Sedimentary Geology, 41 (1985) 249-268 249

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF PALEOZOIC FLYSCH

MUDROCKS OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA: IMPLICATIONS IN PROVENANCE
AND TECTONIC SE'ITING INTERPRETATION

MUKUL R. BHATIA *
Department of Geology, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600 (Australia)
(Accepted for publication March 21, 1984)

ABSTRACT

Bhatia, M.R., 1985. Composition and classification of Paleozoic flysch mudrocks of eastern Australia:
Implications in provenance and tectonic setting interpretation. In: R. Hesse (Editor), Sedimentology
of Sihstone and Mudstone. Sediment. Geol., 41: 249-268.

The mudrock suites of Paleozoic flysch sequences of eastern Australia can be characterised on the
basis of the relative abundances of phyllosilicates and tectosilicates (mainly feldspar and quartz). A
mudrock maturity index is defined as the ratio of total phyllosilicates to phyllosilicates + feldspar + quartz.
Mudrocks are classified into tectic, phyllo-tectic and phyllic types, on the basis of increasing maturity.
Based on studied examples of eastern Australia, preliminary characteristics of mudrocks of various
tectonic settings are identified. Oceanic island arc mudrocks are of the tectic type, characterised by high
feldspar and low phyllosilicate content. They are derived from calc-alkaline andesitic rocks of the
magmatic arc. Mudrocks of the continental island arc and active continental margins (Andean type and
strike-slip basins) are characterised by a higher phyllosilicate content and are mainly phyllo-tectic in type.
Passive margin mudrocks are of the phyllic type, characterised by extremely high phyllosilicate and low
feldspar contents, suggesting their recycled nature. Mudrock maturity is accompanied by an increase in
the K~O/Na20 ratio from oceanic island arc to continental island arc and active continental margin to
passive margin type mudrocks.

INTRODUCTION

Fine-grained clastic sediments form more than half of the volume of ancient and
m o d e r n c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n s a n d o c e a n i c b a s i n s , yet t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y
studied. These s e d i m e n t s are most c o m m o n l y d e p o s i t e d as d i s t a l t u r b i d i t e s a n d
h e m i p e l a g i c m u d s , in r e l a t i v e l y d e e p w a t e r . C o m m o n l y , these rocks have been
t r e a t e d as a h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p w i t h little v a r i a t i o n in t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

* Present address: Elf Aquitaine Petroleum Limited, P.O. Box 725, North Sydney, N.S.W. 2060,
Australia.

0037-0738/85/$03.30 ~3 1985 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

250

Many recent investigations have shown that the geochemical and mineralogical
compositions of sandstones give excellent evidence of the tectonic setting of basins
and the nature of the crust of the provenance region (Bhatia, 1983, and references
therein). In contrast, very few attempts have been made to relate the mineralogy and
geochemistry of fine grained clastic sediments or sedimentary rocks to provenance
and the tectonic setting of the basin (Englund and Jorgenson, 1973: Bj0rlykke, 1974:
Maynard et al., 1982).
In modern ocean basins, the distribution of clay minerals has been related to
climatic conditions of the adjacent land mass (Griffin et al., 1968: Rateev et al.,
1969). However, it has been contended that the mineralogy of fine-grained clastics is
controlled by source rock composition and climate in the provenance region (Weaver,
1978: Potter et al., 1980; Blatt et al., 1980). Tectonism has been widely regarded as
the ultimate control in the composition of clastic sediments. Source rocks and
weathering conditions, the two most important factors influencing the composition
of fine-grained clastics, are dependent on the tectonic setting of the basin (Bhatia,
1983).
The purpose of the present paper is to examine the mineralogical and chemical
composition of fine-grained clastic sedimentary rocks of various well-defined Paleo-
zoic flysch sequences of eastern Australia, and to relate the compositional character-
istics to the provenance type and tectonic setting of the sedimentary basins. Clastic
sediments and sedimentary rocks finer than 0.062 mm have been termed muds and
mudrocks respectively (Blatt et al., 1980).

SAMPLES AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

Twenty nine mudrock samples of Paleozoic flysch sequences of eastern Australia

(Fig. 1), representing the Tamworth suite, New South Wales (Devonian); Hill End
suite, New South Wales (Devonian--Silurian); Hodgkinson suite, Queensland (De-
vonian); Bendigo suite, Victoria (Ordovician); and Cookman suite, New South
Wales (Silurian) were analysed mineralogically and geochemically. The discussion on
their geological settings is given in Crook (1980), and Bhatia and Taylor (1981).
Mudrocks constitute between half to two-thirds of the stratigraphic sequences of the
suites studied. Various structures, e.g. parallel laminations, cross laminations, par-
ting lineations, mud balls and flute and tool marks are commonly seen in these
rocks. Mudrocks occur as "d" or "e" units of the Bouma sequence in the sedimen-
tary suites examined.
The identification and estimation of minerals in mudrocks has been done by thin
sections for the framework silicates, iron-oxide and carbonates, and by X-ray
diffraction for phyllosilicates (Table I). The samples were X-rayed on a Phillips
PW1050 goniometer at a speed of 1 ° min -1 and a chart speed of 1 cm min-l~ using
a filtered CuK~ radiation, 1 / 4 ° entrance and exit slits and a graphite monochroma-
tor. Oriented slides were made by settling a clay-water slurry containing 0.002 mm
 251

