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The amount of heat supplied to change the state of a substance at constant temperature is known as latent heat.
Latent heat of fusion is the heat supplied during melting or the heat absorbed during solidification. Latent heat of
vaporization is the heat supplied during boiling or the heat absorbed during condensation.
The molecules of solids vibrate to and fro alternately attracting and repelling one another. Their total energy can be
consist of two parts,
b. Potential energy which depends on the force between the molecules and their distance apart.
During melting, liquids become solids at constant temperature. The molecules’ potential energy is therefore increased
and the additional energy required is the latent heat of fusion.
When vaporization occurs the vapour occupies a much larger volume than the liquid so that energy is required to
separate the molecules against their mutual attractions (internal work )and extra energy is required to enable the
vapour to expand against the atmospheric pressure (external work). The total amount of heat supplied is the latent
heat of vaporization. That is why latent heat of vaporization is greater than the latent heat of fusion
During evaporation molecules near the surface, which happen to be moving faster than average, can escape from the
attraction of their neighbours and come out of the liquid. In this way the liquid loses its most energetic molecules
while the less energetic ones are left behind. The average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules is therefore
reduced and this results in a fall in temperature.
(a) Solids (good thermal conductors): A cylindrical block of the material is used, having holes for an electric heater (12 V,
2-4 A) and a thermometer. The mass m of the block is found and its initial temperature θ1 recorded. The block is lagged
with expanded polystyrene and a suitable steady current switched on as a stopwatch is started. The voltmeter and
ammeter readings V and I are noted. When the temperature has risen by about 10 K, the current is stopped and the time t
is noted for which it passed. The highest reading θ 2 on the thermometer is noted. Assuming that no energy loss occurs we
have:
1
electrical energy supplied by heater = heat received by block
( b ) Liquids. The procedure is similar to that for solids except that the liquid is stirred continuously during the heating.
Assuming no heat loss:
lagging
The specific latent heat of fusion of ice can be determined by the method of mixtures. A calorimeter of mass, mc is two-
thirds filled with a mass mw of water warmed to about 5°C above room temperature. The temperature θ1, of the water is
noted, then a sufficient number of small pieces of dried ice at 0 oC, carefully dried in blotting paper, are added one at a
time and the mixture stirred, until the temperature is about 5 °C below room temperature The lowest temperature θ2 is
noted. The calorimeter and contents are then weighed to find the mass of ice m added. Assuming no heat loss:
heat given out by calorimeter heat used to melt ice heat used to warm melted ice
and water in cooling = at 0 °C + from 0 °C to θ2
2
If cc and cw are the specific heat capacities of the calorimeter + stirrer and water respectively and lf is the specific latent
heat of fusion of ice then
mlf +
m(lf
lf
lf
The number of molecules in the substance, hence on the mass, m of the substance.
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The temperature rise, Δθ of the substance.
The nature of the substance, i.e. the specific heat capacity, c of the substance.
Internal Energy, U
The internal energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energy of the particles in a body.
The 1st Law of Thermodynamics states that the total energy in a closed system is constant.
A system is the object or group of object that is being considered. This law follows from the Principle of Conservation of
Energy.
In equation form, Increase in Internal Energy = Heat transferred TO the system + Work done ON the system
In symbols,
∆U = q + W
Sign Convention:
Ex.1. State and explain what happens to ∆U, q and W, if any when
(a) ice at 0 0C melts to become water at 0 0C. (Ep comp. increase; ∆U = +; q = + ; W = 0 or + (water contracts))
(b) the temperature of a gas increases from 20 0C to 50 0C at constant volume. (Ek comp. increase; ∆U = +; q = + ; W = 0
(no change in volume))
2. 200 J of heat is added to a system which does 150 J of work. Find ∆U. (q = +200 J; W = -150 J, so ∆U = 50 J)
4
3. Explain why in an isothermal change, ∆U = 0. In such a change, 200 J of heat is added to a s system. State how
much work is done on or by the system? (no change in temp., so ∆U = 0; q = + 200 J; W = -ve ; ∆U = 200 –W ;
- W = - 200 J => W = 200 J; system does work)
When a gas expands it does work on its surroundings. That work is equal to the area under the curve on a P-V diagram
which describes that expansion.
Suppose the piston is pushed upwards a distance x by the gas.
p- V graphs:
p
T2 > T1
1. Pressure remains constant but temp. increases from T2 to T1.
2. ΔU increases as temp. increases.
p T2 3. Work is done by system, W is negative.
4. ΔU = q – W
T1 5. W = p ΔV = area under graph.
V1 V2 V
5
3. Isothermal process (constant temperature; very slow expansion):
p
1. As temp. remains constant, ΔU = 0
T2 > T1
2. Work is done by the system at the same rate as heat is supplied to it
v2
1
3. W = q = area under graph = n R T ∫ dv
p1 T2 v1
v
p2 T1
v2
=> W = n R T ln ( )
V1 V2 V v1
4. Adiabatic process:
p
1.No heat enters or leaves the system (very rapid expansion or compression.
T2 > T1
2. q = 0 => ΔU = - W (system does work)
p1
3. All the work is done at the expense of the internal energy so the gas cools.
T2 4.For adiabatic compression, ΔU = W, so the gas heats up
5.W = area under graph.
p2 T1 6.Ex. of adiabatic process: bicycle pump.
V1 V2 V
5. Cycle: