GES Glossary JD

Scientific Name Common Name Habitat Native?
Additional Info TB pg Slides / pg

Non-living / physical components e.g. latitude, altitude, climate, soil
Abiotic Abiotic and disturbance 13
Balanus spp Acorn barnacle intertidal / rocky shore found in the lower wetter zone of the rocky shore 141
species poor forest that grows on degraded soil (due to human

activity and poor agricultural practices) dominated by
tiuptiup(adinandra dumonsa). It has low nutrients, acidic soil and few
species of plants and animals. Development of ad belukar (pg 60),
characteristics of plants (pg 61), succession (pg 62).
Plant species found here can also be found in freshwater swamp
forests as the soil are similar (little aeration, pg 63)
Adinandra belukar Adinandra belukar secondary forest Adinandra plants: tiuptiup, simpoh air, tembusu, acacia 54 5/5
Achatina fulicia African giant land snail no accidentally introduced with ornamental plants. 3, 254 1/5
Previously introduced from Africa, however, found that the flowers

were too huge and accumulated water during rain, thus breeding
Spathodea African Tulip spontaneous wasteland found in Africa mosquitoes. NEA slowly removing them 6/6
soft tree that can fall over due to strong winds, safety hazard, thus
secondary forest, Nparks trying to slowly remove it. They grow very fast, can play the
spontaneous reclaimed role of tall native trees, allowing eagles to build their nests.
Falcataria molccana Albizia sites no Matchstick wood made from this as it is very soft 5/8
Adonidia Merrillii Manila Palm Managed roadside 193
Cyrtostachys Renda Sealing Wax Palm Managed Yes roadside. Symbol of sg botanic gardens 193
Dypsis Lutescens Butterfly Palm Managed roadside 193
Ptychosperma Macarthurii Macaurthur Palm Managed roadside 193
Roystonea Regia Cuban Royal Palm Managed no roadside tree. 193
Archontophoenix alexandrae Alexandra palm Managed no roadside tree. From Australia 193 11 / 4
features & impacts (slide 12, pg 6). List of potentially invasive plant
Alien species Alien species species (pg 245) 244 12 / 6
American cockroach comes from Africa, but was established in the
American / german cockroach American / german cockroach no USA, accidentally introduced with ornamental plants. 1/5
Reclaimed Land / Coastal
Microhyla Species Chorus Frog Habitats 88
carry infectious diseases such as Chytridiomycosis. Chytrid fungus

has caused amphibian population declines and even extinction. Large
aggressive and threat to native frogs and animals that it preys on. 13 / 6
Lithobates catesbeianus American bullfrog no Brought in as food (frog porridge) 251 12 / 7
venomous, only seasnake that comes up to shore to breed. Very
Laticauda colubrina Amphibious sea snake subtidal powerful venom. 158
Lanius Cristatus Brown Strike Reclaimed land Seed eating sparrow like birds 87
Anthus rufulus Paddyfield pipit Reclaimed Land Small brownish bird 87
branches are prone to collapse (hazard) and it is susceptible to

infection by a fatal fungal disease. Good reminder not to have
monocultures of species because once one gets diseased, the rest
will catch it too. A favourite roosting tree for the house crow as well.
Majority of trees we see today were planted starting from 1967 with
Pterocarpus indicus Angsana reclaimed (subsoil) no Garden
relating City Campaign.
to, or resulting from the influence of human beings on 191
Anthropogenic Anthropogenic nature
2nd most prominent in mangrove, behind bakau. Have breathing

(pencil) roots above ground level, exhibit cryptovivipary. Salt
Avicennia spp. Api-api coastal / mangrove secretor through leaves. 101, 105
native apple snail to Singapore, displaced by the introduced South
Pila scutata Apple snail yes American apple snail 12 / 7
Arboreal Arboreal means living in trees
shoot down insects from trees using water from mouth. Adapted to
rising tide to get close to insects in order to shoot them. Thrive best
Toxotes spp Archer fish coastal / mangrove in brackish waters 110
Scleropages formosus Asian arowana no introduced into Singapore for trade 13 / 7
Clitoria ternatea Asian pigeonwings used as (blue) food coluring in kuek, or for brewing tea. 8/3
Lygosoma Bowringii Garden Supple Skink Reclaimed Land yes Ground dwelling species that burrows
threatened by the introduction of chinese softshell turtle. Rarely
Amyda cartilaginea Asian softshell turtle yes found now. 12 / 7
Possesses pair of poison glands and thick warty skin that prevents
Duttaphrynus melanostictus Asian toad reclaimed land native dessication 88 6/6
No longer found on original coastlines, but only reclaimed land
habitats, have strong claws to close opening of shell when they
Coenobita Cavipes Land Hermit Crabs Reclaimed only retreat
"Self feeding", chlorophyllus or with green tissue and able to
Autotrophic Autotrophic photosynthesize. 20
Xylocarpus Rumphii Rocky Shore 116
Xylocarpus Granatum Nyireh Mangroves Plank roots helps to stabilize tree 103
most conspicuous of mangrove forest. Possess prop or stilt roots for

stability and to breathe. Ultrafiltrator (exclude salt at pt of intake) .
Exhibits vivipary. Major component of mangrove forest (only occur in
mangroves, pg 104).
Harvested for their trunks to make construction piles, fuelwood or
Rhizophora spp. Bakau coastal / mangrove charcoal. Bark to extract tannin. 101, 104
Kaloula pulchra Banded bullfrog reclaimed land exotic - introduced 6/6
Banded leaf monkey/ Banded wary of humans and sensitive to disturbance, hardly venturing to
Presbytis femoralis Langur primary / secondary yes, endemic ground. Nationally critically endangered 34 4 / 14
Attach permanently nto rocks and surround themselves with

calcareous plates. very independent creatures - does not form
Barnacle Barnacle intertidal relationships. Also filter feeds. 141 2/9
Gorgonocephalus
caputmedusae Basket star subtidal arms that extend into many other arms, to catch prey easily 3/4
Bats Bats mostly native large flying fox is not native
Seabed, can be muddy, sandy or rocky. Variation in diversity of
Benthic layer Benthic layer subtidal benthic community graph (pg 151) 148
Benthos Benthos subtidal bottom dwelling. Generally attached to substratum 3/5
subject to development due to BTO flats. Supports one of the highest
Bidadari Bidadari diversity of migratory birds headed to Indonesia. 13 / 4
Scientific Name Common Name Habitat Native? Additional Info TB pg Slides / pg
the variability among living organisms from all sources including,

among other things, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part of; this includes diversity
Biodiversity Biodiversity within and between species and of ecosystems. Values (pg 12) 12,13
habitats help to trap and fix pollutants and also treat organic waste.
Bioremediation Bioremediation (wetlands filtering water) 278
Living components e.g organisms, other members of its own species

Biotic Biotic and other interacting species 13
Process that involves animals burrowing into the sediment to help
Bioturbation Bioturbation oxygenate the deeper layers, especially in mud bottoms 155
common epiphytic fern, use decaying leaves trapped in nest as
Asplenium nidus Bird nest fern Managed source of nutrients.
gong gong. Detritivores (feed on dead and decomposing organic
Strombus urceus Black lipped conch intertidal matter) 2 / 12
native to Gulf of Mexico. Introduced from Caribbean due to
discharge of ballast waters from ships. Grows extensively on canal
Mytilopsis sallei Black-striped mussel no walls. 170 13 / 7
small central disc. Breaks arm to escape (regenerative properties).
Ophiuroidea Brittle stars intertidal Can reproduce asexually by dividing itself in 2. 141 2 / 14
this fern prefers the rocky shore / cliff environment. Grows in areas
Dipteris conjugata Bua cek coastal / rocky shore recently laid bare by soil movement or land slips 115
1626442ha. (38.3ha. Of primary forest). 2000 plants. Insect
dominated. Most common forest type is secondary. Thousands of
animals. Forests are of the hill dipterocarp forest type and seraya-
ridge forest subtype. Can commonly find seraya and keruing tree
Bukit timah nature reserve Bukit timah nature reserve species 15 4 / 11
area around BTNR is one of our most heavily populated housing
districts, yet the area holds a large pocket of nature. Requires Nparks
Bukit timah nature reserve Bukit timah nature reserve constant maintenance and supervision to survive.
(paradox) (paradox) 14 / 5
Bees force the pollen out from the flower's anthers, which are
Buzz pollination Buzz pollination usually held very tightly
Canopy Canopy Defined as the forest from ground up 21
canopy = forest from ground up. Strata = layer. Primary dryland has
most strata = 5, due to high diversity, complexity of structure and
great height of canopy. Secondary forest = 1-2 strata. Temperate
Canopy stratification Canopy stratification forests have fewer strata. 4 / 10
the incorporation of carbon into organic compounds by living

organisms, chiefly by photosynthesis in green plants. (reduce
Carbon fixation Carbon fixation greenhouse gases CO2 & produce O2) 8/4
Mimosa Pigra Giant Sensitive Plant SandFill 84
Melinis Repens Red Top SandFill 84
Oldenlandia Corymbosa Siku siku Managed no 195
Meiothecium Microcarpum Small Fruited Moss Managed Common epiphytic moss 196
Chloris Barbata Plush Grass SandFill no 84
most common cultivated grass species and is the single plant species
covering the largest total area in Singapore. Used in older roadside
Axonopus compressus Carpet grass managed /park no plantings/streetscapes. 206
Terminalia Catappa Sea Almond SandFill yes 84
can be found on sandfill sites, grows naturally in beach vegetation.