fraction of the rock powder on a glass slide• These were used to obtain diffracto-
grams in the air-dried, ethylene glycol-saturated and heat-treated state of the
samples• Chlorite, illite, quartz, feldspar, biotite, calcite, kaolinite, and mixed-layered
minerals were identified following the common schemes (Brindley and Brown, 1980).
Many mineralogical investigations of mudrocks concentrate only on the clay size
fraction• Consequently, important information on the total amount of tectosilicates
and phyilosilicates present in the whole rock is not available (see also Towe, 1974).
The quantitative mineralogical analysis of mudrocks is notoriously difficult and has
inherent problems due to varying factors such as crystallinity, particle orientation,
chemical composition and grain size.
For the present work, a simplified method similar to the one adopted by Norrish
and Taylor (1962) has been followed• The powdered bulk sample was mixed with
vaseline and run on a Siemens F X-ray diffractometer fitted with Omega Drive and
a gold knife edge, with scan speed of 10 mm min -~ and 1 / 2 ° entrance and exit slits,
using filtered C u K , radiation and a graphite monochromator. The advantage of
mixing the powder with vaseline is that it avoids the preferred orientation of clay

°a

A
~ •

,,T ,

iI

4 ~ " h~ " i ~)~;,2o IlIA

~ ....... "~ (
TASMAN
S£A
AUSTRALIA 0 "

~P 9 ~°" 2 3 4 ~°°
MILES

Fig. 1. Location map of the studied Paleozoic sedimentary basins of eastern Australia.
TABLE I

Estimates of the mineral abundance in mudrock suites ’

Mudrock Framework silicates Phyllosilicates I ran Carbonates

suite (in clay fraction) oxide\
quartz feldspar misc.
illite chlorite kaolinite mixed-layer

Tamworth xxx xxx xx X X xx xx xx

Hill End xx xx _ xx xx X X xx X

Hodgkinson xx xx xx XX _ _ X X

Bend&o xx X xxx XXX

Cookman X _ xxx xxx ._

” Estimated abundance index: X = \ery hmall: x x = common: x Y x = abundant: - = negligthleor absent

 253

minerals, which could otherwise be overestimated. The peak areas of the minerals
were used as a measure of their relative proportion in the rock. The measured peaks
are: 7 ,~ (chlorite), 7.1 ,~ (kaolinite), 10 .A (illite), 4.26 ,~ (quartz), 3.2 ,~ (feldspar)
and 3.03 ,~ (calcite). The results are only semi-quantitative and give an estimate of
the relative proportion of the minerals present in the rock (Table II). These differ
from the study of oriented slides, which was mainly done for qualitative determina-
tion of phyllosilicates in the clay size fraction.
Quartz estimation on each mudrock sample was also done using pressed pills on
the infra-red spectroscope, following the method of Hlavay et al. (1978) and
Rosseaux (1978). A comparison of the quartz content determined by X-ray diffrac-
tion and infra-red techniques suggests that accuracy of the semi-quantitative X-ray
method is probably within + 15% relative to infra-red determinations (Table II).
The major and trace element determinations were done by X-ray fluorescence and
the methods are detailed in Bhatia (1983, 1984).
Grain-size determination of mudrocks is obviously difficult, due to their small
particle size and indurated nature. Mean grain size was estimated from thin sections.
The sorting index of Picard (1971) (Sm = % sand-size detritus/% silt and clay
fractions), is used as a measure for the textural maturity of mudrocks. On this basis,
the following three textural maturity classes of mudrocks were recognised:
(1) Good sorting--Sm < 0.1; silt + clay > 90%
(2) Fair sorting--Sm = 0.1-0.3; silt + clay = 75-90%
(3) Poor sorting--Sm > 0.3; silt + clay < 75%

