current on either side of the crack and
uses measurements of voltage drop across the
crack to measure path length and hence give an
accurate estimate of crack depth, regardless of
mate-rial property changes at the weld. As long as
the input electric field is uniform, the depth can be
cal-culated using a simple analytical formula,
eliminat-ing the need for onsite calibration.
ACPD was an obvious technique to try under-
water, but it was much less successful in this medi-
um because of the need to maintain good electrical
contact. The solution was to adapt ACPD to a
version that did not require electrical contact.
Assuming the same uniform input currents, theo-
retical modeling work was undertaken to calculate
the perturbations to the magnetic field distribution
above the surface produced by surface-breaking dis-
continuities. Although the modeling could be
applied to any regular crack shape, it was restricted
to semi-ellipses as being the typical shape of real
fatigue cracks. The theory showed that measure-
ments of the amplitudes of perturbations in any
direction (X, Y, or Z) could be used to determine
both the length and depth of a crack, but that the
most practical solution was to use a combination of
the X and Z components, because the Y component
was of smaller amplitude, and was zero directly
above the line of the discontinuity.
In order to produce a current in a metal surface
without electrical contact, it is necessary to use
induction. Currents induced in this way then must
flow in closed loops and technically are eddy cur-
rents. However, the need to produce an input cur-
rent field as uniform as possible and the require-
ment to measure two components of a magnetic
field result in an alternating current field measure-
ment probe having a very different design than con-
ventional eddy current probes. In particular, the
inducing coil is always separate from the sensor
coils and has to be much larger and higher above
the surface than in an eddy current probe. Also, the
axis of the inducer is always tangential to the sur-
face (and parallel to the expected line of the discon-
tinuity). In this way, the currents produced by an
alternating current field measurement probe consist
of a large double loop, with the sensor coils located
65
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 8

above the region between the loops where the cur-

rent lines are parallel.
Resultant alternating magnetic field
How Alternating Current Field
Measurement Works

The alternating current field measurement tech-

nique involves inducing a locally uniform current
into a sample and measuring absolute values of the
magnetic field above the sample surface. The
current is perturbed by the presence of a surface-
breaking discontinuity, and these produce perturba-
tions in the magnetic field. Relative, rather than (a) Alternating current passed through
absolute, amplitudes of components of the magnetic coil
field are used to minimize variations due to material
properties, instrument calibration, and other factors.
These relative amplitudes are compared with
values in look-up tables produced from a mathe- Alternating current induced in metal surface
matical model to estimate discontinuity sizes
without the need for calibration using artificial
discontinuities, such as slots, which are often not
representative of real or relevant discontinuities.
The theoretical model used to produce the sizing
tables is based on a number of assumptions. One
assumption is that the input current is unidirection-
Magnetic
al and of uniform intensity. It is also assumed that
the standard depth of penetration is small com- field
pared to the dimensions of the discontinuity and
that the discontinuity has a semielliptical shape
with a length at least twice as large as the depth.
The technique in its simplest form uses an
instrument and a handheld probe containing a field Area of
induction system and two magnetic field sensors. approximately
Software is used to control the instrument and dis- (b) uniform field
play, analyze the data, and store results for report-
ing, offline analysis, and archiving. Figure 1: Uniform field generated by horizontal
The required locally uniform field is induced solenoid: (a) induction of magnetic field by
using one or more horizontal axis solenoids, with or alternating current in coil; (b) uniform field
without yokes (see Figure 1). The solenoid is typi- induced by alternating current in metal
cally 15 to 25 mm (0.6 to 1.0 in.) above the base of surface.
the probe to improve uniformity. Note that the
region of uniform field is also a region of relatively
low field strength. This is a different situation from
an eddy current probe where the solenoid axis is Electric field E
vertical and the area directly under the end of the ty
B

solenoid is close to the surface, which is where the s

i

n
field strength is highest but nonuniform. By con-
lux de
vention, the direction of this electric field is desig-
ic f
nated as the Y axis, and the direction of the associ- Z
et
ated uniform magnetic field (at right angles to the gn
electric field and parallel to the metal surface) is Ma Y
designated as the X axis. The Z axis is then the
X

66
Figure 2: Coordinates conventionally used in
alternating current field measurement.
 Alternating Current Field Measurement

direction normal (perpendicular) to the surface
(Figure 2).
With no discontinuity present and a uniform
current flowing in the Y direction, the magnetic
field is uniform in the X direction, perpendicular to
the current flow. Thus, designating the three
orthogonal components of the magnetic field Bx,
By, and Bz, Bx will have a constant positive value,
while By and Bz will both be zero.
The presence of a discontinuity diverts current
away from the deepest parts and concentrates it near
the ends of a crack (Figure 3). The effect of this is to
produce a broad dip in Bx along the dis-continuity
with the minimum value coinciding with the deepest
point of the discontinuity. The ampli-tude of this dip
is larger for a deeper discontinuity of a given length.
At the same time, concentration of current lines where
it flows around the disconti-nuity ends produces small
peaks in Bx. The same
Amplitude(relat
circulation around the discontinuity ends also pro-
duces a non-zero Bz component. The flow is clock-
wise around one end, producing a negative value of
Bz (that is, pointing into the surface), and counter-
clockwise around the other end, producing a posi-
tive value of Bz (out of the surface). The location of
the maximum (positive and negative) values of Bz are
close to, but not coincident with, the physical ends of
the discontinuity.
The By component also becomes non-zero in the
presence of a discontinuity, producing peak-trough
pairs at both ends of the discontinuity, but these are
antisymmetric across the line of the dis-continuity.
This means that a By sensor scanning exactly along
the line of a discontinuity would see no response and
so the By component is not usually measured in
alternating current field measurement.
Measurements of Bx and Bz from sensors in the
probe are used together with software algorithms to
determine the accurate length and depth of the dis-
continuity. In order to aid interpretation, the Bx and
Bz components are often plotted against each other. In

Bz this display, a discontinuity produces a complete

ivescale)

closed-loop indication. Due to the distinctive shape of

Clockwise flow
this loop, the display is called a butterfly plot (Figure
T 4). The size of this loop is not sensitive to probe speed
gives Bz peak and so is used as a valuable aid in the interpretation of
Uniform the data collected and the confir-mation of
input current discontinuity indications, as follows:
● The strength of the input magnetic field Bx,
which is used to normalize the perturbation.
Counter-
This so-called “background Bx” value must
clockwise
therefore be measured in an area of similar
flow gives properties to the perturbation value. This is
normally immediately adjacent to the
Bz trough
discontinuity, but outside its influence.