Xerophyte (can survive with little water). Modified leafs (spines).
Swollen joint, green stems that can photosynthesize. Symbiotic
relationship with Nitrogen-fixing micro-org (in the roots).
reclaimed land / sandy Used in india for soil remediation: absorbs salt, grows fast, trees are
Casuarina Casuarina beach vegetation yes then harvested for paper (slide 8, pg 4) 84, 112 6/2
Nelumbo Nucifera Lotus managed reservoir Deliberately Planted 179
Lemna Perpusilla Duckweed managed reservoir Deliberately Planted 179
planted at edge of artificial water bodies. Rich in starch, can be made
Typha spp. Cattail managed into biofuel. Pollen used in TCM 179 11 / 2
cold tolerant strain of this native plant is an invasive weed of the
Caulerpa taxifolia Caulerpa (like feather) intertidal yes Mediterranean Sea 135
pollinator of forest trees (durian). Diet consists of pollen and nectar
Eonycteros spelaea Cave nectar bat yes from flowers obtained using long, extendable tongue. 68
current infrastructure built on cemetries: Dhoby Ghaut MRT, Bishan
Cemeteries Cemeteries estates, Ngee Ann City 13 / 4
3043.1ha total area. 153.6ha primary forest. 2000 plants, several

thousands animals, no large mammals now. Insect dominated. Most
Central catchment NR Central catchment NR common forest type is secondary 15, 18 4 / 11
reclaimed land / urban Accidentally Introduced as recent as 1980s, displaced the green
Calotes versicolour Changeable lizard managed habitat no, introduced crested lizard in secondary forests / waste and reclaimed land 1/5
conservation can be considered a milestone as it was done by the

government after taking into consideration the general sentiments
Chek Jawa Chek Jawa intertidal of the masses, without fervent protests or nasty confrontations 228
alien fish species in the US that can create ecological havoc due to its
voracious habits, ability to breathe air and squirm across land. Can
Channa argus Chinese snakehead Managed no tolerate polluted and poorly oxygenated waters. 241
Pelodiscus sinensis Chinese softshell turtle no competes with the Asian softshell turtle, making it rare. 251 12 / 7
Cinnamomum Cinnamon primary vegetation host tree for hemi-parasite mistletoe 4/9
medicinal purposes for: cold, acidity, piles, osteoporosis, anorexia
Cissus quadrangularis Cissus quadrangularis and fracture 8/3
plants that have weak stems and cannot stand erect. Grows on a
Climber Climber support. 4/8
freshwater air breathing species that can tolerate polluted and poor
Anabas testudineus Climbing perch Managed yes oxygenated waters. 183
partnership with sea anemone. Sea anemone protects the fish and
the anemone will sting whatever fish that comes near it. All start off
as male, the largest fish becomes female. (Protandrous
Amphiprioninae Clownfish subtidal hermaphrodites) 166 3 / 15
Salacca Conferta Spiny Palm Nee Soon Swamp Forest Upper Seletar Reservoir Park. 35
Economic value of coastal vegetation (pg 119)

either species poor or species rich, if die and recover again, will be
the same. 3 types: mangrove, sandy beach, rocky shore. Very high
tide occurs on 1st and 15th (3m) due to alighment of sun and moon,
Coastal vegetation Coastal vegetation highest G pull. midtide when sun and moon at right angles. 7/1
Primary Freshwater
Palaquium Xanthochymum Swamp Has stilt or prop roots for greater stability
reclaimed land (sandfill coastal forest species adapted to grow on land, cultivated plant
Cocos nucifera Coconut sites) yes found on sand fill sites 84 6/3
found along margins of Adi Belu, and thus not a true member of the
Adi Belu. Black seed with orange part (called aril). Attracts yellow
vented bulbul, which swallow the seeds and the aril, which are then
secondary forest, no, spread initially defecated, for pollinaton. They are phyllodes, can fix atmospheric
spontaneous wasteland from ornamental nitrogen to nitrate so they can absorb. Yellow flowers. Most
Acacia auriculiformis Common acacia and reclaimed sites specimens common weed species in Singapore. 59 5/7
Tupaia glis Common malayan treeshrew BTNR / CCNR yes
nocturnal species, grazes on algae at night. In the day found on tree
Nerita articulata Common nerite coastal / mangrove trunks at high tide to avoid aquatic predators 107
"Kopi Luwak" is a type of expensive gourmet coffee made from
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Common palm civet yes coffee beans that have been 'processed' by a civet cat.
feed on algae, possess claws with spoon tipped fingers that help
Leptodius Common rock crab intertidal them to scrape and pick off algae 139
managed habitat / air breathing species that can tolerate polluted and poorly
Channa striata Common snakehead freshwater yes oxygenated waters 183
managed habitat / air breathing species that can tolerate polluted and poorly
Clarias batrachus Common walking catfish freshwater yes oxygenated waters 183 13 / 7
venomous. Toxic peptides are used to treat neuropathic or chronic

pain. May also be used as treatment for Alzheimer's, Parkinson's,
Cone snails Cone snail diabetes, cancer and nicotine addiction. 13 / 4
Conservationist Conservationist want to protect and keep only native species.
Second most abundant organisms in the ocean. Flash lights and uses
luminous poop to confuse predators and communicate. dominates
Copepods Copepods subtidal the zooplankton (animal plankton) community in the sea 156
marine animals (invertebrates). Corals in intertidal zone contain UV
Coral Coral intertidal protectants (constant exposure to UV at low tide) 2 / 11
stressed coral, due to pollution or warm water temperatures, expel

the zooxanthellae algae living within it, which is responsible for the
colour of the coral (amongst many other purposes). Without the
algae, the coral loses its source of food, turns white, and is more
Coral bleaching Coral bleaching subtidal susceptible to diseases.
at low tide, reef flat and crest is exposed, reef slope remain subtidal
(pg 160) 60% loss to land reclamation, 258 species of hard coral (pg
161). In Singapore, our reefs are either fringing or patch reefs (pg
Coral reef habitat Coral reef habitat subtidal 162 or slide 3 / pg 11) 159 3 / 11
calcerous deposits (CaCO3) in them, when they die, they leave the
Corallinales Coralline algae intertidal calcium carbonate behind, which become sand particles 2/5
Fejervarya cancrivora Crab eating frog reclaimed land yes source of frog leg. Can tolerate brackish (salty) water. 88 6/6
yes, endemic, but one of the largest squirrels in the world. Common name refers to the
Ratufa affinis Cream coloured giant squirrel primary vegetation going extinct colour of its underparts (throat chest belly). Going extinct 31 4 / 14
same as vivipary, except that embryo does not break through the
fruit wall, so remains hidden / cryptic. Seen in api-api, kacang-
Cryptovivipary Cryptovivipary kacang, and the nipah palm 104
causes soil erosion, non-retention of water, increase in air
Deforestation Deforestation temperature, landslides and flash floods. 278
Demersal Demersal subtidal species that live near the bottom of the sea 156
Desiccation Desiccation Process of extreme drying 141
An organism that obtain nutrients by feeding on decomposing
Detritivore Detritivore plants / animals 138
main phytoplankton in the Singapore Strait. Source of food for fishes,
Diatoms Diatoms subtidal is a microscopic algae with silicon shell. 156
Associated with Diatoms. Sudden population explosions causes

harmful algal bloom. Associated with paralytic shell poisoning. Have
bioluminiscence when disturbed. Cockles/oysters/all filter feeders
that will eat on dinoflagellates since not affected by it, but will affect
Dinoflagellates Dinoflagellates subtidal humans if we eat it 157
forms majority of trees in Singapore. Dip = two, tero = wings.

2 types: lowland dipterocarp forest (central catchment nature
Dipterocarp forest Dipterocarp forest primary vegetation reserve), hill dipterocarp forest (bukit timah nature reserve). 15 4 / 12
Bulbophyllum Vaginatum Magrah Batu Managed Grows in wetter parts of Singapore.
Cerberus rynchops Dog-faced water snake coastal / mangrove yes fish eating species that can grow up to 1m in length 111
native epiphytic fern. The leaves are used to treat rashes, whilst a
decoction is used in a lotion for smallpox, and used in a poultice for
Pyrrosia piloselloides Dragon’s scales Managed yes headaches.
carnivorous predators, prey on bivalve and barnacles. Bore hole

through the shell using a modified radula and acid secreted from a
Thais spp Drills intertidal / rocky shore special organ 138
grows on ground that is not wet most of the year, associated with
tropical rain. Originally covered 82% in sg, now only 192ha. High
diversity in plants, animals and microbes but low density in
individual species
Dryland forest Dryland forest primary vegetation Values (pg 34) 15 4 / 11,12
thought to be locally extinct, but spotted in 2008 at Nee Soon swamp
Varanus dumerilii Dumeril's monitor yes forest, CCNR (first sighting after 75 years) 229 12 / 4
Periopthalmus novemradiatus Dusky-gilled mudskipper intertidal taiwanese eat them 2 / 10
Channa gachua Dwarf snakehead yes rediscovered in 1989 from the swamps of Nee Soon 288 12 / 4
spiny skinned animals. Commonly found in local intertidal habitats