PALEOZOIC MUDROCKS OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA

Composition

The optical and XRD studies suggest that the mudrocks are composed of quartz,
feldspar, iron-oxide and hydroxide, calcite, and phyllosilicates (illite, chlorite,
kaolinite and mixed-layer minerals). The Crow Mountain Creek mudrocks also
contain some diagenetic biotite and thus these mudrocks are not included in the
semi-quantitative evaluation. The mixed-layer minerals, noted in the clay size
fraction of the Tamworth suite mudrocks, were not recorded by the semi-quantita-
tive technique because of their low abundance.
In general, mudrocks of the various suites have similar mineral constituents.
However, the relative amounts of phyllosilicates and other constituents help in
characterising these mudrock suites. A plot of total phyllosilicate (illite + chlorite +
kaolinite) versus quartz + feldspar shows that, there is a gradation from Tamworth
through Hill End-Hodgkinson to Bendigo-Cookman suite mudrocks, characterised
by a decrease in the feldspar and quartz content and an increase in phyllosilicates
(Fig. 2). The high quartz content of the Tamworth suite mudrocks is due to the
presence of radiolarian quartz and probably some volcanic glass. The Hill End suite
254

~, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~,~, ~

i i l l

Y.=
t~'~ [ ~:~1"~ I "~t . . ~. . . . ~ ~ ~, r~ ~_ ~ t~ ~ "~
t-,

~ , ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ ~, ~ 1

<
 255

0 0

E E 0 0

-I
r~ ~ E E

,.~ e-
m e'~ f.

0 0 o

I 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I

I I I

..=

0
e-

~ ~1 ~ ~ ~

.a

&
256

A
~gZ ODD
L D
o 80
(3-
a~D
&

+
N 50
4~
L o
o 40
c~ 30 O
O
20 o
I i I , [ , I

2Z 40 60 8Z
Phyllosilicates
Fig. 2. Plot of total phyllosilicate versus q u a r t z + feldspar c o n t e n t in m u d r o c k s , wuares = l ' a m w o r t h suite;
triangles = Hill End suite: diamonds = H o d g k i n s o n suite: hexagons-Bendigo suite: circles= C o o k m a n
suite.

mudrocks show large mineralogical variation. Some plot in the Tamworth suite field,
but in general they have a high phyllosilicate and low feldspar content. The
Hodgkinson suite mudrocks cannot be distinguished on the basis of mineral abun-
dance from the Hill End suite samples. The Bendigo and Cookman suite samples are
characterised by a high phyllosilicate content and a low feldspar and quartz content.
The data from the Paleozoic suites of eastern Australia show that the "juvenile"
mudrocks (e.g., the Tamworth and Hill End suites) are significantly higher in
feldspars, compared to the " m a t u r e " or recycled mudrocks (e.g., Bendigo and
Cookman suites) which are low in feldspars and enriched in phyllosilicates. The
increasing maturity is also reflected by the mineralogical and geochemical composi-
tions of the associated graywackes. There is an increase in SiO z and a decrease in
AI203, TiO 2, total FeO, MgO, CaO and N a 2 0 from the Tamworth through Hill
Endo-Hodgkinson to Bendigo-Cookman graywacke suites, concomitant with the
increase in quartz and the decrease in feldspar and labile grains in the graywackes
(Bhatia, 1981). Thus, for mudrocks a maturity index can be defined as follows:

phyllosilicates × 100
Mudrock maturity index =
phyllosilicates + quartz + feldspar

The increasing maturity characterised by the increase in phyllosilicates and the

decrease in tectosilicates is also reflected in the major-element geochemistry of these
mudrocks. A plot of mudrock maturity index versus log K 2 0 / N a z O of mudrocks of
eastern Australia shows that there is an increase in the K z O / N a 2 0 ratio with the
increase in mudrock maturity index (Fig. 3). This is attributed to the increase in K
 257

, "6,
/ )
1.5 /C /
z I
O
~d // ~,/
1.0
Z zx
,,-D L~,:, .......
0.5 A A
"Do "&~ oA S /,
',~ [] \\ ..... -"
o 0
\ A

-0.5

.__, I , I J I ~ I

28 48 58 88
Mud. Hat. Index

Fig. 3. Plot of Mudrock Maturity Index versus log K20/Na20. The three fieldscorrespondto tectic (A),
phyllo-tectic(B)andphyllic(C)typemudrocks(symbolsasinFig. 2).

