Energy 151 (2018) 799e811

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Energy
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Drying kinetics, exergy and energy analyses of Kodo millet grains and
Fenugreek seeds using wall heated fluidized bed dryer
D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty*
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Warangal, Warangal 506004, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Energy consumption is one of the major parameters necessary to design any process equipment. Drying
Received 21 December 2017 is a thermodynamic process used to control moisture concentration in the material. The energy utili-
Received in revised form zation, exergy losses and exergy efficiency vary with material properties and dryer conditions. In the
12 March 2018
present study, experiments were carried out with Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds using batch wall
Accepted 17 March 2018
heated fluidized bed dryer. The exergy and energy analyses were carried out changing wall temperature,
Available online 19 March 2018
air velocity, bed height and initial moisture content of bed material in wall heated fluidized bed dryer.
The energy utilization ratio, exergy loss and exergy efficiency of Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds were
Keywords:
Exergy
analyzed and reported.
Energy © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Wall heated fluidized bed dryer
Drying characteristics

1. Introduction at the time of storage improper moisture content leads to fungal

Drying describes the thermal removal of moisture concentration
from the material. Dryers are classified based on the mode of heat
transfer to wet material like conduction, convection, and radiation
[1]. Many industries adapted fluidized bed dryer to dry the moist
fluidized particulate matter by hot gas. Granular materials and even
slurries, pastes, and suspensions also can be fluidized in beds of
inert solids. FBDs have different applications to processing product
in various industries like pharmaceutical, food, granules, and fer-
tilizer etc. Advantages of FBDs are high moisture removal rate,
facilitating easy material transport, ease of control, good gas-solid
mixing and uniform temperature distribution in the bed. The dis-
advantages are high electrical power consumption and high con-
sumption of power due to low thermal conductivity of air. Selection
of dryers is based on different conditions and parameters like ef-
ficiency, product quality and energy consumption etc [2]. Nowa-
days the main goal is to design the dryer with lower power
consumption and good product quality.
Grains are one of the important crops in many countries like
India, Sri Lanka, Africa, etc. Generally grains contain high nutrition,
fiber and protein values. In ancient civilization, grains were used for
eating purpose and worker wages. The problem with grains is that
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: psetty@nitw.ac.in (Y. Pydi Setty).
attacks causing changes in the natural properties of grains. Diffu-
sion of particle moisture inside fluidized bed dryer depends on
several parameters. Also drying behavior of materials varies with
the material characteristics like structure, porosity, diameter, etc.
Determination of drying characteristics and moisture diffusion is
also important to maintain proper quality of the product. Many
researchers have conducted drying studies on grains like wheat,
finger millet and pearl millet etc [3e5]. Also, some other re-
searchers have worked on similar drying studies on different food
materials like pepper seeds, rambutan seeds, hazelnuts, and maize,
etc [5e8]. Studies were also made on various materials like vege-
tables, food materials and grains using different types of dryers as
tabulated in Table 1.
To maintain proper quality of product, quantity of energy con-
sumption as well as heat and mass transfer studies are important
for any drying process. The most exergy demanding process is the
popular convective dryer either batch or continuous [7]. The causes
of high exergy demand is due to indirect heat transfer (in many
cases) to product thus evaporating moisture [8]. Many authors have
investigated exergy and energy analyses of thin layer drying pro-
cess for different materials like strawberry using cyclone type dryer
and olive mill waste water (OMW) using solar drying process,
mulberry using forced solar dryer, coroba slices using air drying
unit to estimate ratio of energy utilization, amount of energy used,
exergy efficiency and magnitude of exergy losses using first law and
second law of thermodynamics [9]. Also different authors have

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.03.089
0360-5442/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
800 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811

Nomenclature Lg latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg water)

Qw wall heat flux (W/m2)
cpa specific heat of air (kJ/kg.K) W specific humidity ratio (kg water/kg dry air)
ma mass flow rate of air (kg dry air/s) Tain inlet air temperature (K)
ms evaporation rate of moisture (kg/s) Taout outlet air temperature (K)
wt weight of sample at time, t (kg) T∞ ambient temperature (K)
wd dry sample weight (kg) Tw wall temperature (K)
sEx exergy efficiency A area of fluidized bed (m2)
Eout outlet energy of dryer (kJ/s) Subscripts
Ein inlet energy of dryer (kJ/s) a air
Exain exergy rate of inlet air (kJ/s) d dry
Exaout exergy rate of outletair (kJ/s) Ex exergy
Exw exergy rate of wall heater (kJ/s) in inlet
Exdin total exergy rate into the dryer(kJ/s) out outlet
ExL exergy loss (kJ/s) t clock time (s)
EUR energy utilization ratio FBD fluidized bed dryer W wall

analyzed exergy and energy for Fluidized bed dryers with different
materials like wheat grains, paddy and poppy seeds [10,11,27].
Assari et al., [2013] have conducted simulation studies on exergy
and energy analyses of fluidized bed dryer using Eulerian two-fluid
model [12]. Inaba [2007] has studied on heat and mass transfer to
determine fluidized bed dryer efficiency from exergy and energy
analyses changing hydrodynamic and thermodynamic conditions
in fluidized bed dryer [13]. Prommas et al., [2010] have investigated
exergy and energy analyses of porous media drying process using
hot air using particles of different size by changing thermodynamic
conditions [14]. Hernandenz et al., [2013] have conducted simula-
tion and experimental studies with coffee beans in Guardiola dryer
with minimized energy consumption and maximized thermal ef-
ficiency [8]. Icier et al., [2010] have worked on the exergy analysis
and evaluation of broccoli using three different drying systems
changing drying temperature and from that the authors investi-
gated exergy destruction, exergy efficiency, and exergetic
improvement potential of the drying process [15].