are 4 types: sea stars, brittle stars, urchins and sea cucumbers. All
Echinoderms Echinoderms intertidal show regenerative properties 141 2 / 14
the area of productive land and aquatic ecosystems needed to

produce the resources demanded by people, and to assimilate the
Ecological footprint Ecological footprint wastes produced. (SG considered unsustainable) 8/6
margins along boundaries and paths have higher light intensity,

wider temp ranges, lower humidity and more air movements,
making it unsuitable for forest specialists. Fence boundaries and
Edge effect Edge effect introduce extensive planting along boundaries to act as buffer 40
Epifauna Epifauna (Subtidal) Animals living on the seafloor 148
Autotrophic plants that grow on leaves of other plants (usually found

in wet habitats), e.g. mosses and liverworts. They block the
Epiphyll Epiphyll supporting plants from getting sunlight. 21
Autotrophic plants that grow on the stems or branches of other

plants, e.g. orchids and ferns. Does no apparent harm, but
sometimes grow too much which breaks the supporting
plant. Roots grow on/into bark of supporting tree, requires regular
Epiphytes Epiphytes rainfall and damp air to grow 21, 195
Crocodylus porosus Estuarine crocodile coastal / mangrove yes largest and top predator in our mangrove 111
lives mainly in burrows in the ground, coming out to forage at high

tide. Leaf eating crab, thus important macrodecomposers (mangrove
Perisesarma spp. Face banded sesarmids coastal / mangrove hard to decompose) 108
Pseudorca crassidens False killer whale subtidal fourth-largest dolphin in the world 158
land devoted to cultivation of crops or raising of livestock. Conditions

are open, drier, windier, hotter but better soil fertility (due to usage
Farms Farms of fertilisers) and higher level of insecticides / fungicides. 213
emerge at low tide from underground burrows and feed on mud and
sand that is rich in organic matter. Male fiddler crabs have one
Uca spp Fiddler crab coastal / mangrove enlarged claw for territorial and courtship displays. 108,109 2 / 14
mutualistic relationship with figs. Fruit of the fig tee provides
Agaonidae Fig wasp protection, shelter and food. Fig wasp functions as food pollinators. 28, 29
hemiepiphyte, kill host. Strangler figs roots take in nutrients and

water from the air and host tree. Fig trees important to primary
vegetation as they flower and fruit more frequently. Has a
mutualistic relationship with the fig wasp, each fig free species is
generally only being pollinated by only one species of fig wasp. (pg
Ficus spp. Figs primary / secondary 27) 4 / 27
no longer common, can only be found on a single mangrove site near
Pteroptyx valida Firefly coastal / mangrove Sungei Buloh. Males light up to attract females 7/5
Chelonia depressa Flatback turtle subtidal / seagrass endangered species supported by seagrass habitat 2/8
Portunus pelagicus Flower crab subtidal invertebrate 159
another name for the Malayan colugo. Misnomer since it neither
Flying lemur Flying lemur / Colugo BTNR / CCNR yes flies (it glides) or is a lemur. 33
Leucosid Crab Intertidal
Pilumnid Crab Discovered 5 years ago
Stone Crab Intertidal
peel open snail shell with modified tooth on one claw and use
slender sharp force like fingers of another claw to tear out
Epixanthus dentatus Forceps crab intertidal / mangrove flesh 139
Forest growth cycle Forest growth cycle Gap, building, mature, degenerate 24 4 / 10
1. primary - clear ground or gap in canopy - Trema belukar (if soil

undegraded) - tall secondary (if seed sources avail.) - primary (if
undisturbed and seed sources avail.)
2. primary - clear ground - agriculture (soil is degraded) - Adinandra
belukar - tall secondary (if ss avail.) - primary (if undisturbed and ss
avail.)
Tall secondary forests have a shorter height, single tree layer, fewer
plant species and absence of emergent trees as compared to primary
forests
So far no examples of sec reconverting back to pri as none have been
Forest succession Forest succession primary / secondary left alone long enough (slide 4 / pg 6) 55, 71
forest that is temporarily to semipermanently inundated by non-

acidic, mineral rich freshwater with water level fluctuations through
periodic drying of the soil. Plants there show similar adaptations to
that of mangroves. Highest diversity of native freshwater organisms
found nowhere else
Freshwater swamp forest Freshwater swamp forest 87ha Nee Soon swamp forest (all eggs in one basket, pg 37) 35 4 / 12
Antennariidae Frogfish intertidal worm like thing dangling on face to lure prey 2 / 15
eats insects, produce toxins and antimicrobial agents, act as food for
Frogs Frogs higher trophic level animals 13 / 4
rich in tannin, used as a dye for cotton and tanning leather. Impact of
cultivation on ecosystem (pg 62), large scale planting caused
Uncaria gambir Gambier secondary vegetation no deforestation in 1820s (pg 224) 61,62 5/3
Gardens Gardens rooftop gardens (pg 208), community gardens (pg 209) 11 / 7
built on reclaimed lane, some parts are waterlogged (saturated with
Gardens by the bay Gardens by the bay reclaimed land full of water) as clay-type sand is used 6/5
forms relationship with zooxanthellae, Clams host the algae to

consume the by-products of the algae's photosynthesis. Algae need
sunlight to grow, but too much is harmful, so clams, which have tiny
iridescent cells inside their mantles, offer the best of both worlds.
Also, the giant clam secretes an enzymes which dissolves rocks,
allowing it to bore into it to live in, for greater protection. (Tridacna
Tridacna gigas Giant clam intertidal / subtidal crocea, pg 137) 166 2 / 10
Primarily Nocturnal. black and reddish brown. Can reach 30mm.

Worker ants are dimorphic. 2 forms: smaller minor worker and larger
Camponotus gigas Giant forest ants BTNR / CCNR major workers 26
taiwanese eat them. Has distinct black band that wraps around the
Periopthalmodon schlosserei Giant mudskipper intertidal eye and face 2 / 10
Rhincodon typus Giant whale shark subtidal largest shark, feeds on plankton 157
sexual diphormism, male and female look very different. Male much
Nephila pilipes Golden orb-web spider secondary smaller. Silk is very strong 69
27 in Singapore. Usage of insectisides and pesticides under PUB
Golf courses Golf courses control (pollutants
sub-massive may flow
coral, rapid and into water
almost bodiesrecovery
complete if near) after 212 11 / 7
Goniopora Goniopora subtidal bleaching 163
Gracilaria spp Gracefull red seaweed intertidal collected in some SEA countries for agar-agar 135
greyish tallest and rarest bird, up to 20 in Singapore. Hunts for
Ardea sumatrana Great billed heron intertidal yes crustaceans and fishes 144
Tragulus napu Greater mouse deer yes spotted in Pulau Ubin in 2009 (first sighting after 80 years) 229 12 / 4
introduced from Sri Lanka or India, tough and competitive and
Etroplus suratensis Green chromide Managed no replacing the tilapia 182
wasteland / secondary 3, 201,
Bronchocela cristatella Green crested lizard forest yes displaced by changeable lizard 202 6/7
Cladophora spp. Green pin cushion seaweed intertidal green, spongy, densely matted, rounded tufts 134
Chelonia mydas Green sea turtle subtidal / seagrass yes endangered species supported by seagrass habitat 185 2/8
Native to Trinidad introduced as biological control agent. prey on

mosquito larvae to control the spread of malaria. Prefer open water
Poecilia reticulata Guppy Managed / Reservoir no, introduced and haven't penetrated the more acidic water of our catchment 3 12 / 6
Locality, site and particular type of local environment occupied by an
Habitat Habitat organism 13
traps sediments and debris in long, soft hairs covering the body for
camouflage. Mildly poisonous, sometimes feed on zoanthids and
Pilumnus vespertilio Hairy crab intertidal ingest the stinging cells. 139
Halophila decipens Hairy spoon seagrass intertidal new record of seagrass in Singapore, discovered in 2008.
The algal body is composed of calcified green segments, and when
Halimeda spp Halimeda subtidal they die, they contribute to the sand particles 2/6
forms relationship with zooxanthellae. When they die, their
skeletons become suitable substrate for the settlement and
development of coral larvae. Produces CaCO3 skeleton which adds
Hard coral Hard coral subtidal to reef framework. 162
primary / secondary, found in well shaded acidic forest streams. Presence of native fishes
Trigonostigma heteromorpha Harlequin rasbora freshwater yes highlight critical role of freshwater streams and swamps in Singapore 31
marine turtle, endangered species supported by seagrass habitat,
Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill subtidal / seagrass still present in jurong island and east coast 158 2/8
Recognised by their heart-shaped gaster that they hold in a raised

position over their bodies when agitated. Symbiotic relationship with
mahang. Mahang provides shelter- hollow stem, protection and food
(in the form of Beccarian bodies). Ants protect the plant from being
Crematogaster Heart-gaster ants BTNR fed on by herbivores 27
Autotrophic plants that start life as epiphytes then send their roots
Hemi-epiphytes Hemi-epiphytes to the ground 21
Plants that can photosynthesize but parasitise other plants for water
Hemi-parasites Hemi-parasites and nutrients, e.g. all mistletoe 21
highest pedestrian bridge in SG, connects telok blangah hill park and
Henderson waves Henderson waves mount faber park, part of southern ridges 11 / 5
non-woody climbers which grow in the shade, adhering close to
Herbaceous climbers Herbaceous climbers primary / secondary trunks, e.g. some aroids, members of the Araceae 21
chosen based on age (30-40yo), height, girth (at least 5m), botanical,
cultural, historical and social significance or aesthetic value. Cannot
be felled, no excavation around roots, installed with lightning
conductors.
Heritage trees Heritage trees E.g. Tembusu, sea putat @ botanic garden 192 11 / 4
forms symbiotic relationship with sea anemone. Hermit crab use