with the enrichment of phyllosilicates and the depletion of Na due to the low
abundance of feldspars in source rocks and loss during transportation, with increas-
ing maturity in mudrocks.
Thus, on the basis of semi-quantitative mineralogy and geochemistry, the dis-
crimination between each suite is not perfect but the suites can be grouped into the
following classes: (a) Tamworth suite; (b) Hill End and Hodgkinson suites and; (c)
Bendigo and Cookman suites.
Quartz appears in various forms such as biogenic silica, volcanic glass and detrital
grains. The decrease in the quartz abundance in recycled mudrocks could be due to
either: (1) weathering and loss in solution; or (2) enrichment of quartz grains in the
sand size fraction due to sorting; or (3) the increase in phyllosilicates affecting the
quartz abundance. The higher phyllosilicate and lower quartz content in the Bendigo
and Cookman suite mudrocks can possibly be attributed to quartz dissolution and
pressure solution during late diagenesis (cf. Fiachtbauer, 1978). However, such a
phenomenon is unlikely to have occurred in the cases studied, because the Bendigo
and Cookman suite graywackes though quartz-rich, are characterised by a high
clay-matrix content and the absence of quartz cementation.
The small number of samples studied does not allow to make unequivocal
statements on the relationship between texture and composition. Most mudrock
samples exhibit fair to good sorting (Sm = 0.1-0.3). However, sorting improves with
decreasing grain size (Table II). The mudrock maturity index shows no definite
variation with grain size suggesting that grain size is not the first order factor
controlling maturity (Fig. 4). Similarly, no systematic relationship is observed
between the degree of diagenesis and maturity. The dissolution of K-feldspar during
258

Zl
10
g [] OA O

v 8
UJ
N
7 [] A A

rr
6 O~

(D
5 0

4
, I , I L I , I

20 40 60 80
MUDROCK MATURITY INDEX
Fig. 4. Plot of Mudrock Maturity Index versus estimated mean grain size. Note maturity has no
systematic relationship with grain size (symbols as in Fig. 2).

diagenesis has been reported in mudrocks (Perry and Hower, 1970; Hower et al.,
1976; Eslinger and Sellers, 1981) but its extent is not completely known (cf. Charles
and Blatt, 1978). Extensive feldspar dissolution, if present, may diminish the
significance of the maturity index. However, the variation in the mineral abundance
in the mudrock suites of eastern Australia can not be attributed primarily to
diagenesis. The Hill End suite mudrocks show a higher degree of diagenesis but a
lower phyliosilicate content than the Bendigo suite mudrocks.

Prouenance and petrogenesis

It is widely accepted that illite and chlorite form the dominant component of the
clay size fraction of Paleozoic mudrocks and that kaolinite and mixed-layer minerals
are abundant in younger mudrocks (Weaver, 1967). Similar observations have also
been made in bore-hole samples and are attributed to the alteration of mixed-layer
minerals to illite and chlorite due to increasing diagenesis (Perry and Hower, 1970;
Hiltabrand et al., 1973; Mackenzie, 1975; Hower et al., 1976). Due to this diagenetic
alteration, the effects of other factors such as changes in source rocks, weathering
and climatic conditions or changes in the ocean chemistry, in the mudrock mineral-
ogy are difficult to discern (Weaver, 1967; Holland, 1978; Potter et al., 1980).
Van Moort (1971) suggested that though burial metamorphism had modified the
minerals, the differences in the mineralogical characteristics between Mesozoic
shales of Papua New Guinea and the Tertiary shales of Louisiana. are due to
differences in the nature of the source rocks and weathering conditions. Similarly,
 259

the data from eastern Australia show that though the original mineralogy may be
modified to some extent by burial metamorphism, differences in the relative abun-
dance of feldspar and phyllosilicates reflect differences in source rocks and weather-
ing conditions for the various suites.
Studies of recent sediments suggest that the environment of deposition and
tectonism (in the form of source rocks and relief) control the composition of muds
and mudrocks (Biscaye, 1965; Porrenga, 1967; Weaver, 1978; Potter et al., 1980).
Also, the authigenic and diagenetic changes are minor in marine conditions and
most illite and chlorite are of terrigenous origin in rapidly deposited geosynclinal
basins (Weaver, 1978). The Tamworth suite mudrocks are rich in feldspar and low in
phyllosilicates. This indicates "active" tectonism and volcanism which resulted in
high relief and low weathering conditions, thus inhibiting the decomposition of
feldspar. The presence of smectite commonly indicates a volcanic source terrain,
which also provided abundant feldspar grains and substantiates an andesitic source
envisaged on the basis of the graywacke geochemistry (Bhatia, 1983).
The Hill End and Hodgkinson suite mudrocks also contain abundant feldspar
indicating mild weathering conditions and moderate relief. These mudrocks are
characterised by higher abundances of phyllosilicates and detrital quartz compared
to Tamworth suite mudrocks and thus are compatible with a quartzo-feldspathic
(felsic volcanic or granito-gneissic) source terrain.
The Bendigo suite mudrocks are characterised by a high abundance of chlorite,
which may have been derived from older chlorite rich rocks or the conversion of
volcanogenic smectite. The high phyllosilicate and low feldspar content indicates a
dominantly sedimentary-metasedimentary source terrain with minor volcanic
material. This is compatible with the recycled nature suggested by the associated
mature and quartzose graywackes (Bhatia, 1983).
Only one mudrock sample of the Cookman suite was analysed. This is high in
phyllosilicates (mainly kaolinite) and low in feldspar, suggesting a multicycled origin
and intense weathering conditions. Kaolinite is present in deep-sea sediments and
represents low-latitude continental detritus. Mudrocks of the Cookman Formation
are commonly weathered and thus kaolinite may have formed due to the recent
weathering of illite.