Table 1
Drying studies on various materials using different dryers.

Author Material Dryer/Method

Coskun et al. [39] Tomato slices Heat pump dryer

Askari et al. [40] Apple cubes Microwave-assisted fluidized bed dryer
Chen et al. [41] Carrot slices Ultrasound and vacuum drying methods
Mirzaee et al. [23] Apricots Tray dryer
Reyes et al. [42] Carrots Mechanically agitated fluidized bed dryer
Minaei et al. [43] Pomegranate Arils Microwave, vacuum, and infrared methods
Bialobrzewski et al. [44] Carrot cubes Spout-fluidized-bed dryer
Kaya et al. [45] Carrots Consists of three units: air conditioning unit, air-conditioned
room and test section
Chen et al. [46] Biomass Thermogravimetric analyzer
Zielinska and Markowski [47] Carrot cubes Spout-fluidized bed
Bauman et al. [48] Grape, apricot, peace Fluidized bed dryer
Ramos et al. [49] Grape Pilot convective dryer
Botelho et al. [50] Carrot slices Infrared drying
Gazor and Mohsenimanesh [22] Canola Fluidized bed dryer
Meziane [24] Olive pomace Fluidized bed dryer
Çalban and Ersahan [51] Turkish lignite Fluidized bed dryer
Çil and Topuz [23] Corn, beans, chickpeas Fluidized bed dryer
Kulshreshtha et al. [53] Mushroom Fluidized bed dryer
Khanali et al. [54] Rough rice Fluidized bed dryer
Ojediran and Raji [25] Millet Tray dryer
Kaensup et al. [5] Pepper seed Microwave/fluidized bed dryer
Thomas and Varma [32] Green pepper black pepper Fluidized bed dryer
Prachayawarakorn et al. [6] Maize Fluidized-bed dryer
Srinivasakannan and Balasubramanian [4,28,55] Ragi Fluidized bed dryer
Ahmad et al. [56] Rambutan seed Oven drying and microwave drying
Srinivasakannan and Balasubramanian [30] Millet Fluidized bed dryer
Srinivasakannan et al. [57] Ragi, millet sand Fluidized bed dryer
Tatemoto et al. [58] Rice and soybean protein powders Fluidized bed dryer
Khanali et al. [16] Rough rice Fluidized bed dryer
Soponronnarit et al. [59] Corn Fluidized bed dryer
Kaymak [31] Green peppers pretreatment Fluidized bed dryer
Poomsa et al. [60] Paddy kernel Fluidized bed dryer
Topuz et al. [61] Hazelnut Fluidized bed dryer
Kaensup and Wongwises [62] Fresh ripe peppercorns Microwave/fluidized bed dryer
Niamnuy and devahastin [63] Finely chopped coconut Fluidized bed dryer
Mohammadpour et al. [21] Shelled pistachio Fluidized bed dryer
 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811 801

Various studies have been reported in literature on drying, 3

exergy and energy of several food grains and seeds [4,5,11,16].
Generally, grains are harvested for food but the seeds are used for 4
growth of plants. The grains and seeds are related but their
1 7
botanical standpoint is different. Seeds and grains are having
different nutrition values. Most of the earlier studies were reported 1m
on one bed material, either grains or seeds. The drying influence of A V

solids changes with material shape and conditions. Here authors 8

5
studied using two different bed materials having different prop- 6 10
erties like size, shape and density. From the knowledge of literature, 9
it was noticed that the work on drying characteristics or exergy and
energy analyses with Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) grains 11
and Fenugreek seeds (Trigonella foenum-graceum L.) is not re-
ported. Kodo millet grains are grown once a year mostly in India but 12

also in some other countries like Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, 15

2
Vietnam etc. These grains are rich in fibers and carbohydrates. 13
Fenugreek seeds are native to South-Eastern Europe but now it is
1. FluidizaƟon column
also being produced in India and is largely used as spice ingredient 2. Calming secƟon
1m
in food. These seeds are also rich in carbohydrates and vitamins. 3. Power supply
One of the disadvantages with fluidized bed dryer is energy con- 0.083 m 4. Rheostat
sumption due to heating of air because of its lower thermal con- 5. Ammeter & Voltmeter
6. Wall heaƟng
ductivity. To overcome the problem in this study wall heated
7. Outlet temperature and
fluidized bed dryer was used. From literature review, it is also seen humidity of air
that exergy and energy analyses of wall heated fluidized bed was 8. Bed temperature
not carried out by any earlier investigator. In the present study 9. Wall temperature
exergy and energy were analyzed using wall heated fluidized bed 10. Indicator
14 11. Distributor plate
dryer. Also studies on drying characteristics of Kodo millet and
12. Compressor
Fenugreek seeds changing various parameters were carried out. 13. Inlet temperature and
humidity of air
2. Material and methods 14. Rotameter
15. By pass valve
2.1. Equipment description
Fig. 1. Wall heated batch fluidized bed dryer.
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup of wall heated
batch fluidized bed dryer is shown in Fig. 1. The experimental setup
is designed with columns for fluidized bed drying section and content of samples was measured on the basis of weight as a
calming section having a height of 1 m and diameter of 0.083 m. function of time. Drying characteristics of Kodo millet and Fenu-
Compressor was used for air supply. For stable flow of air bypass greek seeds were presented in the form of plots showing moisture
valve was used at the outlet of the compressor. Rotameter having a versus time or drying rate versus moisture content. The moisture
range of 0e120 kg/h was used to indicate air flow rate. The hu- content was calculated based on Eq. (1).
midity and temperature sensors were fixed to the dryer to know
the humidity and temperatures of inlet and outlet air. Distributor Moisture content ¼ ðwt  wd Þ=wd (1)
plate with gaskets between flanges has been used for proper dis-
tribution of air into the column. The wall heater of fluidized bed Fick's law of diffusion is used in general for describing drying
dryer has been made by winding the nichrome wire to the column behavior of materials. Many authors have estimated effective
wall. The heat to the system is controlled with the rheostat. The diffusion coefficient for different materials using Fick's law
power given to wall heater is measured with the help of ammeter [10,20,40,49,50]. Different empirical and semi-empirical models
and voltmeter. The temperatures of the wall and bed were like Newton, Page, and logarithmic models have been developed by
measured with the help of sensors and digital indicator. earlier investigators for describing the drying kinetics. Many author
have used these models and estimated model parameters using
2.2. Experimental procedure their experimental results [21,26,49].