Current lines
x

close together
Bx
uxdensity(re
Magneticfluxdensity(

BMagneticfl

lativescale)

gives Bx peak
relativescale)

Current lines far

Amplitude(relativesc

apart gives Bx
trough Time or scan distance 0

Bz
ale)

Bx

T 0
(relative scale)
Magnetic flux density Bz
Legend
Bx = magnetic flux component normal to electric (a) (b) (relative scale)
field and parallel to test surface Figure 4: Data displays from a longitudinal discontinuity:
Bz = magnetic flux component normal to test surface (a) timebase chart recorder plot; (b) butterfly plot.
T = time or scan distance (relative scale)

67
Figure 3: Effect of surface-breaking
discontinuity on the magnetic field.
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 8
● The minimum value of Bx at the deepest part
of the discontinuity. This value is used in
conjunction with the background Bx value
above to determine the percentage amplitude of
the perturbation, independent of permeability,
conductivity, instrument gain, and so on.
● The distance as measured on the test object
between the locations of the peak and trough
in the Bx signal.
Sensor Coverage and Lateral
Displacement
A large, uniform input field in alternating current
field measurement means that the current perturba-
tion from a discontinuity extends some distance
away from the line of a discontinuity. However,
there is a limit beyond which a probe will no longer
be able to detect a given discontinuity. This limiting
distance is larger for deeper (and, to a lesser extent,
longer) discontinuities and determines the test
width covered by a probe in one scan. This width
coverage in turn determines the number of passes
needed to inspect a given weld cap, for example, or
the optimum spacing between sensors in an array
probe. Detectability of a discontinuity is itself
dependent on surface roughness, background signal
variations, and other factors, but it is reasonable to
expect that a discontinuity will be detected if the
Bx signal amplitude is 1% or more. The minimum
discontinuity size reliably detected by alternating
current field measurement in blind trials at welds is
usually found to be around 1 mm (0.04 in.) deep.
Because the Bx amplitude decreases with lateral
displacement, discontinuity depths will be underesti-
mated if the lateral displacement is higher than the
value assumed in the theoretical look-up tables. This
value is zero for pencil-shaped probes (expected to be
scanned directly along the line of the disconti-nuity)
and 2.5 mm (0.1 in.) for weld probes with
40 mm (1.6 in.) long solenoids (where it is assumed
that the discontinuity is at the weld toe, whereas the
sensors are set back from the front of the probe).
Advantages and Disadvantages of
a Uniform Field
The alternating current field measurement tech-
nique uses a uniform input field to allow compari-
son of signal strengths with theoretical predictions.
However, the use of a uniform field bestows other
advantages as well as disadvantages compared to
conventional eddy current testing.
68
The main advantages are:
● Ability to inspect through coatings several
millimeters thick.
● Ability to obtain depth information on deep
cracks (typically up to 25 mm [1 in.]).
● Easier inspection at material boundaries such
as welds.
● Easy to multiplex between sensors with a single
inducer.
The main disadvantages are:
● Lower sensitivity to small discontinuities.
● Signals obtained from nearby geometry changes
(for example, plate edges).
● Signal depends on discontinuity orientation
relative to the probe.
Advantanges
The primary advantage of using a uniform field is
that the strength of the input field decays relatively
slowly with distance away from the inducer, so that
the strength of the field perturbed by a discontinu-
ity also decays relatively slowly with distance above
the surface. This means that performance does not
drop off very rapidly with probe liftoff; therefore,
alternating current field measurement can be used
to inspect through quite thick nonconductive coat-
ings. Thus, alternating current field measurement
can be used on painted, rough, or rusty surfaces, or
structures covered with protective or fire-resistant
coatings several millimeters thick, which can give
large time savings over techniques or methods that
require such coatings to be removed prior to
inspection, such as liquid penetrant testing (PT) or
magnetic particle testing (MT).
The second advantage is that the larger inducer
required forces currents to flow farther down the
face of a deep crack. Currents from conventional
eddy current probes flow in circles a few millime-
ters across, and when a probe lies over a deep crack,
the current splits into two separate circles, one on
each side of the crack, only flowing a few millime-
ters down each crack face. Since essentially no cur-
rent then flows to the bottom of the crack, no infor-
mation can be obtained about where the bottom is,
so the depth of the crack cannot be measured. With
an alternating current field measurement probe, the
large inducing coil forces current to flow much
farther down the crack face and hence allows
measurement of deeper depths (typically 15 to
30 mm [0.6 to 1.2 in.], depending on probe type).
Because alternating current field measurement
provides information on length as well as depth,

compared with PT or MT, it also saves time on
removing discontinuities of insignificant depth. In
addition, the technique is relatively insensitive to
material property changes, making it ideal for the
inspection of welds.
A third advantage of a uniform field arises when
inspecting at a weld or other boundary between two
metals of different permeability or conductivity. In
this case, assuming the probe is scanning for dis-
continuities parallel to the boundary, there is no
probe motion required across the boundary, so
there are no signals caused by the change in materi-
al property. Also, the currents are flowing perpen-
dicularly across the boundary, so the effect of this
material change is reduced, even when scanning up
to it. The simple scanning pattern required for
alternating current field measurement is of great
benefit when carrying out inspections using
crawlers, scanners, or other remote robotic devices.
Finally, a uniform field can be produced by a
single large inducing coil, under which an array of
sensor coils can be placed. Since the inducer can be
energized continuously, and the sensor outputs are
obtained by simple multiplexing, there is no
crosstalk between sensors, as is the case where coils
double up as inducers and sensors. This makes
manufacture and control of multisensor array
probes more straightforward.
Disadvantages
As well as the advantages of using a uniform field
described above, there are some disadvantages. The
main disadvantage of using a uniform field is that
sensitivity is reduced. This is most apparent on
smooth, clean surfaces, where alternating current field
measurement is less sensitive to short and/or shallow
discontinuities than conventional eddy cur-rent
techniques. The smallest detectable discontinu-ity on
a good surface with alternating current field
measurement is around 2 mm (0.08 in.) long or
0.3 mm (0.01 in.) deep.
A second disadvantage of a uniform field is
that since the currents spread out farther over the
inspection surface, signals are affected by local
geometry changes, such as plate edges and corners.
Although these signals do not usually have the same
form as a signal from a discontinuity, they can con-
fuse the operator. If many similar geometries are
being inspected, the operator can learn what signals
are due to the geometry alone and then ignore
these, or scans from discontinuity-free sites with the
same geometry can be stored and displayed
for comparison.
Alternating Current Field Measurement
A third disadvantage is that the signals obtained
from a discontinuity are dependent on the orienta-
tion of the discontinuity. The uniform field theoret-
ical model would suggest that no signal is produced
when a probe scans across a transverse discontinu-ity
(for example, one running perpendicular to the weld),
since the current flow is then parallel to the
discontinuity and would not be perturbed. In prac-
tice, however, there is a flux leakage signal produced in
this situation (caused by magnetic flux lines jumping
over the discontinuity). These signals are very
different from those produced from a longitu-dinal
discontinuity but allow the operator to recog-nize a
transverse discontinuity and to make addi-tional scans
along the line of the discontinuity in order to size it.
Alternatively, probes can include two orthogonal
inducer coils, which are energized alternately so that
discontinuities in any orientation can be detected and
sized.
Applications
The alternating current field measurement tech-
nique is used by inspection companies and owners
of fabricated components for weld inspection in
petrochemical process plants, pharmaceutical
plants, offshore well structures, highway bridges,
and roller coasters. Originally introduced to the off-
shore industry for subsea weld inspection, the use
of alternating current field measurement has now
broadened to include inspection of pressure vessels,
process piping, and drill-pipe threads and risers.
Recent developments have included automated and
semiautomated systems to reduce the reliance on
operators and the use of array technology to
increase inspection speeds.
Alternating current field measurement can be used
for the inspection of nonferromagnetic materi-als but
is less effective in this role. The effective depth of
penetration in nonferritic materials with alternating
current field measurement is dramati-cally reduced.
This is in sharp contrast to standard eddy current
philosophy. It should also be noted that volumetric
discontinuities, such as corrosion pitting or porosity,
give much weaker signals than planar discontinuities,
so it is not recommended that alternating current field
measurement be used in this role.
69
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 8