CLASSIFICATION OF MUDROCKS

Existing classifications

Current efforts to classify fine-grained clastic sedimentary rocks are very timely.
The existing classifications of fine-grained clastic sedimentary rocks (Table III) are
of three types and are based on: (1) grain size and laminations; (2) lithic grain type;
and (3) mineralogy and texture.
In the classifications based solely on grain size and the physical character
260

TABLE 111
Recent classifications of mudrocks

Author(s) Description
Ft~chtbauer and M~ller (1970) Textural and mineralogical classification.
Presume all quartz in the silt size and
phyUosilicates in the clay-size fraction
Picard (1971) Textural and compositional. Mainly based
on the type of silt-size grains
Blatt et al. (1980) Textural classification. Divide mudrocks into
siltstone, mudstone and claystone based on the
presence of the silt-size fraction
Pettijohn (1975) A field classification based on grain size.
lamination and fissility
Larese and Heald (1977) A broad classification of sedimentary rocks
based on texture and composition. End members
of the classification are shale-sandstone-
siltstone and shale-siltstone-dolomite
Lewan (1978) A laboratory classification based on texture
and mineralogy. Divides mudrocks into shale
and mudstone depending upon the percentage of
the < 5/*m fraction
Spears (1980) Divides mudrocks into five classes on the
basis of quartz percentage and its supposed
correlation with grain size
Lundegard and Samuels (1980) A field classification based on the silt size
fraction and lamination
Potter et al. (1980) A comprehensive classification based on
texture, mineralogy and physical characters.
Divide mudrocks into three broad categories
based on clay-size constituents
Weaver(1980) Separates texture from mineralogy. Divides
mudrocks into two textural classes: siltstone
and claystone. Mineralogical modifiers
"physil" and "physillic" are used for rocks
having more than 50% and less than 50%
phyllosilicates, respectively. Confusing
terminology

( P e t t i j o h n , 1975; B l a t t et al., 1980; L u n d e g a r d a n d S a m u e l s , 1980), t h e e m p h a s i s is

to d i s t i n g u i s h f i n e - g r a i n e d c l a y s t o n e s f r o m s i l t s t o n e s a n d w e l l - l a m i n a t e d a n d p o o r l y
l a m i n a t e d shales. T h e s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a r e u s e f u l for field a n d d e s c r i p t i v e p u r p o s e s .
H o w e v e r , in d e e p l y b u r i e d a n d g e o s y n c l i n a l t e r r a i n s , it is d i f f i c u l t to m e a s u r e t h e
t r u e g r a i n size, a n d p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r s a r e s u b j e c t e d to m o d i f i c a t i o n s d u e to b u r i a l .
B e s i d e s t h e d i f f i c u l t y in m e a s u r i n g t h e g r a i n size o f f i n e - g r a i n e d rocks, e v e n its
s i g n i f i c a n c e is n o t c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d b e c a u s e g r a i n size i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s -
 261

ing burial. Weaver (1980) has pointed out that mineralogy has no fixed relationship
with grain size and it is a mistake to assume that silt size material is largely quartz
and that phyllosilicates are generally clay size. In the Tamworth and Hill End suite
mudrocks, the clay size fraction is more than 50% of the rock but the phyllosilicate
content is generally less than 30%, suggesting that a large part of the feldspar and
quartz grains constitute the clay-size fraction. Similarly, a large part of the silt
fraction could contain phyllosilicates (Scotford, 1965).
Picard's (1971) classification of mudrocks is based on the nature of lithic grains.
However, it is virtually impossible to identify the nature of rock fragments in
mudrocks of geosynclinal terrains. Spears (1980) proposed a classification on the
basis of correlation between quartz content and grain size. The general applicability
of this criterion rests upon his belief that "this relationship will hold from other
systems, but for a given grain size of quartz the clay proportion may vary, probably
related to maturity" (Spears, 1980, p. 126). This scheme may hold true for sediments
derived from cratonic and recycled orogens where the size-abundance relationship is
due to weathering, but not in many geosynclinal terrains where abundant first-cycle
material is present and composition is not related to grain size in a simple way.
Lewan (1978) proposed a classification based on textural and mineralogical studies.
However, he has grouped tectosilicates (i.e. quartz and feldspars) and phyllosilicates
together and, as shown by the data of eastern Australia, it is the ratio of these
variables which reflects the nature of mudrocks. According to his classification, a
mudrock containing 50% feldspar and 20% phyllosilicates will have the same value
of silicate fraction as a mudrock containing 5% feldspar and 65% phyllosilicates, all
other being the same. Again, this classification may be more suitable for cratonic
sequences where the carbonate content is of interest.