The Kodo millets and Fenugreek seeds were used as bed mate-
rials. Known amount of water was added to know the initial
moisture content of the bed material. After attaining the desired
experimental conditions, the bed material was introduced from the
top of the fluidized bed column. Air is introduced to the fluidized
bed drying zone from the bottom of the column. The samples were
collected and humidity and temperatures were found simulta-
neously at regular time intervals. The collected samples were
analyzed. The exergy and energy analyses were carried using the
experimental data for the wall heated batch fluidized bed dryer.
The properties of materials and experimental conditions are tabu-
lated in Tables 2and 3 [17,18].
After the experimentation, results were analyzed. The moisture
2.3. Analysis
2.3.1. Energy analysis
A thermodynamic analysis is important for any system like a
fluidized bed dryer. The thermal energy analysis of drying process
of wall heated fluidized bed dryer was performed. Energy aspects,
as well as drying behavior of the material, have been determined.
The energy equations were developed for wall heated fluidized bed
dryer with the help of literature [41,51,52].
The specific humidity ratio was calculated from the experi-
mental relative humidity and temperature of outlet air of dryer.
Energy utilization rate was calculated from Eq. (3).
In the present study, experiments were performed in wall
802 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811

Table 2
Physical characteristics of materials.

Name of the material Kodo millet Fenugreek seeds

Shape of the material Spherical Angular

Size of particle 2.5 mm (length-3.4 mm, width-2.0 mm, thickness-1.06 mm) 2.6 mm (mean diameter)
Particle density 1100 kg/m3 1200 kg/m3
Minimum fluidization velocity 0.95 m/s 0.98 m/s

Table 3
Operating conditions for experimentation. Exdin ¼ Exw þ Exain (9)
Initial moisture content 10%, 15% and 20% (dry basis) Here Exain ¼ 0 because in these experiments, inlet air at ambient
Air velocity 1.01 m/s, 1.35 m/s and 1.7 m/s temperature was passed as inlet to dryer.
Bed height 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm Exergy loss (ExL) and Exergy efficiency (sEx) were calculated
Wall temperature 40, 50 and 60  C
using Eqs. (10) and (11).

ExL ¼ Exdin  Exaout (10)

heated fluidized bed dryer. In this dryer, heat transfer affect will be
of different forms. They are i) wall to air heat transfer ii) air to hEx ¼ ðExdin  ExL Þ= Exdin (11)
particle heat transfer and iii) particle to particle heat transfer [53,2].
Inlet and outlet humidity have been measured and the moisture
evaporation rate was calculated from these values. At the dryer exit
in experimentation, the water vapor present in air due to removal 2.4. Uncertainty analysis
of moisture from wet material is used to find the humidity ratio, Wo
and Wi indicates inlet humidity ratio. This evaporated moisture Uncertainty analyses were carried out for the experimental re-
results in increased specific humidity ratio. The heat used in drying sults using Eqs. (12) and (13) [29]. Also, uncertainties of experi-
process can be determined by employing mass balance and using mental parameters were presented in Table 4.
the psychometric chart. The evaporation rate ms was calculated Xn
from the following relation (Eq. (2)). R¼ R
i¼1 i=n
(12)

ms ¼ ma ðWo  Wi Þ (2)  X
n
u¼ 1
=ðn  1Þ i¼1
ðRi  RÞ (13)
where ma (kg dry air/s) is the mass flow rate of air. Accordingly, the
energy required for converting water into steam was obtained from
where R ¼ Result, n ¼ Number of runs, i ¼ integer and
Eq. (3).
u ¼ uncertainty.
Energy utilization rate ¼ Eout ¼ ms $Lg (3)
3. Results and discussion
Here Lg (kJ/kg water) is the latent heat of vaporization of
moisture. In the present study, experiments were performed to study the
Energy received from the wall heater is presented in Eq. (4). drying characteristics of Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds changing
various parameters like air velocity, wall temperature, bed height
Input Thermal Energy to Dryer ¼ Ein ¼ Input energy rate (4)
and initial moisture content.
Energy utilization ratio was calculated from Eq. (5)
3.1. Drying characteristics of Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds
EUR ¼ Eout =Ein (5)
3.1.1. Effect of wall temperature on drying characteristics
Experiments have been performed to determine the influence of
2.3.2. Exergy analysis wall temperature on drying characteristics in the fluidized bed
Exergy analysis was carried out using following equations. dryer varying wall temperature from 40 to 60  C and keeping
Exergy in (Exain) and Exergy out (Exaout) of air in the wall heated operating parameters like air velocity, initial moisture content and
fluidized bed dryer were calculated from Eqs. (6) and (7) as given bed height as constant.
below. From Figs. 2 and 3 it can be observed that the moisture content
of Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds decreased with increasing wall
Exain ¼ ma $cpa $½ðTain  T∞ Þ  T∞ $lnðTain =T∞ Þ (6)
Table 4
Exaout ¼ ma $cpa $½ðTaout  T∞ Þ  T∞ $lnðTaout =T∞ Þ (7) Uncertainties of Wall heated fluidized bed dryer.