Review Questions

1. Which of the following electromagnetic testing 5. For alternating current field measurement
techniques or methods should provide the best discontinuity sizing techniques using standard
discontinuity depth and length sizing capability for theoretical models to produce the sizing look-up
cracks in ferromagnetic weldments? tables, what is the common assumption?

a. Alternating current field measurement. a. The input current is omnidirectional with

b. Eddy current testing.
c. Magnetic particle testing.
d. Liquid penetrant testing.
2. Which of the following is an advantage of alternating
current field measurement compared to magnetic
particle or liquid penetrant inspection?
a. Sensitivity to coatings and material
property changes.
b. Ability to provide information on depth
and length of discontinuities.
c. Ability to provide information on length
of discontinuities.
d. Ability to detect surface-breaking discontinuities.
3. A large, uniform input field in alternating
current field measurement means:
a. an improved focal point for localized detection.
b. decreased ease of discontinuity sizing.
c. that the current perturbation from a
discontinuity extends some distance away from
the line of a discontinuity.
d. an increased probability of detection.
4. Alternating current field measurement was originally
designed for the detection and sizing of:
varying density.
b. All discontinuities are axial surface cracks.
c. All discontinuities are subsurface cracks.
d. The input current is unidirectional and
of uniform density.
6. The reliability, as well as the ability, of alternating
current field measurement to detect discontinuities
has been specifically determined by:
a. railroad cars and tracks not failing for years after
alternating current field measurement
examinations.
b. theoretical modeling work involving extensive
trials carried out on realistic discontinuities under
controlled conditions.
c. the number of satisfied customers around
the world.
d. repeated field use around the world.
7. It is reasonable to expect that a discontinuity will be
detected by alternating current field measurement if
the Bx signal amplitude is what percentage?
a. 1% or more.
b. 10% or more.
c. 80% or more.
d. 0%, as the Bx signal has no influence on detection.

a. fatigue cracks.
b. weld bursts.
c. intergranular attack.
d. conductivity variations.

Answers
1a 2b 3c 4a 5d 6b 7a

70
Chapter 9
Remote Field Testing
Overview
Remote field testing (RFT) should not be looked at
as a typical eddy current test because it achieves
penetration of ferromagnetic material without the
use of magnets to reduce permeability effects. The
technique achieves this in tubes or plates that are up
to 5 mm (0.2 in.) thick — in the case of inline
inspection tools for pipelines, thicknesses may be
up to 15 mm (0.6 in.) in steel and over 25 mm
(1 in.) in cast iron — by the use of very low fre-
quencies (usually lower than those used in conven-
tional eddy current testing), large exciter coils, and
high-voltage drive.
It is true that the exciter coils used in RFT
probes generate eddy currents in the material, but
the eddy currents are not the dominant form of
energy generated in the material. Because ferrous
materials are poor electrical conductors but are very
good conductors of magnetism, the dominant ener-
gy source is the magnetic field. The magnetic field is
concentrated in the material, and it obeys the law of
all magnetic energy: that it must flow from pole to
pole. Exciter coils, used in RFT to generate the
primary field, can be likened to permanent bar
magnets, except that the north and south poles are
alternating from end to end at the same rate as the
exciter frequency.
Exciter coils generate magnetic fields that
flow in loops. The loops of magnetic energy get
concentrated in any ferrous material that is brought
into close proximity of the exciter coil, and, because
the magnetic field is alternating, eddy currents also
flow in the material, orthogonal to the magnetic
field.
Some academic papers and other reference mate-
rials use the term remote field eddy current; however,
to prevent confusion on the range of applications and
material test situations, the attempt has been made to
phase out that terminology. Both the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM International) and
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) list remote field test-ing (rather than remote
field eddy current testing) as a specific technique
within electromagnetic testing.
.
For the purpose of generic discussion, this chap-
ter discusses remote field testing as it applies to the
inspection of ferromagnetic tubing in various heat
exchangers; that is, as an internal bobbin coil tech-
nique, consisting of at least one exciter coil and one
detector coil separated by approximately two or three
tube diameters. Per ASTM E-2096, the defini-tion of
remote field is “the electromagnetic field which has
been transmitted through the test object and is
observable beyond the direct coupling field of the
exciter.” Thus, according to this standard prac-tice,
remote field testing is an electromagnetic test-ing
technique “that measures changes in the remote field
to detect and characterize discontinuities.”
Principles
Remote field testing is an electromagnetic test that
uses an alternating current excitation source. This
alternating current electromagnetic energy travels
along the tube wall for some distance in both direc-
tions from an exciter coil. The distribution of the
primary field is dependent on the magnetic proper-
ties of the tube, the tube wall thickness, the proxim-
ity of the coil (fill factor), and the presence of sur-
rounding support structures. The transmitted field
may be affected by discontinuities within the tube
wall or in nearby support structures. The changes in
the strength (amplitude) and phase lag (also
referred to as phase shift or phase angle) of the
received signal are measured by a receiver coil
placed a few tube diameters away from the exciter
coil. Essentially, phase lag is the time delay of the
electromagnetic energy as it moves deeper in the
conductive material.
Special hybrid (driver/pickup) coils are necessary
to perform RFT inspections. Because of the need for a
significant spacing between the exciter coil(s) and the
receiver or pickup coil(s), the probes tend to be longer
than typical eddy current probes. Remote field testing
probe types are shown in Figure 1.
The high magnetic permeability of ferromagnet-ic
materials dramatically impacts standard eddy cur-rent
electromagnetic testing inspection techniques
71
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 9

Detector Exciter
Standard probe - rigid

Double exciter

Flexible (small-bore)

Flexible (large-bore)

Detector
Centralizer
configurations
brushes
(available for all
probe types)

From top to bottom: Larger diameter tubing with either single or dual exciters, smaller diameter tubing,

and boiler tubing.

Figure 1: Remote field testing probe types.

because of the frequency that they typically operate at
and the fact that eddy current coils measure the
impedance of the interrogating or nearby coil. Some
electromagnetic testing techniques attempt to com-
pensate for and/or suppress the permeability effects of
ferrous materials by the use of strong magnets or
direct current-driven saturation coils. The RFT
process requires no magnetic saturation. Instead it
makes use of the natural tendency of ferromagnetic
materials to channel magnetic energy. Like the keep-er
of a horseshoe magnet, the magnetic lines of flux from
the exciter coil take the path of least reluc-tance. They
flow down the tube wall, which acts
as a wave-guide, for a considerable distance.
At distances in excess of two tube diameters
from the internal exciter coil, the flux field becomes
homogenous and the passive receiver coils, posi-
tioned two to three tube diameters away from the
exciter, receive practically all of their energy from
the flux in the tube wall and the field that is exter-
nal to the tube. The direct field from the exciter has
been almost completely attenuated, or absorbed, by
the tube wall, and the external field is actually
stronger than the field inside the tube.
Through-transmission is a term that is often used
to describe the remote field testing process. This term
normally implies that there is a source of ener-gy that
transmits through a medium. For example,
through-transmission, in both electromagnetic and
ultrasonic testing, implies that the power source is on
one side of the test product and the receiver ele-ment
is on the opposite (through-wall) side of the material.
In remote field testing, some of the alter-nating
current primary magnetic energy does extend to the
outside diameter of the tube. It travels down the tube
wall and eventually propagates back through the tube
to the inside of the tube. The con-cept of calling
remote field testing a through-wall technique may be
hard to visualize, but the energy path is actually twice
through the wall: once out at the exciter and then in at
the detector. In other words, remote field testing relies
upon a through-transmission field moving from the
OD to the ID surface of a tube. It is for this reason that
short dis-continuities often show two distinct signals
when the exciter and detector pass the discontinuity at
dif-ferent moments in time. The short discontinuity
has interrupted the through-transmission path twice.
Remote Field Testing Zones
In RFT inspection of tubing, it is probably more
accurate to look at the tube wall as a conduit or
waveguide. Magnetic fields are modeled as closed
loops. Magnetic flux lines travel out from the exciter
coil and mix with incoming exciter energy in a

72

transition zone (one to two diameters away from the
exciter), finally becoming homogenous in the remote-
field zone (two to three diameters away) where the
detector coil(s) should be located. Detector coil(s)
placed within the near-field zone (near the exciter) or
the transition zone will not work properly.
Furthermore, the transition zone location is affected
by the frequency applied to the exciter and the
material properties of the tube. It is therefore prudent
to place the detector coil(s) at least three, and up to
five, tube diameters away from the exciter(s) to ensure
that they will be in the remote-field zone regardless of
these other variables.
The driver or exciter coil, when energized with
AC current, supplies a low-frequency alternating
magnetic field, which couples to the tube wall.
Electromagnetic induction occurs twice. In the
near-field or direct-coupled zone, eddy currents are
created in the tube wall. These actually decrease the
efficiency of the process. Eddy currents are also cre-
ated through induction as the field flux lines cut
across the pickup coil windings on reentering the
tube inside diameter.
By making careful measurements, it is possible
to map the strength and distribution of the driver
coil’s flux density as it travels down the tube wall. A
graph can be generated, such as Figure 2, using
experimental data that show there are three distinct
signal zones.
10-1
10-2
-3
10
10-4
volts
10-5
10-6
10-7 1 2 3 4
Tube diameters from exciter coil
Figure 2: Remote field testing energy distribution.
Remote Field Testing
To define the variations in the alternating cur-rent
energy distributions that are present in the tube wall,
the following terminology has been developed:
● Near-Field (Direct-Coupled) Zone –
0 to 1.5 tube diameters from the driver coil.
● Transition Zone – 1.5 to 2 tube diameters
from the driver coil.
● Remote-Field Zone – 2 to 3 tube diameters
from the driver coil.
Near-Field Zone
The region of intense electromagnetic interaction at
the interface between an alternating current coil’s
outside diameter surface and a tube wall’s inside
diameter surface is referred to as the near field. Within
the near-field zone, the eddy currents gener-ated in
the tube wall by the alternating current-driven exciter
coil create a shielding effect of the exciter’s flux. As
eddy currents propagate through the material’s inner
wall, an opposing secondary magnetic flux is
developed in the material that attenuates the primary
field strength and limits
its extension.
Logically, the near-field zone would be the area
where there is the greatest sensitivity to discontinu-
ities because of the high concentration of magnetic
flux. However, the field tends to be concentrated near
the inner surface of the tube, next to the exciter, and
this strong field tends to mask any
360
-anglePhase
Transition zone
270
degrees
180
90
5 6
Inner wall phase
Outer diameter amplitude
Inner diameter amplitude
73
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 9