anemone as protection. Anemone use hermit crab as mobility (to get
Hermit crab Hermit crab intertidal food) and also eat whatever the hermit crab leaves behind 2 / 12
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic Plants that cannot photosynthesize 21
primary lowland
Syrrhopodon Trachyphyllus evergreen rainforest
primary lowland
Pyrrhobryum Spiniforme evergreen rainforest
primary lowland has been poached to scarcity in the BTNR. One of its uses is for
Leucobryum aduncum Hooked white moss evergreen rainforest representing grass in bonsai plant pots 19
Acrostichum Aureum Paku Laut Sand Fill Reclaimed Land 83
Vigna Marina Lesser Sea Bean Sand Fill Reclaimed Land 83
Remirea Maritima Creeping Sedge Sand Fill Reclaimed Land 83
Ischaemum Muticum Centipede Grass Sand Fill Reclaimed Land 83
have spine to balance itself. Extraction of its blue blood and used to
detect baterial toxins. Gram Negative Endotoxin Detection. Only 2
Limulidae Horseshoe crab intertidal yes found in SG: Mangrove & Coastal horseshoe crab 2 / 15
Iomys horsfieldii Horsfield's flying squirrel yes nocturnal habits. Has large skin flap for gliding. 71
Common flowering plant lithophytes. Small fleshy herb with tiny

leaves and tinier flowers of which stamens shed pollen like puffs of
Pilea Microphylla Artillery Plant Managed No smoke from cannon fire 199
major pest birds. Prefer nesting in tall old trees with large dense
crowns like angsana or yellow flame. Make a mess with droppings,
may attack humans, noise pollution, will pilfer food, spread of
Corvus splendens House crow no diseases.
Common To combat them
lithophytic moss.(pg
Also217)
grows on limestone in Pulau 247
Hyophila involuta Inrolled Pott Moss managed reservoir Langkawi 182
Phyllanthus debilis Pick-a-back Managed common turf weed. 206
Desmodium triflorum Lesser Clover-leafed desmodium Managed common turf weed. 206
Euphorbia Hirta Hairy Spurge Managed common turf weed. 206
Greater clover-leafed
Desmodium Heterophylum desmodium Managed common turf weed. 206
Eleusine Indica Goose Grass Managed common turf weed. 206
Elaphantopus Scaber Elephant's Foot Managed common turf weed. 206
Veronia Cinerea Common Veronia Managed common turf weed. 206
Tridax Procumbens Coat Button Managed common turf weed. 206
Ophioglossum Nudicaule Adder's Tongue Managed / park turf Common Turf weed. 206
Pteris Vittata Ladder Break managed Common lithophytic fern, common fern of old buildings and drains. 199
Found in canals and reservoirs (Kranji) difficult to eradicate as it

grows from broken pieces, so removal is only temporary until growth
Managed habitat / recurs. Useful in removing nutrients, providing refuge for fish and
Hydrilla verticillata Hydrilla freshwater / reservoir No nymphs, maintaining water quality. Invasive. 181 11 / 12
Autotrophic plants that grow in water or very wet conditions, in the

streams or rivers. Supported by water, has very little support tissues
Hydrophytes Hydrophytes so unable to stand erect outside water. 21
condition where females (marine snails) develop male reproductive

organs which halts reproduction success. Linked to contamination by
organotin or Tributyltin, one of the chemicals used in antifouling
paints for ship hulls. Also causes shell thickening, stunted growth,
Imposex Imposex reproductive failure in oysters. 171 12 / 8
Penaeus indicus Indian whitehumpbacked
Indo-pacific prawn commercially
most frequentlyreared valuable marine
encountered prawns mammal in the subtidal 177
Sousa chinensis dolphin subtidal yes habitat. 158
Infauna Infauna (Subtidal) Animals that live and burrow into the bottom 148
Seashore that is periodically exposed at low tide and covered at high

tide. Occur on 5 types of seashore: sandy, rocky and muddy shores,
reef flats, and mangrove forest. Environmental conditions (pg 127).
Rocky shore has an enhanced biodiversity and is physically more
complex. Types of different intertidal habitats around Singapore. (pg
130)
Intertidal habitat Intertidal habitat Why live here (slide 2 / pg 3) 127
only species tolerant to periodic exposure occupy this zone. E.g.
Intertidal reef flat Intertidal reef flat intertidal Favites, Platygyra, Favia, Goniastrea and Oulastrea 163
Intertidal substrate influence Intertidal substrate influence mud vs sand particles / rocky vs sandy shore (pg 129) 129
Invertebrate Invertebrate an animal lacking a backbone
Lagerstroemia Indica Crepe Myrtle Managed Shrub 194
Caesalpinia Pulcheerima Peacock Flower Managed Shrub 194
Ixora congesta Ixora congesta Managed yes Shrub, one of our native ixoras 193
have thick, fire resistant bark. Planted at roadsides as fire breaks to
Syzygium grande Jambu air laut reclaimed land yes prevent fires (from lalang) from spreading across road. 53
Member of sunflower family from west and south asia and west
Emilia Sonchifolia Cupid's shaving brush Managed no pacific
Spermacoce Latifolia Button Weed Managed no South American import of coffee family 194
Small insectivorous bird that is often heard from metallic sounding
Cisticola Juncidis Zitting Custicola reclaimed land zittttt 87
Cyperus Rotundus Nut Grass Managed no World's worst weed 195
Caprimulgus Affinis Savanna nightjar reclaimed land Nocturnal 87
Pluvialis Squatarola Malaysian/Grey Plover reclaimed land 87
introduced via cage bird trade. Large number of such species can be
found in Singapore. Noisy and create messes with droppings.
Potential carrier of avian flu virus and can cause it to spread quickly
Javan myna Javan myna reclaimed land/ Managed due to high interaction with humans. 206, 207 12 / 6
Lonchura Malacca Chestnut Munia reclaimed land 87
Lonchura Punctulata Scaly-Breasted munia reclaimed land 87
White headed munia Javan sparrow reclaimed land yes 6/5
primary / secondary omnivorous. Prefers slow-flowing streams with dense leaf litter.
Irmengardia johnsoni Johnson's freshwater crab (freshwater) yes, endemic Discovered less than 50 years ago 30 14 / 4
Asiophlugis thaumasia Katydid spp presumed extinct but rediscovered in ecolink 12 / 5
species that have a greater effect on biological community in
Keystone species Keystone species proportion to their individual biomass. (can only be native species) 43
Ophiophagus hannah King cobra wasteland yes prey on other snakes 6/7
Nodilittorina Trochoides Knobby Periwinkle Intertidal Can be found well away from water grazing high up on the rocks 136
lies on seagrass bed. Possibly one of the largest echinoderms in

Singapore waters. Distinct black knobs on upper surface.
Protoreaster nodosus Knobby sea star intertidal Rediscovered in Chek Jawa. 142 2 / 14
Venus Clam Lala Intertidal
the only exotic plant found in Singapore's primary forests. Serious

pest in Hawaii, not yet in Singapore. Koster's curse can form dense
Climdemia hirta Koster's curse no thickets that smother plantations, pastures and native vegetation. 44, 245
Xanthid Crabs Intertidal
Cerithidea Obtusa Red Chut-Chut Snail Intertidal
nature reserve is just coastal forest, does not include the beach and
Labrador park Labrador park rocky shore. 7/6
can rapidly invade newly cleared land because it has wind-dispersed

fruits. Fire resistant because of underground rhizomes, will continue
to grow again after fire.
Medicinal purposes of grass roots: hemoptysis (coughing up of blood
from respiratory tract), hermatemesis (vomit blood), epistaxis
Imperata cylindrica Lalang Herbaceous Vegetation no (nosebleed), hematuria (blood in urine) 52, 53 8/3
Dermocheyls coriacea Leatherback turtle subtidal no marine turtle 158
Prionailurus bengalensis Leopard cat largest cat, displayed in raffles museum 25
Tragulus kanchil / napu Lesser / greater mouse deer yes found on ecolink 12 / 5
important seed disperser and pollinator for several plants, like tiup
Cynopterus brachyotis Lesser dog-faced fruit bat secondary forest yes tiup. 68
reclaimed land / coastal forest species adapted to grow on sand (adapted to lack of
Leucaena Leucaena spontaneous sandfill no nutrients). Bean family. 6/3
large, woody climbers, which usually reach the main canopy, e.g.
Lianas Lianas primary / secondary some bean family members (Fabaceae) 21
composite organism. Symbiotic relationship between algae & fungi.