In the present study exergy rate of wall heater (Exw) of fluidized Parameter Units Accuracy

bed dryer was calculated as follows [26]. Relative humidity of air RH ±0.1
Measurement of moisture in sample g ±0.0001

Exw ¼ Qw $A$ð1  ðT∞ =Tw ÞÞ (8) Wall temperature C ±0.2

Outlet air temperature C ±0.2
Here Qw is the wall heat flux for wall heated fluidized bed dryer, Air velocity m/s ±2%

Tw is the Temperature of wall. Ambient air temperature C ±0.2
Initial moisture content % 0.3
Total Exergy rate into the dryer (Exdin) was calculated as follows:
 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811 803

0.12 60
40 °C

55 50 °C
0.1
Moisture content(kg water/kg Kodo millet)

60 °C
40 °C
50 °C 50
0.08

Bed Temperature(°C)
60 °C

45
0.06

40
0.04

35
0.02

30

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 25
Time (s) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time(s)
Fig. 2. Effect of wall temperature on drying behavior of Kodo millet. (Air velocity-
1.35 m/s, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%). Fig. 4. Bed temperature profiles of Kodo millet at different wall temperatures. (Air
velocity-1.35 m/s, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%).

temperature. This is due to the fact that increasing wall tempera-

ture enhances wall to gas heat transfer, gas to particle heat transfer 3.1.2. Effect of air velocity on drying characteristics
and particle to particle heat transfer. From Fig. 4, it can be observed Experiments were performed with Kodo millet and Fenugreek
that bed temperature increased with increasing wall temperature seeds based on physical properties and minimum fluidization ve-
of dryer due to increase in heat transfer between wall to gas and locity. Experiments were carried out varying the air velocity from
wall to particles. 1.01 to 1.7 m/s and remaining parameters like wall temperature,
Meziane [2011] have studied the drying behavior of olive initial moisture content, and initial bed height being kept in
pomace using batch air heated fluidized dryer. He has reported that constant.
the drying rate of olive pomace increased with increasing air From Figs. 5 and 6 it can be observed that the drying rate of Kodo
temperature from 50 to 80  C at air velocity of 1.0 m/s [24]. Parlak millet and Fenugreek seeds increased with increasing air velocity
[2015] has studied dying characteristics of ginger slices using batch and equilibrium moisture decreased with increasing air velocity.
air heated fluidized bed dryer [19]. From his results, it was observed Increasing air velocity increases gas solid contact which results in
that the bed temperature of ginger slices increased with time. increased moisture removal. With increase in air velocity, rate of
Similar trends were observed in the present study also. The drying diffusion of moisture is increased which results in increased drying
rate of bed material increased with increasing wall temperature rate. Also at higher velocities, rapid heat transfer occurs between
(from 40 to 50  C) and bed temperature increased with increase in solid and air.
time and wall temperature of dryer. Srinivasakannan and Balasubramanian [2009] have conducted
experimental study on pearl millet using a batch air heated

0.12 0.0008

0.0007
Drying Rate(kg water/kg dry kodo millet.s)
Moisture content(kg water/kg Fenugreek seeds)

0.1 1.7 m/s

40 °C
50 °C 0.0006 1.35 m/s

0.08 60 °C
1.01 m/s
0.0005

0.06 0.0004

0.0003
0.04

0.0002
0.02
0.0001

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11
Time(s) Moisture content(kg water/kg dry kodo millet)

Fig. 3. Effect of wall temperature on drying behavior of Fenugreek seeds. (Air velocity- Fig. 5. Effect of air velocity on drying behavior of Kodo millet. (Wall temperature-
1.35 m/s, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%). 50  C, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%).
804 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811

0.0007 0.0007
3 cm
1.7 m/s
1.35 m/s
4 cm
0.0006 0.0006
Drying Rate(kg water/kg Fenugreek seeds.s)

5 cm

Drying Rate(kg water/kg Fenugreek seeds.s)

1.01 m/s

0.0005 0.0005

0.0004
0.0004

0.0003
0.0003

0.0002
0.0002

0.0001
0.0001

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Moisture content(kg water/kg Fenugreek seeds)
Moisture content(kg water/kg Fenugreek seeds)

Fig. 6. Effect of air velocity on drying behavior of Fenugreek seeds. (Wall temperature-
Fig. 8. Effect of bed height on drying behavior of Fenugreek seeds. (Air velocity-1.35 m/
50  C, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%).
s, Wall temperature-50  C and initial moisture content-10%).

fluidized bed dryer [30]. From their results, it has been noticed that increasing bed height. This is because there will be higher loading
the moisture content of pearl millet decreased with increasing air at higher bed heights, which results in decrease of gas to solid
velocity from 1.69 to 2.25 m/s with air temperature kept at 40  C. contact. Higher bed height also increases the amount of water
Kaymak [2002] has conducted studies on green pepper and red content to be removed in comparison with lower initial bed
pepper using air heated fluidized bed dryer [31]. He has presented heights.
that the drying rate increased with increasing air velocity from 0.5 Thomas and Varma [1991] have investigated experimentally on
to 4.5 m/s at air temperature of 60  C. The influence of air velocity in various granular products using batch and continuous air heated
the present study also showed similar effect. The drying rate of fluidized bed dryer [32]. The investigators have observed similar
Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds increased with increasing air trend as seen in the present study. The drying rate decreased with
velocity from 1.01 to 1.7 m/s. increasing bed height in the dryer.

3.1.3. Effect of bed height on drying characteristics 3.1.4. Effect of initial moisture content on drying characteristics
Experiments were performed with constant operating condi- Experiments were performed to determine the effect of initial
tions like air velocity, wall temperature and initial moisture content moisture content on drying characteristics of Kodo millet and
varying bed height from 3 to 5 cm to know the effect of bed height Fenugreek seeds. The drying characteristics were carried out
on drying behavior of Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds. varying initial moisture content from 10 to 20% and keeping
From the results shown in Figs. 7 and 8, it can be observed that remaining parameters constant.
the drying rate of Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds decreased with It can be observed from Figs. 9 and 10 that, at any given time, the

0.25
0.0008
Moisture content(kg water/kg dry kodo millet)

3 cm
0.0007 0.2
4 cm
20%
Drying Rate(kg water/kg dry kodo millet.s)

5 cm
0.0006
15%
0.15
0.0005 10%

0.0004
0.1
0.0003

0.0002
0.05

0.0001

0 0
0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Moisture content(kg water/kg dry kodo millet) Time(s)

Fig. 7. Effect of bed height on drying behavior of Kodo millet. (Air velocity-1.35 m/s, Fig. 9. Effect of initial moisture content on drying behavior of Kodo millet. (Air ve-
Wall temperature-50  C and initial moisture content-10%). locity-1.35 m/s, Wall temperature-50  C and bed height-4 cm).
 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811 805

0.25 0.8

0.7
Moisture content(kg water/kg Fenugreek seeds)

0.2 20% 60 °C
0.6
15% 50 °C

Energy Utilization Ratio

10%
0.15 0.5 40 °C

0.4

0.1
0.3

0.05 0.2

0.1

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time(s)
Time(s)
Fig. 10. Effect of initial moisture content on drying behavior of Fenugreek seeds. (Air
velocity-1.35 m/s, Wall temperature-50  C and bed height-4 cm). Fig. 12. EUR profiles of Fenugreek seeds at different wall temperatures. (Air velocity-
1.35 m/s, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%).

results, EUR is presented in Figs. 11 and 12. It can be observed that

moisture content of solids in the dryer will be higher for particles of
the energy utilization ratio increased by increasing wall tempera-
higher initial moisture content. Moisture content decreases with
ture from 40 to 60  C. The highest energy utilization ratio is
time due to drying. Syahrul et al., [2002] worked on drying of wheat
observed at starting of the drying time, then its value decreased
grains in a batch air heated fluidized bed dryer [10]. They noticed
with time. From the results, the energy utilization ratio is increased
that the drying time increased with increasing initial moisture
with increasing wall temperature in batch fluidized bed dryer.
content of wheat which is also observed in the present study.
Increasing wall temperature, enhances the heat transfer between
wall to gas and gas to solid, thus resulting in increased moisture
3.2. Energy utilization ratio
evaporation rate.

Experiments were conducted varying wall temperature, air ve-

locity, initial moisture content and bed height with two different 3.2.2. Effect of air velocity on energy utilization ratio
bed materials Kodo millet and Fenugreeks seeds and the energy Experiments were conducted varying air velocity from 1.01 to
utilization ratio obtained from experimental results is presented for 1.7 m/s and with remaining parameters kept constant. From Figs. 13
all the parameters. and 14, it can be observed that the energy utilization ratio increased
with increasing air velocity and decreased with drying time. In
3.2.1. Effect of wall temperature on energy utilization ratio fluidized bed dryer, the gas-solid contact plays an important role.
Experiments were carried out varying wall temperature from 40 Increasing air velocity results in increased gas solid contact. Also
to 60  C and keeping remaining parameters constant. From the

0.9 1

0.8 0.9

1.7 m/s
0.7 60 °C 0.8

50 °C 1.35 m/s
0.7
Energy Utilization Ratio

0.6
Energy Utilization Ratio

40°C
1.01 m/s
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3

0.2
0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Time(s) Time(s)

Fig. 11. EUR profiles of Kodo millet at different wall temperatures. (Air velocity-1.35 m/ Fig. 13. EUR profiles of Kodo millets at different air velocities (Wall temperature-50  C,
s, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%). bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%).
806 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811

0.8 3.2.3. Effect of bed height on energy utilization ratio

Experiments were performed varying bed height from 3 to 5 cm
0.7 in batch wall heated fluidized bed dryer and keeping remaining
1.7 m/s parameters constant. From the results shown in Figs. 15 and 16, it
0.6 can be observed that the energy utilization ratio increased with
1.35 m/s increasing bed height and decreased with drying time in wall
Energy Utilization Ratio

1.01 m/s heated fluidized bed dryer. The height of the bed also affects the
0.5
efficiency of fluidized bed dryer. Increasing the bed height increases
the amount bed material in fluidized bed dryer. Energy utilization
0.4
ratio increases with increase in bed height as more moisture is
available in the bed and hence more moisture removal rate takes
0.3 place which increases the humidity ratio in exit air. Similar EUR
profiles were seen in Nazghelichi et al., [2010]. They have con-
0.2 ducted experiments for thermodynamic analysis of hot air fluidized
bed dryer of carrot cubes. From their studies, it was noticed that
0.1 EUR increased (0.2e0.5) with increasing bed height (3e9 cm) [35].