Proposed classification

The proposed classification is based on the whole rock mineralogy and textural
characteristics of flysch mudrocks. The term "clay" has both a textural and
mineralogical connotation. Weaver (1980) has proposed that it should be used
strictly in a textural sense for particles finer than 0.004 mm in size and coined
another term "physil" having a strictly mineralogical connotation for all phyllosili-
care minerals. However, the term "physil" may generate more confusion than
serving any good purpose. The term "phyllosilicate" is adequate enough to indicate
a mineralogical meaning and "phyllic" can be used as an adjective for
phyllosilicate-rich rocks. The term "mudrock" is recommended for fine-grained
clastic sedimentary rocks of the geosynclinal sequences.
Mudrocks can be divided into three broad clans as shown in the triangular plot of
quartz-feldspar-phyllosilicates for the Paleozoic mudrocks of eastern Australia (Fig.
5). The "tectic mudrocks" represented by the Tamworth suite are characterised by
abundant feldspar and biogenic quartz or volcanic glass, and the low abundance of
262

Feldspar Phyl losi 11cotes

Fig. 5. Mineralogical classification of mudrocks based on the quartz-feldspar-phyllosilicate content
(symbols as in Fig. 2).

phyllosilicates, indicating dominantly mafic to intermediate volcanic source terrain.

The "phyllo-tectic mudrocks", comprising the Hill End and Hodgkinson suite
samples, are characterised by detrital quartz, feldspar and phyllosilicates suggesting
quartzo-feldspathic (felsic volcanic or granitic) source rocks. The Bendigo and
Cookman suites constitute the "phyllic mudrocks" and are characterised by a high
abundance of phyllosilicates and a very small proportion of quartz and feldspar,
indicating their recycled nature.
The mudrocks are divided into siltstone, mudstone and claystone depending on
the clay size constituent present. The limits between siltstone, mudstone and
claystone are marked at 33 and 67~ of the clay-size constituents present (Blatt et al.,
1980). A two-fold classification into siltstone and claystone is also equally useful
(Weaver, 1980). The clay-size constituent can be estimated from thin sections for
indurated rocks. An extended classification based on mineralogy and texture is
presented in Table IV. The prefixes tectic, phyllo-tectic, and phyllic are a function of
the mineralogy of mudrocks, and their boundaries are broadly demarcated at the
mudrock maturity index of 33 and 67. If distinction on the basis of the clay size
constituent is possible, the suffix siltstone, mudstone and claystone can be used. The
suffix silt, mud and clay can be adopted for fine grained deep-sea sediments.
The proposed classification is essentially descriptive but can be related to the
tectonic setting of the sedimentary basins (see below). It is mainly designed for
flysch sequences and may not be applicable in the cratonic realm, where the
quartz phyllosilicate content forms a continuous gradation and composition is
related to the grain size due to its recycled nature and prolonged weathering (e.g.,
Blatt and Schultz, 1976; Spears, 1980). The classification is based on a small data set
 263

TABLE IV
Proposed classification of flysch mudrocks and their modern analogues (fine-grained deep-sea sediments)

Mineralogy: Texture: percentage of clay-size constituents

Mudrock
0-33 34-67 68-100
Maturity Index

< 33 Tectic siltstone Tectic mudstone Tectic claystone

tectic silts tectic mud tectic clay

33 67 Phyllo-tectic siltstone Phyllo-tectic mudstone Phyllo-tectic claystone

phyllo-tectic silt phyllo-tectic mud phyllo-clay
> 68 Phyllic siltstone Phyllic mudstone Phyllic claystone
phyllic silt phyllic mud phyllic clay

but the results are promising, considering the determinations are only semi-quantita-
tive.

COMPOSITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS A N D TECTONIC SETTINGS