signals from the tube outside diameter, which are
much weaker. In remote field testing, the pickup
coils are placed at some distance away from the
exciter coil to enhance detectability of
discontinu-ities on the outer wall of the tubes.
Transition Zone
The region just outside the near-field zone is known
as the transition zone. It is an area that is currently
not considered to contain reliable data because the
location of the transition zone changes with
changes in frequency, proximity, wall thickness,
permeabili-ty, and conductivity. In this zone, there
is a great deal of interaction between the flux of one
field that is diffusing outward from the exciter and
the flux of the returning energy that is diffusing
inward from the outside surface of the tube.
The total or resultant field strength in this area
tends to be weaker because of the negative interac-
tion of fields with differing directional characteris-
tics. When the two opposing fields meet, the result
is a cancellation of some of their respective energy.
Remote-Field Zone
The third definable region, the remote-field zone,
starts to occur at about two tube diameters from the
exciter coil. The detector coil’s signal amplitude bot-
toms out at the base of the logarithmic curve and starts
a linear decay. Notice that the curves (refer again to
well-defined difference in phase angle responses for
inside diameter and outside diameter events; how-
ever, in remote field testing, data from inside diam-
eter and outside diameter discontinuities of the
same depth have about the same phase angle and all
wall-loss signals rotate counterclockwise with
respect to the nominal tube-wall signal.
The signals can be represented on the familiar
X-Y lissajous display used by eddy current instru-
ments. (Note: The term lissajous refers to a charac-
teristic looped or curved figure traced by a point on
a screen undergoing two independent simple har-
monic motions at right angles with frequencies in a
simple ratio.) However, a more useful representa-
tion is the voltage plane polar plot (VPPP) devel-
oped by David Atherton of Queen’s University
Department of Magnetics. (See Figure 3 for an
example of this type of display.) This VPPP shows
the signal phase angle and the log of the amplitude,
and can be used to accurately measure remaining
wall thickness of discontinuities that are shorter or
longer than the inspection probe. The VPPP also
has the advantage that one-sided discontinuities can
be easily distinguished from discontinuities that
extend around the full circumference of the tube.
Absolute signals Differential signals

Figure 2) describing signal amplitudes of the inner and

outer walls parallel each other and are linear after
peaking at maximum values.
Considering the rate of attenuation of the inner
wall field strength, the result is that in the area
where the remote-field zone starts, the outer wall
field strength can be 10 to 100 times the strength of
the inner wall field.
Phase and Amplitude

Phase
The phase change of the signals detected at the Strip chart signals Phase-amplitude
diagrams
pickup coil can be used to estimate the wall loss.
A thinner wall allows the flux traversing the wall to
arrive at the detector sooner (similar to the time of Figure 3: Voltage plane signals from long
discontinuity showing direction of wall thickness
flight of ultrasonic testing signals). Discontinuities
changes.
of differing depths can be evaluated accurately
based on measured phase shift (phase lag or
phase angle). In eddy current testing, there is a

74

.

Amplitude (Voltage)
The remote field testing system senses a decrease in
wall thickness as a stronger alternating current mag-
netic field cuts across the pickup coil. This induces a
stronger voltage in the coil. Discontinuities of larger
volume increase the amplitude of the signal, while
smaller volume discontinuities produce small ampli-
tude signals, but the signal phase still represents the
wall loss of the discontinuity. Because some of the
primary magnetic field extends out beyond the tube
outside diameter, tube support plates or baffles
interfere with the magnetic field distribution. Any
metallic material on the tube outside diameter tends
to attenuate or partially block the energy transfer
down the length of the tube. Because of the spacing
between exciter and pickup coils, this could lead to
decreased sensitivity at these locations.
Applications
Remote field testing is capable of detecting both
small- and large-volume discontinuities in most fer-
romagnetic tubing found in a wide range of tubes
and pipes, such as heat exchangers, boilers, piping,
and pipelines. Some limitations do exist, for exam-
ple, in fin-fan tubing found in air-fin coolers. The
base tubing is carbon steel; however, to improve
heat transfer rates, large-diameter fins of high-
conductivity metal (normally aluminum) are
installed on the tube outside diameter. The induced
energies in the fins themselves prevent the primary
magnetic field propagation along the outside diam-
eter surface of the tube, which dramatically limits
the remote field testing inspection process.
While RFT has approximately equal sensitivity
to internal and external discontinuities, it is highly
sensitive to discontinuity length. For short disconti-
nuities, such as pits or circumferential grooves, the
data will often show one indication when the exciter
coil(s) passes the discontinuity and a second indica-
tion when the detector coil(s) passes the disconti-
nuity. Differential detector coils are particularly
good for detecting such low-volume discontinuities.
For wall loss that is longer than the exciter-
detector spacing, however, it is a different story. The
data will exhibit a doubling of the log-amplitude and
Remote Field Testing
Figure 4: Remote field testing inline inspection tool (smart pig).
phase signals when both coils are under the
discon-tinuity. For these situations (such as tube-
to-tube fretting wear or steam erosion wall loss) an
absolute probe coil is preferred.
As tube diameters increase, such as in piping runs
or pipelines, a single detector becomes inca-pable of
detecting wall loss that is localized on one side of the
pipe. Therefore, more detectors have to be added, in a
circumferential array, in order to maintain good
sensitivity. Figure 4 shows a typical RFT inline
inspection tool (also referred to as a smart pig). RFT
has the advantage that it can inspect through internal
liners of cement, epoxy, and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), whereas other tech-nologies,
such as ultrasonic and magnetic flux leak-age testing,
cannot usually penetrate the liner.
ASTM E-2096 is a good reference document for
anyone considering remote field testing for ferrous
heat exchanger tubes. It references remote field test-
ing technology as well as personnel training criteria.
It also provides a guide to the types of minimum
detection capability that should be demonstrated by
inspection personnel when they apply the proper
tools and techniques while performing remote field
testing examinations.
75
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 9

Review Questions

1. A generally accepted definition of remote field is: 4. The amplitude or voltage of the detected response
from a discontinuity is most often related to:
a. electromagnetic testing at remote locations.
b. the electromagnetic field that has been a. the width of the discontinuity.
transmitted through the test object and is b. the location of the discontinuity.
observable beyond the direct coupling of the c. the depth of the discontinuity.
exciter. d. the volume of the discontinuity.
c. through-transmission eddy currents, detected on
the far side of a material or object under test by a 5. Phase lag can be described as:
remote receiver coil.
d. the opposite of direct field. a. the speeding up of the eddy current signal in
dense solids.
2. The region of intense electromagnetic interaction at b. the speed of rotation of the probe.
the interface between an alternating current coil’s c. the interaction between signal angle
OD surface and a tube wall’s ID surface is called the: and magnitude.
d. the time delay of the electromagnetic energy as it
a. remote-field zone. moves deeper in a conductive material.
b. fresnel zone.
c. near-field zone. 6. The predominant energy that energizes the detector
d. transition zone. coils in an RFT probe comes from:

3. The operating frequencies that are selected to
perform remote field testing inspections are:
a. usually higher than those used in conventional
eddy current tests.
b. usually lower than those used in conventional
eddy current tests.
c. identical to those used in conventional eddy
current tests.
d. about one-half of those used in conventional eddy
current tests.
a. the through-transmission field moving from the
OD to the ID surface of the tube.
b. the eddy currents flowing in the wall next to the
detector(s).
c. the direct field from the exciter, inside the tube.
d. residual magnetic events.
7. Detector coils placed in the transition zone will:
a. produce larger, more reliable differential
signals than a coil in the remote-field zone.
b. produce unpredictable signals.
c. produce a saturated signal for all discontinuities
due to its proximity to the exciter.
d. not produce any signal.