0 3.2.4. Effect of initial moisture content on energy utilization ratio

0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s)
Fig. 14. EUR profiles of Fenugreek seeds at different air velocities (Wall temperature-
50  C, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%).
increasing air velocity increases the moisture removal rate from
solids, which results in increased energy utilization ratio in wall
heated fluidized bed dryer.
Karaguzel et al., [2003] have studied on energy and exergy an-
alyses of chickpea and beans in hot air fluidized bed dryer and
reported that EUR percentage increased (presented approximately
30e50%) with increasing air temperature from 35.6 to 70.1  C [33].
Motevali and Minaie [2012] have studied on energy and exergy
analyses of pomegranate arils in microwave oven at different air
temperatures and air velocities and it has been noticed that EUR
and exergy efficiency increased (EUR presented approximately
0.001e0.006) with increasing air velocity from 0.5 to 1.5 m/s and air
temperature from 50 to 70  C [34]. The present study also shows
similar trends ie. EUR (approximately 0.6e0.9) increases with
increasing air velocity and wall temperature for Kodo millet and
Fenugreek seeds.
600 700 Experiments were carried out varying initial moisture content
from 10 to 20% and with remaining parameters kept constant. From
Figs. 17 and 18, it can be observed that energy utilization ratio
increased by increasing initial moisture content of solids and
decreased with drying time in wall heated fluidized bed dryer.
More moisture in the bed results in increase in humidity ratio in
exit air. Thus energy utilization ratio increases with increase in
initial moisture content of solids.
3.3. Exergy loss
Exergy loss is presented varying four parameters namely wall
temperature, air velocity, bed height and initial moisture content.
The highest exergy loss of dryer with Kodo millet was approxi-
mately found to be 0.015 kJ/s at 50  C, air velocity of 1.01 m/s, bed
height of 4 cm and initial moisture content of 10% and lowest
exergy loss was found to be 0.002 kJ/s at 50  C, air velocity of
1.35 m/s, and a bed height of 3 cm and initial moisture content of
10%. The highest exergy loss of Fenugreek seeds was approximately
found to be 0.013 kJ/s at 50  C, air velocity of 1.01 m/s, bed height of
4 cm and initial moisture content of 10% and lowest exergy loss was
found to be 0.002 kJ/s at 50  C, air velocity of 1.35 m/s, bed height of
3 cm and initial moisture content of 10%.

0.9
0.9

0.8
0.8

0.7 5 cm
0.7
5 cm
Energy Utilization Ratio

0.6 4 cm
0.6
Energy Utilization Ratio

4 cm
3 cm
0.5
3 cm 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time(s) Time(s)

Fig. 15. EUR profiles of Kodo millet at different bed heights (Air velocity-1.35 m/s, Wall Fig. 16. EUR profiles of Fenugreek seeds at different bed heights (Air velocity-1.35 m/s,
temperature-50  C and initial moisture content-10%). Wall temperature-50  C and initial moisture content-10%).
 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811 807

1 1 40 °C(ŋEx) 50 °C(ŋEx) 0.016

60 °C(ŋEx) 40 °C (ExL)
0.9 0.9 50 °C(ExL) 60 °C(ExL)
0.014

0.8 0.8
0.012
0.7 0.7

Exergy Efficiency, ŋEx

Energy Utilization Ratio

Exergy Loss(kJ/s), ExL

20% 0.01
0.6 0.6
15%
0.5 0.5 0.008
10%
0.4
0.4 0.006

0.3
0.3
0.004
0.2
0.2
0.002
0.1
0.1
0 0
0 0 200 400 600 800
0 200 400 600 800 1000 Time(s)
Time(s)
Fig. 19. Exergy loss and Exergy Efficiency profiles of Kodo millet at different wall
Fig. 17. EUR profiles of Kodo millets at different initial moisture contents. (Air velocity- temperatures. (Air velocity-1.35 m/s, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-
1.35 m/s, Wall temperature-50  C and bed height-4 cm). 10%).

3.3.1. Effect of temperature on exergy loss as 0.005 kJ/s at 71  C [36]. Also Karaguzel et al., [2003] have re-
The exergy loss is the difference between input exergy and ported that exergy loss increased approximately from 0.002 to
output exergy of the dryer. Here input exergy is based on wall 0.013 kJ/s with increasing air temperature from 36 to 60 of
temperature (Eq. (8)) and output exergy is based on outlet air chickpea and beans in hot air fluidized bed dryer [33]. In the pre-
temperatures (Eq. (7)). Experiments were performed to analyze the sent study also, where heat input is given through wall, exergy loss
exergy loss varying wall temperature from 40 to 60  C of fluidized increased (0.01e0.014 kJ/s for Kodo millet and 0.009e0.013 kJ/s for
bed dryer and with remaining parameters kept constant. Exergy Fenugreek seeds) with increasing wall temperature from 40 to
loss obtained from experimental results is presented in Figs. 19 and 60  C.
20. From the figures, it can be observed that the exergy loss
increased with increasing wall temperature. The exergy loss is
found to be higher at initial stage of drying and later decreased with 3.3.2. Effect air velocity on exergy loss
drying time. At initial stage due to evaporation of more water from To determine the influence of air velocity on exergy loss, ex-
the product, exergy losses are found to be high. Corzo et al., [2008] periments were performed varying air velocity from 1.01 to 1.75 m/
have worked on exergy, energy studies of corobo slices in micro s and keeping remaining parameters in a constant mode in fluid-
oven. From their study, it has been observed that the exergy loss ized bed dryer. From the results shown in Figs. 21 and 22, it can be
increased with increasing air temperature and reported values of observed that the exergy loss of dryer decreased with increasing air
maximum exergy loss as 0.11 kJ/s at 93  C and minimum exergy loss

1 0.014
40 °C(ŋEx) 50 °C(ŋEx)
0.8 0.9 60 °C(ŋEx) 40 °C(ExL)
50 °C(ExL) 60 °C(ExL) 0.012
20% 0.8
0.7
0.01
Exergy Efficiency, ŋEx