Algae provide food for fungi. Fungi protect algae, gather moisture
Lichen Lichen and nutrients and provide anchor.
Umbonium Vestiarum Button Shell Intertidal Suspension Feeder 138
lack operculum, but are able to prevent desiccation during low tide
by clamping down their flattened shells against the rock surface. Also
Patelloida saccharinoides Limpets intertidal algae grazers 137
Portulaca pilosa Sea Purselane Rocky Shore Prettiest
Rare plant
shrub that grows on Lazarus island, pulau biola and pulau 117
Fagraea Auriculata Pelir Musang Rocky Shore tekukor.
spread from a single tree in Lazarus to Chek Jawa and Pulau
Pouteria linggensis Lingga pouteria coastal / rocky shore Salu 117
plants which grow on hard surfaces like rock or concrete and are
usually found growing in the cracks in the sides of drains, canals,
Lithophyte Lithophyte walls and roofs 198
primary / nee soon
Parakysis longirostris Little warty catfish swamp forest new species 30
Marchatia spp Liverwort primary forest epiphyll, utilise very little resources to grow 4/9
Caretta caretta Loggerhead subtidal / seagrass endangered marine turtle supported by seagrass habitat 158 2/8
Long legged fly Long legged fly 150 new species were found in our catchment areas and mangroves 228 12 / 4
clash between human and nature. When humans feed them, they
don't fulfil their ecological purpose as seed dispersers. Also, the
extra food from feeding allows their population to balloon beyond
what the forest can support. Feeds on fruits as well as wide variety
primary / secondary / of animal matter such as insects and crabs. Competes with the
Macaca fascicularis Long-tailed macaque mangrove yes endemic banded leaf monkey 259,260 4 / 14
dominated by foliose and laminar growth forms such as Pectinia,

Turbinaria and Pachyseris. Their large surface area gives them an
advantage at optimising the low light. (minimum light penetration
Lower reef slope Lower reef slope subtidal through high suspended sediment load) 164
Marginal Adinandra
Macaranga Heynei Blue Mahang Belukar yes Mistletoe Macrosolen Cochinchineesis 58
snakewood is a species which has the potential to compete with the

native mahang trees. Mahang also forms a symbiotic relationship
Macaranga spp. Mahang (trees) secondary forest yes with the heart-gaster ants (pg 27). Belongs to the rubber family 245
Nocturnal. mainly distributed in BTNR and CCNR. Critically

endangered. Defense mechanism is to curl up into a ball. Has strong
clawed forelimbs to break ant nests and climb trees to feed on ants
Manis javanica Malayan / Sunda pangolin primary / secondary yes and termites. 68
Common flowering plant lithophytes. reddish edible berries whose
Muntingia calabura Malayan cherry spontaneous wasteland seeds are spread by birds and bats all over Singapore. 91, 200 6/6
gliding mammal. More common than previously thought, a good sign
Galeopterus variegatus Malayan colugo BTNR / CCNR yes for the forests. 32
Homalopsinae Subfamily Mud snake coastal / mangrove Forages in
thought to streams
be locallyand poolsbut
extinct, at low tide. Important
rediscovered predators.
in 2006 on Pulau 111
Hystrix brachyura Malayan porcupine yes Tekong 228
Tapirus indicus indicus Malayan tapir no, visitor
one of the largest lizards in the world. Feed on fishes and small
Varanus salvator Malayan water monitor coastal / mangrove yes animals. 111
Anacardiaceae Mango family primary vegetation dryland forest plant (primary vegetation) 4 / 12
grow in intertidal zone, oxygen poor, unstable substrate, high and

fluctuating salinity, strong winds, wave action may erode substrate.
Mangrove forest has highest daily variation in conditions. Values (pg
96). Major / minor components (pg 105-106). Helps to buffer impact
Mangrove habitat Mangrove habitat of storms hitting coast (pg 278) 100
has 2 colours: black (anaerobic, smells like rotting eggs due to H2S),
Mangrove mud Mangrove mud or brown 7/3
commercially reared. Often eaten by Singaporeans as the 'chilli crab'
Scylla serrata Mangrove mud crab coastal / mangrove no of restaurants. Brought from Sri Lanka 177
primarily arboreal (living in trees), found on trunks, branches and
Littoraria spp. Mangrove periwinkle coastal / mangrove leaves of mangrove trees grazing on algae. 107
salt secretors / ultrafiltrators (to deal with seawater), breathing roots

(deal with anaerobic mud), prop or stilt roots to increase foothold in
mud. (taller trees, more prop roots)
Roots help to protect environment: prevent mud and sand from
being washed away, regenerate soil by penetrating and aerating it,
reduce damage from storms.
Mangrove plants Mangrove plants Major vs minor vs associates (pg 104,105) 101,102 7/3
Gardenia Jasminoides Gardenia Managed Fragrant Shrub Planted in Planting Programme phase 3 185
Michelia Xalba / Michelia ChampCempaka Managed Fragrant flowers. Planted in planting programme phase 3. 185
has thick warty skin to help prevent desiccation, compensating for a
Onchidium aberrans Mangrove slug coastal / mangrove lack of shell (can camouflage) 107
Syzygium Jambos Rose Apple waste/managed Yes potentially invasive 246
Heavy flushes of white or light to dark pink flowers. Planted in
Tabebuia Rosea Trumpet Tree Managed planting programme phase 2. 185
Nparks propagated and planted this tree as part of the Singapore
Dolichandrone spathacea Mangrove trumpet tree coastal / mangrove yes green plan 119
construction involved damming the Singapore and Kallang River
Marina reservoir Marina reservoir Basins to create the largest reservoir in Singapore 233
bought or dredged from Singapore sea. Sandy, loose, well aerated,

drains water, never floods, less or no nutrients. Bear flora more
Marine sand Marine sand intertidal / coastal similar to natural beaches. 81
graze largely on algae, and in some cases, on encrusting organisms

using a toothed rasping organ that protrudes from the mouth called
a radula. Secretes CaCO3 shell throughout life, protective reflex is to
withdraw into shell, opening is sealed with a protective plate carried
on foot of animal (operculum). Have pants to hold them to the rocks
Marine snails Marine snails intertidal and to minimise heat transfer from surrounding contact 136 2 / 12
life in the sediment, cannot be seen with naked eye. Small benthic
Meiofauna Meiofauna intertidal invertebrates that live in both marine and freshwater 2/9
nationally critically endangered. Also a minor component of the
Pemphis acidula Mentigi coastal / rocky shore mangrove forest 116
meranti family consists of dipterocarps, which dominates the

primary dryland / lowland evergreen rainforests in Singapore. Economically important
Meranti Meranti dipterocarp (Strata A) as they are a source of hardwood timber 15
brown macroalgae, only one known to contain calcium. Used as
Padina spp Mermaid's fan intertidal fertiliser, medicine and cream 166 2/6
air breathing snail, largest member of its family and plays an
Ellobium aurismidae Midas ear crassidula coastal / mangrove imporant ecological role as a macrodecomposer of leaves. 107
Singapore is very impt for migratory birds as it lies along the East-
Asian flyway for birds escaping the northern winter. They rely on
Migratory birds Migratory birds intertidal habitats as 'refueling' stops to feed and rest 145
Mikania cordata Mile-a-minute spontaneous wasteland no grows very fast. 91 6/7
Mistletoe Mistletoe primary / secondary hemiparasite, host is cinnamon and tiup tiup 56 4/9
2 species, can swim, flattened pedal-like legs. Has spades to rapidly
Ashtoret lunaris Moon crab intertidal burrow into sand 2 / 10
2 species, can swim, flattened pedal-like legs. Has spades to rapidly
Matuta planipes Moon crab intertidal burrow into sand 2 / 10
poisonous, because they eat toxic algae and the toxins are stored in
the crab. Sports bright warning colouration and patterns to ward off
Lophozozymus pictor Mosaic reef crab intertidal predators 139,140
Anopheles epiroticus Mosquito coastal / mangrove vector of Malaria 7/1
Anopheles sinensis Mosquito coastal / mangrove vector of Malaria 7/1
Invasive species from south america, preys on mosquito larvae to

control spread of malaria, has since established itself in our urban
Gambusia affinis Mosquito fish no freshwater habitats. 3
Acrochordus Granulatus File Snake coastal / mangrove Live near Mud Lobster mound 110
Wolffogebia Phuketensis Mud Shrimp coastal / mangrove Live near Mud Lobster mound 110
Sarmatium Germaini Mound Crab coastal / mangrove Live near Mud Lobster mound 110
Odontomachus malignus Intertidal Ant coastal / mangrove Live near Mud Lobster mound 110
Rarely seen as they live underground in extensive burrow systems

that they dig. Presence is indicated by large volcano shaped mounds
up to 3m in height. Feed on organic matter in the mud and are
tolerant of anoxic conditions. Contributes greatly to ecology of
mangrove ecosystem as they play ipt role in nutrient recycling. Their
mounds also provide additional habitat for plants such as ferns, piai
raya, piai lasu, sea holly and mangrove tree. 6 species altogether in
Thalassina spp Mud lobster intertidal / mangrove Singapore. Keystone species. 109, 110 2 / 10
extracts oxygen from volume of water held in gills. Modified pectoral

fins are effective for slithering quickly over the ground. Able to
breathe through moist skin, high tolerance for anoxic (seawater
depleted of dissolved oxygen) conditions and high concentrations of
hydrogen sulphide present in mangrove forests. Have modified
Mudskipper Mudskipper coastal / mangrove pectoral fins that are effective for slithering quickly over ground. 110
Free living and solitary, young individuals are attached to substrate