How can mudrock compositions be related to the tectonic settings of sedimentary

basins? Based on data of eastern Australia, the compositional characteristics of
mudrocks representing various tectonic settings are formulated (Table V). The
mudrock suites of eastern Australia were:assigned to various tectonic settings, using
three sets of criteria: regional geology; comparison of the mineralogical data of
associated graywackes with those of modern deep-sea sands; and comparison of the
geochemical characteristics of the graywackes with those of modern orogenic volcanic
rocks (Bhatia, 1981). The tectonic settings of the mudrock suites are also compatible
with the regional tectonic framework (see Crook, 1980 for details). However, the
proposed characteristics of mudrocks are based on a very small data set and from
one region only. Thus, the conclusions are tentative and need confirmation from
other regions and modern continental margins and oceanic basins.
The Tamworth suite mudrocks derived from calc-alkaline andesitic rocks of
magmatic arcs and deposited in a fore-arc basin, are assigned to an oceanic island
arc setting. The Hill End suite (and the Crow Mountain Creek Beds) mudrocks,
derived from felsic volcanic rocks and emplaced in an apical inter-arc basin, are
assigned to a continental island arc setting. The Hodgkinson suite sedimentary rocks
were deposited in a marginal or strike-slip basin on a thick continental margin,
adjacent to an uplifted basement, and are assigned to an active continental margin
setting. The Bendigo and Cookman suites, highly recycled in nature, are derived
from older sedimentary and meta-sedimentary rocks. They were deposited in a
marginal basin close to an orogenic belt of fractionated or thickened crust and
probably represent a passive margin setting.
264

TABLE V
Mineralogical characteristics of mudrocks of various tectonic settings '~
N Qb Fb ph p/F ~ p/Q~ Mudrock type

Oceanic d 9 X 46 32 20 0.69 0.47 Tectic mudrocks

island arc +L 8 8 6 0.4 0.2

Continental 9 X 35 33 2g 1. t 3 0.79 Tectic to

island arc d + L 5 11 9 0.6 0.3 phyllo-lectic
nmdrocks

Active 2 X 26 28 41 1.68 1.68 Phyllo-tectic

continental mudrocks
margin d

Passive 3 X 17 8 76 lfl.5 4.6 Phyllic mudrocks

margin d

" Mean values ( X); uncertainties ( + L ) repesent 95% confidence limits on means
h In percent, Q = quartz: F = feldspar: P = phyllosilicates
• Means of the individual ratios
d Data source (Table 1): Oceanic island arc Tamworth suite: continental island arc Hill End suite: active
continental margin-Hodgkinson Suite: passive margin-Bendigo and Cookman suites
N = number of samples

The mineralogical characteristics of m u d r o c k s f r o m v a r i o u s t e c t o n i c settings

o v e r l a p , b u t s o m e t e n t a t i v e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s can be m a d e . M u d r o c k s of o c e a n i c a n d
c o n t i n e n t a l island arcs c o n t a i n a b u n d a n t f e l d s p a r a n d they are g e n e r a l l y low in
phyllosilicates. T h u s , they are c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a low p h y l l o s i l i c a t e / f e l d s p a r ratio
c o m p a r e d to o t h e r m u d r o c k s . T h e s e f e a t u r e s suggest d o m i n a n t v o l c a n i c s o u r c e rocks
a n d little a l t e r a t i o n d u r i n g w e a t h e r i n g . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n o c e a n i c a n d c o n -
t i n e n t a l island arc m u d r o c k s is n o t perfect, but the f o r m e r are m a i n l y tectic in t y p e
a n d the l a t t e r r a n g e f r o m tectic to p h y l l o - t e c t i c types (Fig. 5). M u d r o c k s of the active
c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n s ( A n d e a n t y p e a n d strike-slip basins) are also o f the p h y l l o - t e c t i c
t y p e and are i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m the c o n t i n e n t a l island arc m u d r o c k s . Passive
m a r g i n m u d r o c k s are c h a r a c t e r i s e d by high p h y i l o s i l i c a t e a n d low feldspar, i n d i c a t -
ing their r e c y c l e d n a t u r e a n d p r o l o n g e d w e a t h e r i n g in the s o u r c e region. T h e s e
m u d r o c k s are o f the p h y l l i c type.
T h e three b r o a d g r o u p s r e c o g n i s e d o n log K 2 0 / N a 2 0 versus m u d r o c k s m a t u r i t y
i n d e x plot (Fig. 3), c o r r e s p o n d to o c e a n i c island arc ( T a m w o r t h suite); c o n t i n e n t a l
island arc (Hill E n d suite) a n d active c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n ( H o d g k i n s o n suite); a n d
passive margins (Bendigo and Cookman suites). T h e three g r o u p s c o r r e s p o n d to
tectic, p h y l l o - t e c t i c a n d phyllic t y p e m u d r o c k s . T h e o c e a n i c island arc m u d r o c k s are
c h a r a c t e r i s e d by log K 2 0 / N a 2 0 from -0.4 to 0.4. T h e c o n t i n e n t a l island arc a n d
a c t i v e c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n m u d r o c k s are c h a r a c t e r i s e d by log K 2 0 / N a 2 0 between
 265