Exergy Loss(kJ/s), ExL

15% 0.7
0.6
10% 0.6
Energy Utilization Ratio

0.008
0.5
0.5

0.4 0.006
0.4

0.3 0.3 0.004

0.2 0.2
0.002
0.1
0.1
0 0
0 0 200 400 600 800
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Time(s)
Time(s)
Fig. 20. Exergy loss and Exergy Efficiency profiles of Fenugreek seeds at different wall
Fig. 18. EUR profiles of Fenugreek seeds at different initial moisture contents. (Air temperatures (Air velocity-1.35 m/s, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-
velocity-1.35 m/s, Wall temperature-50  C and bed height-4 cm). 10%).
808 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811

1
1.01 m/s(ŋEx) 1.35 m/s(ŋEx)
0.016 wall heated fluidized bed dryer and with remaining parameters
1.7 m/s(ŋEx) 1.01 m/s(ExL) kept constant. Exergy loss was calculated from experimental results
0.9 1.35 m/s(ExL) 1.7 m/s(ExL) 0.014 to determine the influence of bed height on exergy loss. From the
0.8
results presented in Figs. 23 and 24, it can be observed that exergy
0.012 loss increased with increasing bed height and decreased with
0.7 drying time. Increasing bed height of dryer increases the amount of

Exergy Loss(kJ/s), ExL

Exergy Efficiency, ŋEx

0.01
material and moisture. Due to decrease in outlet air temperature,
0.6 exergy out of dryer decreases and hence exergy loss increases.
Similar trends were noticed with Nazghelichi et al., [2010] and
0.5 0.008
Azadbakht et al., [2016] [35,38]. Nazghelichi et al., [2010] have re-
0.4 ported that the exergy loss (from 0.5 to 1.6 kJ/s) increased with
0.006
increase in bed height in air heated fluidized bed dryer.
0.3
0.004 3.3.4. Effect of initial moisture content on exergy loss
0.2
Experiments were performed varying initial moisture content of
0.002 bed material from 10 to 20% and with remaining parameters kept
0.1
constant to determine the influence of initial moisture content on
0 0 exergy loss. From Figs. 25 and 26, it can be observed that the exergy
0 200 400 600 800 loss increased with increasing initial moisture content of solids and
Time(s)
decreased with drying time in the dryer. Increase in initial moisture
Fig. 21. Exergy loss and Exergy Efficiency profiles of Kodo millet at different air ve- content of solids decreases outlet exergy of air, thus increasing
locities. (Wall temperature-50  C, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content-10%). exergy loss.

velocity and decreased with drying time. Exergy loss is difference of
exergy in and exergy out. Exergy in is not affected with increase in
air velocity as heat flux and wall temperature are constant. Exergy
out increased with increasing air velocity due to increase in gas
solid heat transfer leading to higher evaporation of moisture. This
increases the available energy at the outlet, thus increasing the
exergy outlet. Hence exergy loss decreases with increase in air
velocity. Akbulut and Durmus [2010] have conducted a study on
exergy, energy analyses of mulberry in a forced solar dryer and
reported that exergy loss decreased from 10.82 to 2.6 W
(0.01082e0.002 kJ/s) with increasing mass flow rate of air from
0.014 to 0.036 kg/s [37] which is in agreement with the present
study where exergy loss decreased (for Kodo millet 0.015 to
0.011 kJ/s and for Fenugreek seeds 0.014 to 0.009 kJ/s) with increase
in air velocity (mass flow rate from 0.0069 to 0.0112 kg/s).
3.3.3. The effect of bed height on exergy loss
Experiments were carried varying bed height from 3 to 5 cm in
1.01 m/s(ŋEx)
1
1.7 m/s(ŋEx)
1.35 m/s(ExL)
0.9
0.8
0.7
Exergy Efficiency, ŋEx
3.4. Exergy efficiency
From the experimentation of batch wall heated fluidized bed
dryer with Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds, exergy efficiency is
presented varying different parameters like wall temperature, air
velocity, bed height and initial moisture content of solids. The
highest exergy efficiency of Kodo millet was found to be nearly
0.72 at wall temperature of 50  C, air velocity of 1.7 m/s, bed height
of 4 cm and initial moisture content of 10%. The highest exergy
efficiency Fenugreek seeds were found to be nearly 0.75 at wall
temperature of 50  C, air velocity of 1.7 m/s, bed height of 4 cm and
initial moisture content of 10%. The lowest exergy efficiency of Kodo
millet was found to be nearly 0.4 at wall temperature of 50  C, air
velocity of 1.35 m/s, bed height of 4 cm and initial moisture content
of 20%. The lowest exergy efficiency of Fenugreek seeds was found
to be nearly 0.4 at wall temperature of 50  C, air velocity of 1.35 m/s,
bed height of 4 cm and initial moisture content of 20%
3.4.1. Effect of temperature on exergy efficiency
The exergy efficiency of wall heated fluidized bed dryer is pre-
1.35 m/s(ŋEx)
1.01 m/s(ExL)
0.014 sented varying wall temperature from 40 to 60  C. From Figs. 19 and
1.7 m/s(ExL) 20, it can be observed that the exergy efficiency increased with
0.012 increasing wall temperature and increased with drying time. The
exergy efficiency is directly proportional to energy utilization of
dryer. Here the moisture evaporation rate and heat transfer be-
0.01
tween solid and gas is increased with increasing wall temperature.