before breaking free as they grow. All hard coral species are colonial
Fungia spp Mushroom coral subtidal and fixed to the substrate except for this 165 3 / 14
parasitic relationship between plant (parasite) and fungi, where
plant (may or may not be able to photosynthesize) takes food from
Myco-heterotroph Myco-heterotroph fungi. 4 / 10
maintains 64 regional parks, 263 neighbourhood parks, 66 park
National parks board National parks board connectors. 11 / 5
strong swimmers; fish, squid, turtles, prawns, whales. Pelagic occupy
Nekton Nekton subtidal upper water column, demersal stay closer to bottom 3/5
exhibits cryptovivipary. Products: attap chee, gula melaka, roofing
Nypa fruticans Nipah palm coastal / mangrove yes thatch, salt. 7/8
believed to be carried by fruit bats and transmitted to pigs due to
Nipah virus Nipah virus deforestation that forced the bats to forage in agricultural areas 276
predator of bivalves, wrap foot around prey and suffocate it, forcing
intertidal / sandy it to open its shell and provide access for its proboscis (mouth) to
Cymbiola nobilis Noble volute /Subtidal enter 138
Lepidochelys olivacea Olive ridley intertidal / seagrass endangered species supported by seagrass habitat 2/8
Otters Otters yes, for some -> smooth and oriental small clawed otter are native
attached to rocks, subject to predation by humans, birds and other

coastal organisms. Oysters in restaurants are genetically modified to
Oysters Oysters intertidal prevent reproduction, so that people cannot grow them 2/9
almost made extinct based on timber value, source of paclitaxel for
Taxus brevifolia Pacific yew no curing lung, ovarian and breast cancer 4/4
Acrosticum aureum Paku laut yes brown spores, fern no flower or seed 6/4
Arecaceae Palms Managed grown along streets and parks for more variety 193
belief in Asia that their ground-up scales can stimulate lactation or
Pangolin Pangolin cure cancer / asthma 13 / 4
Shellfish poisoning associated with dinoflagellate species. Shellfish

eat dinoflagellate which produces saxitoxin, and then spreading it to
Paralytic Shell Poisoning Paralytic Shell Poisoning humans who eat the shellfish 157
Heterotrophic plants that derive all their nutrients and water from
Parasites Parasites other plants, e.g. rafflesia 21
Sacculina Parasitic Barnacle intertidal parasitic castrator of crabs (crustaceans and crayfish)
adults of these species use long ovipositors to penetrate the wall of

the (fig) syconium and lay eggs in flowers meant for producing seeds.
This reduces the reproductive success of the plant and also does not
contribute to pollination. The young also competes with the fig
Parasitic wasps Parasitic wasps wasps inside the syconium for food 29
cooler, more humid, wetter, shadier, less windy, with less human
Park environment Park environment disturbnance and less polluted 206 11 / 6
Cleome Rutodosperma Blue Cleome wasteland no 90
Kyllinga Polyphylla Navua Sedge wasteland no 90
extinct. Previously possibly the most abundant bird in the world,
Ectopistes migratorius Passenger pigeon now hunted to extinction. 14 / 2
Passiflora foetida Passion flower no smelly flower. 'foetida' means smelly. 13 / 7
Pelagic Pelagic subtidal species that swim in the water column above the water bed 156
agricultural crops of old Singapore. Large scale planting caused
Pepper Pepper deforestation. 224 5/3
Pennisetum Polystachion Mission Grass Wasteland no potentially invasive 246
Paspalum Conjugatum Buffalo Grass Wasteland no potentially invasive 246
Panicum Maximum Panic Grass Wasteland no 90
managed habitat lithophyte, source of 2 valuable alkaloids, vincristine and vinblastine,
Catharanthus roseus Periwinkle /wasteland no used in the treatment of childhood leukemia 200
modified petiole or a shoot that connects the stem with leaf. It
Phyllode Phyllode resembles the function of a leaf.
autotrophic plankton. Dominant plant life in the surface of the open
Phytoplankton Phytoplankton subtidal sea 156
Technologies that use living plants to clean up soil, air, and water
contaminated with hazardous chemicals. Mustard plants, alpine
pennycress, hemp, and pigweed have proven to be successful at
hyperaccumulating contaminants at toxic waste sites.
Advantages: natural and cheap and easily monitored
Limitations: limited to surface area and depth occupied by roots and
Phytoremediation Phytoremediation takes a long time 8/4
making reappearance in Singapore may be attributed to the
disruption of its original habitat in Malaysia. Helps to disperse
Anthracoceros albirostris Oriental Pied hornbill no nutmegs. 14 / 9
Pigeons Pigeons Diseases transmitted by pigeons (slide 13, pg 7) 13 / 7
Leelumnus radium Pilumnud crab intertidal found in encrusting communities in Singapore 2 / 13
Pineapple Pineapple agricultural crops of old Singapore 5/3
hardy species which are the first to colonize previously disrupted or

damaged ecosystems, beginning a chain of ecological succession that
ultimately leads to a more biodiverse steady-state ecosystem. (bare
Pioneer species Pioneer species reclaimed land ground specialists) 82
common climbers on trees and shrubs in adinandra belukar.

Nectaries under lid attracts insects, pitfall trap, insects drown in fluid
to decompose and breakdown. Plant absorbs the product. Spiders
may also exploit the trap to catch prey. Raffles pitcher plant is
largest. Most common species is slender pitcher plant.
Pitcher plant Pitcher plant secondary (parasitism). 56 5/6
Plankton Plankton subtidal limited swimming ability, dependent on currents. Mostly microscopic 3/5
Black and white striped pattern on the sides of its pale reddish belly.
Callosciurus notatus Plantain squirrel yes eats insects and fruits 70
phase 1: planting of trees over vacant areas asap, phase 2: planting

of colorful species, phase 3: introduce fragrance, phase 4: mixed
mass planting of shrubs and trees for more heterogenous look.
Mixed planting also ensures higher diversity and less likely occurence
Planting programme Planting programme of plant disease epidemics 185, 186 11 / 3
Vegetation that has never been cleared or removed. What can be
Primary vegetation Primary vegetation done to maintain/improve (pg 39-46) 14
Tropical rainforests have high diversity but low density for individual
species. Species must be able to exchange gametes (using pollinators
and dispersors that are not extinct e.g. wild nutmegs dependent on
hornbills that are extinct in SG) to survive without human
intervention. (pg 38)
Forest fragments have difficulties maintaining high species diversity
due to inbreeding depression, which is the reduced ability to survive
and propagate due to breeding of related individuals (pg 38) -> too
Primary vegetation (challenges) Primary vegetation (challenges) little space 4 / 14
a tree is likely to outlive its disperser. Forest fragments can act as

refuge for the species and their genes for considerable periods.
Propagation of primary forest plants (pg 41-42). Reintroduce natural
Primary vegetation (hope) Primary vegetation (hope) dispersers (pg 43) 39
a plant population consisting exclusively or largely of members of
Pure Stand Pure Stand one species, variety, or type.
feed on algae, possess claws with spoon tipped fingers that help
Metograpsus Purple climber crab intertidal them to scrape and pick off algae 139
Nepenthes rafflesiana Raffle's pitcher plant secondary forest biggest of the tropical pitcher plant species in Singapore 57
Fissidens Ceylonensis Sri Lankan Split Tooth Moss Managed no Common lithophytic Moss. 199
Achlorophyllous, takes nutrients and water from host tree using an

absorptive organ, haustorium (parasitic in nature), largest flower in
the world. Releases foul odour to attract main pollinator, the carrion
Rafflesia arnoldii Rafflesia primary none in Singapore fly. 4 / 10
Long rhizome from which large compound leaves and highly
Davallia Denticulata / Davallia SoRabbit Foot Fern Managed dissected leaflets arise
Drynaria Quercifolia / Drynaria S Oak Leaf Fern Managed Common epiphytic fern. 196
strong swimmers; fish, squid, turtles, prawns, whales. Pelagic occupy
Dendrobium Crumenatum Pigeon Orchird Managed upper water column, demersal stay closer to bottom 196
Member of bean family and native of South America. Introduced in