0.4 and 0.8, corresponding to the higher mudrock maturity index (Fig. 3). The
passive margin mudrocks can be distinguished from others by their higher
K 2 0 / N a 20 ratio (log K 2 0 / N a 2 0 > 1), corresponding to higher mudrock maturity
index ( > 70).
Immobile trace elements (e.g., La, Th, Nb, Y, Zr and Sc) faithfully preserve the
signatures of source rocks and tectonic settings in mudrocks. The mean values of the
most discriminating trace element parameters of mudrocks suites of eastern Australia
representing various tectonic settings, are given in Table VI. (The method and results
are discussed in detail in Bhatia, in prep.) The oceanic island arc mudrocks are
characterised by lower abundances of Th, U, Nb and La (mean values Th = 5.5
ppm; U = 2.4 ppm; Nb = 3.7 p p m ; L a = 18 ppm) and low Th/U, N b / Y , L a / S c .
R b / S r and B a / S r ratios. Continental island arc mudrocks can be distinguished from
those of oceanic island arcs by higher Th, U, Nb and N b / Y (mean values Th = 16
ppm; U = 3.2 ppm; Nb = 9.0 ppm; N b / Y = 0.35), and lower Z r / T h and Z r / N b
ratios (mean values Z r / T h = 12; Z r / N b = 21). The active continental and passive
margin mudrocks are discriminated from other mudrocks by their significantly
higher Th, Nb and N b / Y , and lower Z r / T h and Z r / N b ratios (Table VI). The
active continental and passive margin mudrocks are similar in most immobile trace
elements, but probably the passive margin mudrocks can be distinguished from
those of the active continental margin mudrocks by their lower Rb/Sr, B a / S r and
higher Cr and Ni abundances (mean values R b / S r = 5.8; B a / S r = 17.6; Cr = 100

T A B L E Vl

Trace-element characteristics of mudrocks from various tectonic setting (mean values in ppm) ~'

Oceanic Continental Active Passive

island arc island arc continental margin
margin
Th 5.5 16.2 28 22
U 2.4 3.2 6.0 3.6
Nb 3.7 9.0 16.5 15.8
Th/U 2.8 5.2 5.0 6.7
Zr/Th 28 12 7 7
Zr/Nb 38 21 11 10
Nb/Y 0.17 0.35 0.50 0.54
La 18 24 42 ' 34
La/Sc 1.0 1.8 2.5 1.9
Cr 39 55 58 100
Ni 15 18 26 36
Sc/Ni 1.7 0.96 0.75 0.45
Rb/Sr 0.29 1.31 2.9 5.8
Ba/Sr 2.5 6.3 8.7 17.6

Data source as in Table V.

266

B a / S r = 17.6; C r = 100 ppm; Ni = 36 ppm). The increase in the Cr and Ni

abundance in passive margin mudrocks is due to the enrichment and adsorption of
these elements with the increased phyllosilicate content. The decrease in R b / S r and
B a / S r is due to the loss of Sr and feldspar with increasing weathering and recycling.

CONCLUSIONS

The relative abundances of feldspar and phyllosilicates can be used to char-

acterise mudrocks. In mudrocks, maturity increases due to the decrease in the
unstable components (e.g. feldspar), and the enrichment of phyllosilicates. The
increasing maturity is accompanied by an increase in the K 2 0 / N a 2 0 ratio in the
Paleozoic flysch mudrocks of eastern Australia. Mudrocks are classified into tectic,
phyllo-tectic and tectic types on the basis of the mudrock maturity index which is
expressed by the ratio of phyllosilicate to phyllosilicate + feldspar + quartz.
Based on data of eastern Australia, preliminary characteristics of the mudrocks
representing four tectonic settings are formulated. The mudrocks of the oceanic
island arc type tectonic setting are of the tectic type and are characterised by a high
feldspar and a low phyllosilicate content and a low K 2 0 / N a 2 0 ratio. These
mudrocks are dominantly derived from andesitic rocks of island arcs. Mudrocks of
the continental island arc and active continental margins (Andean type and strike-slip
basins) are phyllo-tectic in type and characterised by higher phyllosilicate/feldspar
and K 2 0 / N a 2 0 ratios. The mudrocks are derived from quartzo-feldspathic (felsic
volcanic or granite-gneissic) rocks. Passive margin mudrocks are of the phyllic type,
characterised by a high phyllosilicate and low feldspar content, and extremely high
K 2 0 / N a 2 0 ratio suggesting their recycled nature and derivation from older sedi-
mentary-metasedimentary rocks. Immobile trace elements (e.g. La, Th, Zr, Nb, Y
and Sc) are very useful in discriminating the tectonic settings of sedimentary basins.
There is an increase in La, Th, Nb and the N b / Y , R b / S r and B a / S r ratios and a
decrease in the Z r / T h , Z r / N b ratios in mudrocks from oceanic island arc to
continental island arc to active continental passive margin mudrocks.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Keith Crook for his suggestions and criticism of the manuscript and Ruth
Watson for secretarial assistance. Helpful reviews by Reinhard Hesse and J. Barry
Maynard are greatly appreciated.

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