Answers
1b 2c 3b 4d 5d 6a 7b

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Chapter 10
Electromagnetic Testing Procedures,
Specifications, and Standards
Procedures, specifications, and standards are pro-
duced to provide a means of controlling product
or service quality. Written instructions that guide a
company or individual to a desired end result and
are acceptable to industry are the basis of proce-
dures, specifications, and standards.
Distinctions should be made among the follow-
ing types of documents:
● Procedure – a written step-by-step set of
instructions for performing a nondestructive test
in whole or in part, thus enabling uniform
results.
● Specification – a set of instructions or
standards invoked by a specific customer to
govern the results or performance of a specific
set of tasks or products.
● Standard – a document to control and govern
practices in an industry or application, applied
on a national or international basis and usually
produced by consensus.
Many publications are available to guide or
instruct the ET technician. Some of the most fre-
quently used references are published by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM
International), the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), and the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), as well as in the form of
Military Standards (MIL-STD-XXXX).
These publications are laboriously produced
by committees made up of scientific and technical
experts. Usually, after a committee produces a
draft document, it is submitted to industry and
the scientific community for comment and
subsequent revision.
In certain cases, standards combine to assist
each other. As an example, ASME Section V,
Article 8 – Appendix IV uses ASTM E1316 to
provide Standard Terminology for Nondestructive
Testing. The military standard, MIL-STD-1537C,
Electrical Conductivity Test for Verification of
Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys, Eddy
Current Method, references ASTM B193,
Resistivity of Electrical Conductor Materials and
ASTM E18, Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell
Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials.
American Society for Testing and
Materials
ASTM International standards (practices or
guides) usually include in the written instructions
headings such as Scope, Referenced Documents,
Terminology, Significance and Use, Basis of
Application, Apparatus, Reference Standards,
Standardization, Procedure, and Keywords.
● Scope makes a general statement about the
document’s applicability and intent.
● Referenced Documents refers to other
publications used as references within the
standard.
● The Terminology section contains definitions
of unique terms specific to the equipment or
examination covered by the standard.
● Significance and Use is a more detailed discussion
of test results and probable causes of indications
expected during the examination.
● The Basis of Application section identifies items
that are subject to contractual agreement between
the parties using or referencing the standard such
as personnel qualification, qualification of
nondestructive testing agencies, procedures and
techniques, surface preparation, timing of
examination, extent of examination, reporting
criteria/acceptance criteria, and reexamination of
repaired/reworked items.
● Apparatus describes the general requirements for
the inspection system including instrumentation,
coils, positioning, and driving mechanisms.
● The fabrication requirements for artificial
discontinuity standards used for standardization
are discussed under Reference Standards. A
discussion of the reference specimen and the
geometrical requirements of the artificial
discontinuities in it is usually included.
● Standardization provides instructions for
adjustment of the apparatus used for the
examination. The response to known
discontinuities in the reference standard
is usually described in this section.
● Detailed instructions to process the inspection
appears under Procedure. These instructions
77
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 10
may include acceptance limits and the handling
of components that are not acceptable.
ASTM publishes several standards pertaining
to the electromagnetic testing method. These stan-
dards are numbered; for example, E 571–98.
“E 571” refers to the standard and “98” refers to the
year of revision.
Several ASTM standards that pertain to the
electromagnetic testing method are:
● E-215, Standard Practice for Standardizing
Equipment for Electromagnetic Examination
of Seamless Aluminum-Alloy Tube
● E-243, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic
(Eddy-Current) Examination of Copper and
Copper-Alloy Tubes
● E-426, Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Testing
of Seamless and Welded Tubular Products,
Austenitic Stainless Steel and Similar Alloys
● E-571, Standard Practice for Electromagnetic
(Eddy-Current) Examination of Nickel and
Nickel Alloy Tubular Products
● E-690, Standard Practice for In Situ
Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Examination
of Nonmagnetic Heat Exchanger Tubes
● E-1316, Standard Terminology for
Nondestructive Testing
● E-2261, Standard Practice for Examination
of Welds Using the Alternating Current Field
Measurement Technique
● E-2928, Standard Practice for Examination of
Drillstring Threads Using the Alternating
Current Field Measurement Technique
Military Standard
The United States military uses the Military
Standard document to control testing and
materials. Standard procedures are provided by
a series of MIL-STD-XXXX documents. Special
requirements are specified by the Military
Specification system. For example, MIL-STD-1537C
refers to Electrical Conductivity Test for Verification
of Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys, Eddy
Current Method. The Calibration System
Requirements for MIL-STD-1537C are contained
in Military Specification MIL-C-45662.
The MIL-STD usually contains several parts
and is very descriptive. These parts normally
include Scope, Applicable Documents, Definitions,
General Requirements, Detail Requirements,
and Notes.
● The Scope contains a general statement of
applicability and intent of the Standard.
● Applicable Documents pertains to other
78 reference or controlling documents, such
as other MIL-STD Military Specifications or
ASTM publications.
● Definition contains precise definitions of
keywords and phrases used in the Standard.
● Under General Requirements, equipment,
reference specimen, and personnel requirements
are described in sufficient detail to implement
the Standard. Included in this part are
instrument sensitivity and response, test object
variables, reference specimen requirements, and
personnel qualification requirements.
● Detail Requirements describe the specific
procedure to implement the Standard.
● Notes contains pertinent statements about the
process and guidelines for reporting results.
American Society of Mechanical
Engineers
In 1911, the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) set up a committee to establish
rules of safety for design, fabrication, and inspec-
tion of boilers and pressure vessels. These rules
have become known throughout industry as the
ASME code. The ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Committee is a large group from industry
and the scientific community.
The Committee has many subcommittees, sub-
groups, and working groups. Each subcommittee,
subgroup, and working group combines as a unit
for a specific area of interest. For example, the
Subcommittee on Pressure Vessels (SC VIII) has
two working groups and five subgroups reporting to
it. The purpose of these groups is to interface with
industry to keep pace with changing requirements
and needs of industry and public safety.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
is divided into 11 sections. ASME Section V,
Nondestructive Examination, is divided into two
subsections, A and B. Subsection A deals with
Nondestructive Methods of Examination. Article 8
is Eddy Current Examination of Tubular Products.
Article 15 is Alternating Current Field
Measurement Technique. Subsection B is
Documents Adopted by Section V.
Electromagnetic testing standards are described
in Article 26. In this case, the ASTM E215 docu-
ment has been adopted by ASME and reassigned
the designation SE215.
ASME Section V, Article 8, Appendix I gives
detailed procedure requirements for Eddy Current
Examination Method for Installed Nonferromagnetic
Heat Exchanger Tubing. A procedure designed to
meet this requirement can be illustrated by the fol-
lowing example, Document QA 3.
 Electromagnetic Testing Procedures, Standards, and Specifications

Document QA 3

Procedure Title
Eddy Current Inspection Of Nonferrous Tubing By Single-Frequency Techniques

A. PURPOSE
This procedure describes the equipment and methods as well as the personnel qualifications to be utilized for
the performance of the eddy current examination of steam generator tubes. It meets the requirements of the
NRC Regulatory Guide 1.83, ASME Section XI, Appendix IV and ASME Section V, Article 8 of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code.