1876 and oldest tree found in Connaught drive in 1916. most
common tree planted along streets of singapore. Bean family.
Extensive propagation has given rise to mutation of 'yellow' rain
trees (pg 189) Compound leaves are light sensitive and close up on
cloudy days just before storrm and helps reduce drag on branches by
raindrops. Grass is greener under rain tree due to excess nitrogen
from bacteria in its root. Honeydew is exuded from sap sucking
insects from crown like a drizzle when they are feeding in mass.
Nectaries on leaves exude honeydew as a steady drizzle. When tree
is heavy with flowers, stamens can drop from crown like rain. Pinkish
flowers are grouped into small heads and fruits are black woody
coastal / reclaimed pods which do not split open. Mature trees attract dense growth of
Albiza saman Rain tree (subsoil) / Managed no epiphytic plants like ferns and pigeon orchids. 188
can be either filled with subsoil (pg 81,82) or sand (pg 83).
Environmental conditions similar to coastal habitat (pg 82).
Spontaneous vegetation (pg 82). Logical use for reclaimed land
(pg 92). Changi Airport and Jurong Island sits on reclaimed land (pg
Reclaimed land Reclaimed land 225).
causes the loss of mangroves, reefs, and other shore habitats and
Reclamation Reclamation also siltation (pollution of water by fine particulate material) 239
well adapted to living out of water, having a lung instead of a gill for
Sphaerassiminia miniata Red berry snail coastal / mangrove respiration. 107
poisonous, because of the marine plants that it consumes, which are

poisonous. Sports bright warning colouration and patterns to ward
Atergatis Intergerrimus Red egg crab intertidal / rocky shore off predators 139
massive muscular claw bearing an enlarged molar tooth to crush
Eriphia spp. Red eye reef crab intertidal shells of snails 138
Keranji (Dialium Species) Primary (Strata A) Bean Family 22
Artocarpus Species Wild Jackfruit Primary (Strata B) Fig family 22
Parishia Insignis Red dhup Primary (Strata B) Mango Family 22
Campnosperma Auriculatum Terentang Primary (Strata B) Mango Family 22
Planchonella Maingayi Nyatoh Nangka Merah Primary (Strata B) Chiku Family (Sapotaceae) 22
Kedondong Santiria Species Primary (Strata B) Chinese Olive Family 22
Sindora Wallichii Sepetir Daun Tebal Primary (Strata A) Bean Family 22
Kempas Primary (Strata A) Bean Family 22
found in the CCNR primary dryland forest. Economically valuable
Red meranti-keruing Red meranti-keruing primary (Strata A) timbers, were heavily exploited and felled in the past. 18,19
Psilopogon rafflesii Red-crowned barbet yes digs wood out of trees to form a hole to lay their eggs 13 / 4
terrapins that can grow up to 28cm, which owners release into local
water bodies. They may pose competition against native (several
endangered) species. Also released by Buddhists on Vesak day. They
Trachemys scripta elegans Red-eared slider managed no may carry parasites as well. 44, 183
soft coral, sponges, hydroids, sea fans, molluscs, crustaceans,
Reef associated animals Reef associated animals subtidal echinoderms, protochordates and fish. 166
deployed as subtrate for the settlement and development of coral

recruits and other reef associated species. Do not permit the heavy
Reef enhancement units Reef enhancement units subtidal accumulation of silt. 168
longest snake in the world. Top predator in primary forest, hunts by

detecting warmth emitted by prey using heat sentitive pits on its lips,
suffocates and constricts prey. Found in toilet bowl, NUS, canals and
Python reticulatus Reticulated python secondary / mangrove yes sewers. 68 5 / 10
Parathelphusa reticulata Reticulated swamp crab yes, endemic discovered in 1990 by Prof Peter Ng. 14 / 10
Cryptasterina spp. Rock sea star intertidal sea star that is found on rocky shores 142
more extreme conditions than beach: little to no soil, rocks are

heated up, strong wave action, active cliffs that collapses (pg 115),
Rocky shore vegetation Rocky shore vegetation values (pg 118). Very well adapted for street life 114 7/7
agricultural crops of old Singapore. Has 3 leaflets of the same size

(unlike vitex pinnata) , have latex - white substance when cut.
Abandoned rubber plantation in former Sultan of Johor's property
Hevea brasiliensis Rubber (plant) has now developed into a tall sec forest (pg 66) 224
from legumes family - fix atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate for the
plant. Raw seeds are poisonous and has a compound leaf (many
Adenanthera pavonina Saga sandfill no leaflets form 1 leaf) 84 6/4
ocean's salinity causes water to move from plant (more dilute) to a
Salt spray Salt spray coastal / reclaimed more concentrated solution, leading to dryness. 82
covered by water during high tide. Feeds by straining suspended

matter and food particles from water (filter feeding). It brings the
Sand anemone Sand anemone intertidal / sandy food to the mouth using tentacles. 2/9
has membrane on each leg for exchange of air. Makes shallow pit in
sand, pushing sand pellets up to form curved wall, forming a canopy
of sand, burrows deeper beneath the dome. Has hole for air
exchange. Feeds on thin coating of edible particles on sand grains.
Scopimera spp Sand crab intertidal (resulting sand ball is clean of bacteria) 139
a species of sea cucumber, often lies buried in the sandy subtrate of

seagrass and seaweed beds to avoid detection. Highly sought after
Holothuria scabra Sand fish intertidal for food 143
low water retention and low nutrient. Plant must be tolerant of salt
and low nutrient. Herbaceous trailers grow quickly to cover ground,
followed by shurb and small trees to shade out herbs. Larger trees
come next.
Sandfill Sandfill reclaimed land Spontaneous sandfill veg (slide 6 / pg 3) 83
Archaster typcius Sandstar / common sea star intertidal / sand, seagrass feed by inverting stomach out of mouth 141
undergoes cycle of erosion - accretion (deposition). Environmental

conditions (pg 113). 2 stages of succession: Pes-caprae association
and then Barringtonia assocation. Values (pg 114). Very well adapted
Sandy beach vegetation Sandy beach vegetation for street life 112
Heterotrophic plants that obtain their nutrients from rotting organic

Saprophytes / Myco- matter. Fungus in the plant break down organism to get nutrients
Saprophytes heterotroph and plants get nutrient from fungus. E.g. Thismia aseroe 21 4 / 10
(macroalgae) float up to form big piece of algae when cut. Provide

living spaces for small fishes. Substrate in intertidal area. At reef
Sargassum spp Sargassum intertidal / subtidal crests, they grow into thick bushy stands (pg 166) 156 2/6
climber vine. Dense growth can often overshadow its support tree,
Smilax setosa Sarsapilla vine yes depriving it of light. Should be removed 44
Pristidae (family) Sawfish subtidal has a distinguished toothed blade 157
shrub and small tree species, which invade the sand fill sites to shade
Pandanus odoratissimus Screw pine reclaimed / sand fill yes out herbs. Grind into flour to make pancake 83 6/4
forms a relationship with anemone fish. Sea anemone protects the
Sea anemone Sea anemone subtidal fish and the anemone will sting whatever fish that comes near it. 166
crustaceans, not insects. well adapted for life out of water, breathing
air directly through 'pseudo-lungs'. Helps in recycling of nutrients.
intertidal / reclaimed Commonly found scurrying in crevices between boulders of
Ligia spp Sea cockroach land reclaimed land revetments. 177 2 / 12
nubbin Subtidal Small Coral Fragments 169
endangered species supported by seagrass habitat. Fully dependent

on seagrass. No longer any resident populations because of loss of
Dugong Dugon Sea cow / Dugong subtidal / seagrass yes seagrass habitat (pg 130) 158 2/8
eviscerates as self defence, shoots out intestines which it

regenerates in 1-2 weeks. Present in algal beds at Changi, used in
traditional medicine locally. Fluid from Ball sea cucumber is used to
cure asthma, sinus and wounds (air gamat). (pg 277) Filter feeds. 2 / 14
Phyllophorus spp. Sea cucumber intertidal / subtidal Commonly found in seagrass and seaweed beds. 8/3
present in algal beds at Changi, used in traditional medicine locally.

Fluid from Ball sea cucumber is used to cure asthma, sinus and
Ficus superba Sea fig coastal / rocky shore wounds (air gamat). (pg 277) 117
Erythrina Species Coral Trees Sandfill no 84
Khaya Species African Mahoganies Subsoil 86
Andira Inermis Brown Heart Subsoil 86
Eucalyptus Species Gum Trees Subsoil 86
Cinnamomum iners Wild Cinnamon Subsoil 86
local species can be edible, put in alkaline solution to shrink it. Before eating, soak in
found in labrador fresh water. Cold-tolerant clone of native caulerpa taxifolia (killer
Caulerpa spp. Sea grapes intertidal / sandfill rocky shore (no) algae) is invasive weed of midterranean sea. Can destroy ecosystem. 84 / 135 2/6
only group of flowering plants that are fully submerged in water.

Highly specialised, has roots, stems, leaves unlike algae. The roots
and stems stablises the substrate (sand/mud). Need warmth and
sunlight to grow, so grows best in clear tropical waters. Primary
producers of marine ecosystem. Services of a seagrass ecosystem (pg
Sea grass Sea grass intertidal 133 and pg 279 or slide 8, pg 3) 130, 131 2/7
Coastal species adapted to grow on sand (pg 114). Leaves secrete

reclaimed / sandfill, sweet substance, attracting weaver ants, who protect the plant from
Talipariti tiliaceum Sea hibiscus coastal / sandy beach herbivores. 114
Acanthus spp Sea holly coastal / mangrove yes salt secretor 7/3
spontaneous sandfill plant, grows and shade out herbs. Coastal

reclaimed / sandfill, species adapted to grow on sand (pg 114). Second stage in natural
Scaevola taccada Sea lettuce coastal / sandy beach yes succession of bare sand (pg 83) 83, 114 6/3
can be found in intertidal zone where the sand overlays mud. Used
Ulva spp Sea lettuce intertidal to be harvested to feedpigs but has no economic value nowadays. 134
filters the particles in the sea and transfers it down to the mouth.
Pennatulacea Sea pen subtidal Crab will protect the sea pen as it provides accomodation and food. 153
grows in cracks and depressions of seashore rocks, close relative of
Portulaca pilosa Sea purseland coastal / rocky shore common ornamental 117
involved in natural succession of bare sand. Flowers only open at