This leads to the increase in exergy efficiency of the fluidized bed

Exergy Loss(kJ/s)

0.6
0.008 dryer.
0.5
0.006 3.4.2. Effect of air velocity on exergy efficiency
0.4
Experiments were conducted varying air velocities from 1.01 to
0.3 1.7 m/s and remaining parameters were kept constant. The exergy
0.004
efficiency of batch wall heated fluidized bed dryer with Kodo millet
0.2 and Fenugreek seeds is presented at different air velocities from
0.002 1.01 to 1.7 m/s. From Figs. 21 and 22, it can be observed that the
0.1
exergy efficiency increased with increasing air velocity and
0 0 increased with drying time.
0 200 400 600 800 The results have shown similarity with Karaguzel et al., [2003]
Time(s) and Motevali and Minaie [2012]. Karaguzel et al., [2003] have re-
Fig. 22. Exergy loss and Exergy Efficiency profiles of Fenugreek seeds at different air
ported that the exergy efficiency increased (presented approxi-
velocities. (Wall temperature-50  C, bed height-4 cm and initial moisture content- mately 30e50%) with increase in air temperature [33]. Motevali
10%). and Minaie [2012] have reported that the exergy efficiency
 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811 809

Fig. 23. Exergy loss and Exergy Efficiency profiles of Kodo millet at different bed heights. (Air velocity-1.35 m/s, Wall temperature-50  C and initial moisture content-10%).

increased (approximately from 62.54 to 84.75%) with increasing air
velocity from 0.5 to 1.5 m/s and air temperature from 50 to 70  C
[34].
3.4.3. Effect of bed height on exergy efficiency
To analyze the influence bed height on exergy efficiency of batch
wall heated fluidized dryer, exergy efficiency has been presented in
Figs. 23 and 24 at different bed heights ranging from 3 to 5 cm.
From Figs. 23 and 24, it can be seen that the exergy efficiency
increased with decreasing bed height and increased with drying
time. From the results it can be noticed that the exergy loss due to
increase in bed height is inversely proportional to exergy efficiency.
In this study results have shown consistency with the results of
Nazghelichi et al., [2010] and Azadbakht et al., [2016]. From Naz-
ghelichi et al., [2010] results, it was seen that the exergy efficiency is
found to be decreasing (0.75e0.5) with increasing bed height
(3e9 cm) [35]. Also from Azadbakht et al., [2016] results, it was
observed that the exergy efficiency decreased with increase in bed
loading (from 1.5 to 3 cm) in air heated fluidized bed dryer [38].

1 3 cm(ŋEx) 4 cm(ŋEx) 0.012 10%(ŋEx) 15%(ŋEx)

1 0.016
5 cm(ŋEx) 3 cm(ExL) 20%(ŋEx) 10%(ExL)
0.9 4 cm(ExL) 5 cm(ExL) 15%(ExL) 20%(ExL)
0.9
0.01 0.014
0.8
0.8
0.012
Exergy Loss(kJ/s), ExL

0.7
Exergy Efficiency, ŋEx

0.008 0.7
Exergy Loss(kJ/s), ExL
Exergy Efficiency, ŋEx

0.6 0.01
0.6

0.5 0.006
0.5 0.008

0.4 0.4
0.006
0.004
0.3 0.3
0.004
0.2 0.2
0.002
0.1 0.002
0.1

0 0 0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Time(s) Time(s)

Fig. 24. Exergy loss and Exergy Efficiency profiles of Fenugreek seeds at different bed Fig. 25. Exergy loss and Exergy Efficiency profiles of Kodo millet at different initial
heights. (Air velocity-1.35 m/s, Wall temperature-50  C and initial moisture content- moisture contents (Air velocity-1.35 m/s, Wall temperature-50  C and bed height-4
10%). cm).
810 D. Yogendrasasidhar, Y. Pydi Setty / Energy 151 (2018) 799e811
1 10%(ŋEx) 15%(ŋEx)
20%(ŋEx) 10%(ExL)
15%(ExL) 20%(ExL)
0.9
0.8
0.7
Exergy Efficiency, ŋEx
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0
0 200 400 600 800
Time(s)
Fig. 26. Exergy loss and Exergy Efficiency profiles of Fenugreek seeds at different
initial moisture contents (Air velocity-1.35 m/s, Wall temperature-50  C and bed
height-4 cm).
3.4.4. Effect of initial moisture content on exergy efficiency
To analyze the influence initial moisture content on exergy ef-
ficiency of batch wall heated fluidized bed dryer, exergy efficiency
at different initial moisture contents ranging from 10 to 20% has
been presented in Figs. 25 and 26. From the figures, it can be
noticed that exergy efficiency increased with decreasing initial
moisture content and increased with drying time. From the results
it can be observed that exergy loss due to increase in initial mois-
ture content is inversely proportional to exergy efficiency. Akpinar
[2007] has studied thermodynamic analysis using strawberry in
cyclone type dryer and reported that the exergy loss increased with
increasing initial moisture content [9]. In the present study also, it
has been observed that EUR increased (0.78e0.94 for Kodo millet
and 0.65 to 0.8 for Fenugreek seeds).
Kodo millet showed better drying, exergy and energy rates than
Fenugreek seeds due to its spherical shape. The spherical particle
gives good fluidization behavior and smooth mixing with gas than
other shapes. Uncertainty analysis was carried out using Eqs. (12)
and (13) from the repeated experimentation of wall heated fluid-
ized dryer. Uncertainties noticed from the results are within 3e4%.
4. Conclusions
The experiments were carried out with Kodo millet and Fenu-
greek seeds using batch wall heated fluidized bed dryer to inves-
tigate the drying behavior of Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds with
different parameters like wall temperature, air velocity, bed height
and initial moisture. Exergy and Energy analyses were carried out
with Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds using batch wall heated
fluidized bed dryer. Energy utilization ratio, exergy loss and exergy
efficiency of both materials Kodo millet and Fenugreek seeds were
reported. From the results, it can be noticed that (i) the energy
utilization ratio increased with increasing wall temperature, air
velocity, bed height and initial moisture content and decreased
with drying time (ii) The exergy loss increased with increasing wall
temperature, bed height and initial moisture content and decreased
with increasing air velocity and drying time (iii) the exergy effi-
ciency increased with increasing wall temperature, air velocity and
drying time and decreased with increasing bed height and initial
moisture content.
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