B. SCOPE
The scope of the examination to be performed is contained in the eddy current inspection program document
applicable to the specific plant to be inspected.

C. PREREQUISITES

1. Plant Condition
The plant must be shut down with the primary system drained. The steam generators shall be open on
the primary side for access to the channel head and the shell cool down sequence shall be complete. Air
movers shall be attached to circulate air through the generator to dry the tube sheet.

2. Equipment
The examinations shall be performed utilizing an XXXX/XX multifrequency eddy current instrument with
bobbin coil probes designed for testing from the inside of the tubes. The inspection performance shall be
monitored by the use of a phase sensitive vector display and recorded for later evaluation.
a. Equipment utilized shall be:
i. XXXX/XX eddy current instrument.
ii. Bobbin coil probes capable of operation in the differential and absolute modes.
iii. Digital recording device(s).
iv. Communications system.
v. Reference standard
The reference standard shall be manufactured from a length of tubing of the same size and
type of material that is to be examined in the vessel. The standard shall contain 6 intentional
discontinuity areas as follows:
aa. 100% through the wall drill hole (0.052 in. for 0.750 in. outside diameter tubing and
smaller, and 0.067 in. for larger tubing).
bb. Flat bottomed drill hole 5/64 in. diameter X 80% through from the outer tube
wall surface.
cc. Flat bottomed drill hole 7/64 in. diameter X 60% through from the outer tube
wall surface.
dd. Flat bottomed drill hole 3/16 in. X 40% diameter through from the outer tube
wall surface.
ee. Four flat bottom holes, 3/16 in. diameter, spaced 90 degrees apart around the tube
circumference, 20% through the tube wall.
ff. Circumferential groove 20% deep by 1/16 in. long by 360 degrees on the inside tube wall
surface.
gg. Circumferential groove 10% deep by 1/8 in. long by 360 degrees on the outer tube wall
surface.
hh. Each standard shall be identified by a serial number etched on one end and be traceable
to the master standard stored at the facility.

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Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 10

b. Probe positioning and feeding shall be accomplished remotely for inservice inspection. Baseline
inspection may be done manually.
c. Personnel communications devices shall be provided.

3. Personnel Qualifications
Personnel collecting data in accordance with this procedure shall be qualified to Level I or higher in
accordance with Document QA 101. Personnel interpreting data collected in accordance with procedure
shall be qualified to Level II or higher in accordance with Document QA 101. Prior to receiving a
certification, the applicants shall have completed the program recommended by SNT-TC-1A
(1984 edition), Supplement E.

D. PRECAUTIONS
1. All personnel to be engaged in eddy current inspection programs at operating plants shall have received
instructions in and understand the radiation protection rules and guidelines in effect on the plant site.
2. All personnel to be engaged in the test program shall wear protective clothing to the extent of the type
defined by the exclusion area work permit.
3. All personnel entering a radiation work area will have proven their ability to work in a face mask by
successfully passing the pulmonary function test during their annual physical.
4. No entries shall be made into the steam generator channel head without the presence of a qualified
health physics technician.
5. Ensure that nozzle covers (when applicable) are securely in place inside the vessel before commencement
of the eddy current inspection program.

E. PERFORMANCE

1. Preparation
a. Establish location of data acquisition control center.
b. Arrange power distribution at data acquisition control center.
c. Install communications system control box at the data acquisition control center.
d. Establish communication with one or more headsets at the steam generator.
e. Install XXXX/XX eddy current test instrument, pusher puller and fixture control boxes at the
steam generator.
f. Install remote digital data acquisition computers and recording devices at the data acquisition
control center.

2. Equipment Calibration
a. Prior to the commencement of the eddy current examination of the steam generator tubes and after
the replacement of any component, the equipment shall be calibrated in accordance with the
following steps:
Insert the reference bobbin coil probe into a reference standard.
i. Insert the test bobbin coil probe into a section of the reference standard, which is free of
discontinuities.
ii. Select the desired frequencies as per the Site Specific Data Acquisition Procedure.
iii. Select the probe drive voltage and channel gain as per the Site Specific Data Acquisition
Procedure.
iv. Perform a hardware null.
v. Remotely pull the test probe through the reference standard at the speed selected for actual
testing in the heat exchanger. Data from the heat exchanger will also be acquired on the pull
unless noted.
vi. Set the display sensitivity setting for each channel per the site specific calibration procedures.

80

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 Electromagnetic Testing Procedures, Standards, and Specifications

vii. Set the rotation (phase) value so that the probe motion signals in the discontinuity sensitive
differential channels are horizontal (as per the specific calibration procedure) with the first lobe
of the 100% through the wall drill hole going down first as the probe is withdrawn from the
standard.
viii. Set the rotation (phase) value so that the probe motion signals in the discontinuity sensitive
absolute channels are horizontal (as per the specific calibration procedure) with the response
of the 100% through the wall drill hole going up as the probe is withdrawn from the reference
standard.
ix. Complete the digital calibration summary form, update it with all pertinent information and
store this information to the selected digital storage device.

3. Tube Inspection General

(Refer to Site Specific Calibration Procedure QA 2)
a. Eddy current inspection activities shall be performed with equipment sensitivities and speeds set
per the Site Specific Data Acquisition Procedure.
b. Visual verification of the identity of the specific tube being inspected shall be performed before and
after each fixture change and at the beginning and end of each row or column. Verification of the
positive identification of tube location shall be noted by a digitally recorded message.
c. Should the performance of the tube identity verification reveal an error has occurred in the
recording of probe location, all tubes examined because the previous verification of location shall be
reexamined.
d. The equipment calibration shall be verified and recorded at the beginning and end of each
calibration cycle. At a minimum, the calibration will be verified at 4 h intervals and after any
equipment change.
e. Should the equipment be found to be out of calibration, the equipment will be recalibrated as per
Section E-2 of this procedure. The data interpreter will determine if it is necessary to reinspect any of
the tubes.

4. Tube Inspection Manual

a. The data recording shall be made during probe withdrawal. Withdrawal speed is 14 in. per second
maximum. No minimum speed specification is required, but a good uniform pull of 12 in. per
second is preferred.
b. Because no inspection is performed during probe insertion, the speed may be as rapid as possible.
c. Due to radiation exposure probe pusher/pullers should be used to facilitate the inspection.

5. Tube Inspection Automatic Remote

NOTE: Ensure that all probe positioner, probe feeder and probe and communication connecting cables
are clear of access walkways and secured to available supports.
a. Install remotely operated probe feeder local to steam generator.
b. Check the operation of the remotely operated eddy current positioner and connect the flexible
probe conduits to the probe guide tube and the probe pusher.
c. Install remotely operated probe positioner on the manway or the tube sheet of the steam generator
to provide coverage of the area to be examined.
d. Connect power and air supply lines to remote hardware as required.
e. Verify the correct operation and control of the remotely operated platform hardware.
f. Operate the positioner to locate the probe beneath the tube to be examined.
g. If probe insertion is to be done manually, utilize the probe pusher controls to feed the probe into
and up the tube to the desired height. Monitor the extent of insertion by reference to impedance

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Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 10

signals from known tube reference locations (tube end, top of tube sheet, supports) on the display
screen.
h. If operating in the Auto Acquire mode, verify that the proper landmark tables have been installed,
axial encoders are functioning properly and that the correct voltage thresholds have been
established for auto locate of supports and tube ends.
i. If performing manually or automatically ensure that the tube alphanumeric identifier has been
properly updated. Monitor the withdrawal of the probe from the tube until the impedance signal on
the screen indicates that the probe is clear of the tube sheet. Concurrent with the probe withdrawal,
visually monitor the signals on the display screen while recording all data in real time.
j. Reposition the probe beneath the next tube selected for examination.
k. Repeat the procedures described in the preceding steps until all the tubes selected for inspection
have been examined.

F. INSPECTION RESULTS AND DOCUMENTATION

1. Requirements
a. The data interpreter shall be certified to Level II or III as per Procedure QA 101.
b. Data shall be collected with an eddy current test system with a current certification of calibration as
per CSP procedure.
c. The data collection system shall be calibrated with an approved reference standard that is serialized
and traceable to a master reference standard.
d. The identify of the plant site, the steam generator, the operator’s name and certification, the date,
the test frequencies, the reference standard serial numbers, equipment serial numbers and
certification dates, software revisions and probe’s design and serial number shall be recorded at the
start of each calibration cycle.
e. The data collection station shall be set up and calibrated as per Procedure QA 3.

2. Performance
a. The data interpreter shall:
i. Determine that all tubes selected for inspection have been tested.
ii. Report tubes whose data are incomplete or uninterpretable.
iii. Require a retest of any tubes exhibiting excessive noise or unusual responses.
iv. Inservice inspections
aa. Report all discontinuities > 19%.
bb. Report all other indications that appear to be relevant.
cc. Identify the axial position of all indications with respect to a known structural member.
v. Preservice inspections
aa. Report all indications observed. Include the axial position of the indication with respect
to a known structural member.
b. Interpretation
i. All data shall be reported on a digital Final Report form.
ii. The conversion from signal phase angles (or amplitudes) to discontinuity depths shall be
accomplished per calibration curves established on the appropriate channels using the
calibration standards and techniques defined in the site specific data analysis specifications.
iii. All data shall be reviewed in its entirety.
iv. Any abnormal signals observed shall be reported.

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 Electromagnetic Testing Procedures, Standards, and Specifications

G. REFERENCES
The following documents or files are required for the performance of eddy current inspection programs
utilizing the methods described in this procedure.

1. Required Documentation
a. Eddy current inspection specific calibration procedure documents applicable to the plant to be
inspected.
b. Inspection plans showing tube sheet maps marked to designate the extent of examination to be
performed and extent of completion.
c. Final Reports including all indications resolved by the Data Resolution Analyst.

83
Electromagnetic Testing Method l Chapter 10

Review Questions

1. A precise statement of a set of requirements to be 5. The prime artificial discontinuity used to calibrate the
satisfied by a material, product, system, or service is a: system described in QA 3 is:

a. standard. a. 20% inside diameter.

b. specification. b. 50% outside diameter.
c. procedure. c. 50% inside diameter.
d. practice. d. 100% through the wall drill hole.

2. A statement that comprises one or more terms with 6. Equipment calibration must be verified at least:
explanation is a:
a. every hour.
a. practice. b. each day.
b. classification. c. every 4 h.
c. definition. d. every 8 h.
d. proposal.
7. QA 3 specifies a maximum probe traverse rate of:
3. A general statement of applicability and intent is
usually presented in the __________ of a standard. a. 355.6 mm/s (14 in./s).
b. 305 mm/s (12 in./s).
a. summary c. 152.4 mm/s (6 in./s).
b. scope d. not specified.
c. significance
d. procedure 8. The system in QA 3 is calibrated with an approved
standard that is traceable to:
Questions 4 – 9 apply to Document QA 3, Eddy
Current Inspection of Nonferrous Tubing by a. NBS.
Single-Frequency Techniques: b. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME).
4. Personnel interpreting results must be: c. a master standard.
d. American Society for Testing and
a. Trainee or higher. Materials (ASTM).
b. Level I or higher.
c. Level II or higher. 9. In accordance with QA 3, a tube whose data are
d. Level III. incomplete must be:

a. reinspected.
b. reported.
c. reevaluated.
d. removed from service.

Answers
1b 2c 3b 4c 5d 6c 7a 8c 9b

84
Figure Sources
All figures derive from sources published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., unless
noted otherwise below:

Chapter 1
Figure 7 — Libby, H.L., Introduction to
Electromagnetic Nondestructive Test Methods.
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1979.
Chapter 2
Figures 1, 2 & 3 — Zetec, Inc.
Chapter 5
Figures 3 & 4 — Institut Dr. Foerster
Chapter 6
Figures 1, 8, 9 & 11 — Libby, H.L., Introduction to
Electromagnetic Nondestructive Test Methods. New
York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1979
Figure 2 — ASM Committee on Eddy Current
Inspection, Boyer, H.E., ed., “Eddy Current
Inspection,” Metals Handbook, ninth edition:
Volume 11, Failure Analysis and Prevention.
Materials Park, OH: ASM International. 1989.
Figures 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 16 & 17 — Zetec, Inc.
Chapter 7
Figures 4, 5 & 6 — Zetec, Inc.
Chapter 9
Figures 1 & 4 — Courtesy Russell NDE Systems

85
 Catalog Number: 2257 The American Society for

ISBN: 978-1-57117-337-9 Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

.