night, sweet scent with a lot of nectar, only lasts 1 night and will
Barringtonia asiatica Sea putat / Fish poison tree coastal / sandy beach yes drop next morning. Buoyant - water dispersed fruit. Bat pollinated 113, 114 7/6
symbol of botanic gardens. By right native, but Singapore buy a lot
Cyrtostachys Sealing-wax palm freshwater swamp by right from Msia to plant on coastal habitats, so becomes introduced. 194
rare (rocky shore) plant that can be found at Labrador, Lazarus and
Garcinia homobronian Seashore mangosteen coastal / rocky shore St. John's Islands 117
Rapanea Porteriana Rocky Shore 117
spontaneous sandfill plant, first phase of natural succession in bare

coastal / sandy beach / sand (pg 113), starts growing out on bare ground. Explode to release
Ipomoea pes-caprae Seashore morning glory sand fill sites yes seeds 113 7/6
high dose of iodine and rare minerals (replacement for fish). Absent
on sandy shores as sandy substrate is too unstable to support and
intertidal / subtidal (after lower in nutrients. More frequently on muddy (more stable / more
storms rip them off nutrients) and rocky (stable substrate and seaweed have strong
substrate in intertidal holdfasts for robust attachment). Most plentiful and diverse on coral
Macroalgae spp Seaweed area) flats. 134,135 2/5
Avrainvillea erecta Seaweed species intertidal thick green fan sticking out of the mud 134
Vegetation that has regrown after the natural or human destruction

of the original vegatation. Tall secondary vegetation is one that
succeeds adinandra or trema belukar. Fewer species than primary
but more than adinandra/trema.
Secondary vegetation Secondary vegetation (pg 64 or slide 5, pg 7/8) 14
Sedentary Sedentary Animals that move slowly over limited distances 148
has the highest impact on existing reefs - average visibility reduced
Sedimentation rates Sedimentation rates subtidal from 10m in 1960s to 2m today. Affects sunlight penetration 161
first offshore landfill made from seascape. Reclamation between

Pulau Sakeng and Pulau Semakau. Indication that conservation and
development can coexist (restored mangrove forests and protected
Semakau landfill Semakau landfill coral reefs around the landfill). Expected to last only until 2035 172, 284 12 / 8
secondary (Marginal
Vitex Pinnata Malayan Teak Adinandra) 58
found on the margins of Adinandra belukar (where soil is

richer), thus not considered a true member of the Adi Belu. Many
confused with silver back. Silver back is lighter in colour and
smoother. Senduduk has hair on leaf surface so it is rougher.
secondary (Marginal Considered keystone species because of the ability to flower and
Melastoma malabathricum Senduduk/ Sendudok Adinandra) fruit all year round, providing a constant supply of pollen and fruits 58 5/8
one of the dominant tree species found in the BTNR, key species
defining the seraya-ridge forest, subtype of hill dipterocarp forest.
Trees grow very tall, to more than 30m and are vertically straight
with cylindrical trunks that vary from yellowish brown to greyish and
deeply and widely fissured bark. Crown of tree has a appearance of a
primary vegetation green cauliflower. Fruit, when ripe is dry, has 5 wings but only 3 are
Shorea curtisii Seraya (Strata A) well developed surrounding a small nut in the centre. 17 4 / 12
Sessile Sessile Animals that are attached to the substrate e.g. sea anemone, sponge 148
at low tide, they congregate in intertidal habitats to forage for

invertebrates and small fishes. Large diversity and abundance still
Waders Shorebirds intertidal able to coexist. 145
Amblyeotris spp Shrimp gobies intertidal share same burrow as snapping shrimp, act as sentry 143
Cynodon Dactylon Bermuda Grass maanged / park Cultivated grass, suited for well manicured places 206
Cynodon Dactylon Tifdwarf Bermuda Grass managed / park turf / golf golf courses 211
Paspalum Vaginatum Salam Paspalum managed / park turf / golf golf courses 211
Zoysia matrella Siglap grass managed / park turf / golf yes highly manicured laws of homes or condos and golf courses 206
caused by reclamation. Kills by smothering corals, sponges and other

sessile animals, disrupts the food chain and causes respiratory
Siltation Siltation difficulties in fish and other animals. 239
Rhodomyrtus Tomentosa Rose Myrtle secondary (adinandra) 56
Dominates tall secondary forests. shade tolerant, so grows well in

adinandra belukar. Can be recognised by its opposite, three-veined
leaves with silvery undersides and finely fissured reddish brown bark
secondary (adinandra and of the trunk. Often confused with senduduk (has a lighter colour and
Rhodamnia cinerea Silver back Tall Secondary) yes smoother). Seeds are dispersed by the Yellow vented bulbul 65 5/8
Secondary(Tall Secondary
Leucobryum Aduncum Hooked White Moss Forest) 65
Ectropothecium Species Folded-Fruit Moss Forest) 65
Campylopus Species Swan Moss Forest) 65
Acanthorrhynchium Papillatum Spiny Beak Moss Forest) 65
key adinandra belukar species. Pollinated by carpenter bees by buzz

pollination. Seeds are covered with a crimson, fleshy seed coat
(sarcotesta) that attracts the yellow-vented bulbul and flowerpecker
to eat the seed and disperse through defecation. Leaf is used as
secondary vegetation wrapper. Reddish buds and large yellow petals and stamens. Brown
Dillenia suffruticosa Simpoh air (Adinandra) yes seeds. 57 5/6
population dwindling due to acid rain, which acidifies the streams in

BTNR and Bukit Batok BTNR, beyond the limits which the species would normally be able to
Johora singaporensis Singapore freshwater crab Area yes, endemic persist. Locally extinct in BTNR 29
targets: retaining nature areas for as long as possible, verify and

update data on indigenous flora and fauna, establishing more parks
and their connectors, setting up National Biodiversity Centre, which
was opened on 22 May 2006 (International Day for Biological
Diversity)
SG Green Plan 2012, 6 focus areas: clean air & climate change,
water, waste management, public health, conserving nature and
Singapore green plan Singapore green plan international env relations 73 1/4
found in Nee Soon swamp forest. If Nee Soon forest is gone, it will be
Kopsia singapurensis Singapore kopsia yes, endemic gone
Singapore red data book Singapore red data book 13 / 6
10 year cleanup starting 1977. rubbish and contamination removed,
Singapore river Singapore river aquatic biodiversity increased 8/8
smaller and more plainly coloured than plantain squirrel. Similar
Sundasciurus tenuis Slender squirrel yes activity and diet 70
Has membrane on each leg for exchange of air

o Red areas -> parts that are no calciumfied -> part that allows
gaseous exchange
o Form sandballs
o Building a shelter: 1. Makes shallow pit in sand. 2. Runs around
pit, pushing sand pellets up to form curved wall. 3. Makes a
Scopimera spp Sand Bubbler Crab Intertidal complete canopy of sand. 4. Burrows deeper beneath thick dome
hard coral. Previously thought to be locally extinct until a single
Stylophora pistillata Smooth cauliflower coral subtidal colony was seen in 2006 163
competes with the native Mahang trees. Grows at wasteland sites or

forest edges. Spreading and can be commonly found, should be
Cecropia pachystachya Snakewood no eradicated to prevent it from becoming invasive. 245
can stun, defend or attack. Has a mutualistic relationship with shrimp

goby. Goby share burrow with shrimp, goby act as
Alpheus spp Snapping / pistol shrimp intertidal sentry 143
entered through aquarium trade in 1980s, displaced native apple
Pomacea canaliculata South american apple snail no snail Pila scutata 12 / 7
Culex quinquefasciatus Southern house mosquito coastal / mangrove vector of filariasis 7/2
dead carcass was found in Jurong in late July 2015. Skeletal exhibit
Physeter macrocephalus Sperm whale subtidal now in LKCNHM 3/9
sand snail, can flip back on its own using its elongated operculum
Lambis lambis Spider conch intertidal / coral reef when overturned 138 2 / 12
Naja sumatrana Spitting cobra wasteland yes found in NUS, spray pink dots - venom 6/7
used for scrubbing pots & pans in the past. Made of silicon oxide
Sponge Sponge subtidal which is very hard 3/4
crab cuts a piece of sponge and carry it on their backs as a form of
Lauridromia indica Sponge crab intertidal protection 139
found usually on sandy substrates, unisexual plant, tiny fruits and
Halophila ovalis / minor Spoon seagrass intertidal / sandy flowers. This species is also food for dugongs. 133
primary / secondary / epiphyte fern that is deliberately placed on roadside trees in
Platycerium coronarium Stag's horn fern coastal / managed yes Singapore 20
dominates the upper drier zone of rocky shore in Chek Jawa and
Chthamalus Star barnacle intertidal Pulau Ubin 141
keystone species as they flower and fruit throughout year. Starts off
as epiphyte but its roots grow to the ground, and the roots wrap
around the host tree, crushing it and taking its spot. Benjamin fig,
Strangler figs Strangler figs Managed Bodhi tee, Malayan banyan. 197
layers of the canopy. Top to bottom: Emergent (discontinuous layer),

Main canopy top (laterally continuous), Subcanopy (not laterally
continuous), Treelet/Shrub (spend their life in shade), Forest floor
(seedlings and herbaeceous plants).
Primary has the most (5) strata because of high diversity, complexity
Stratum Stratum primary / secondary of structure and great height. Secondary only 1-2 strata 21-23
introduction of a beetle (Schematiza cordiae) was used in Malaysia
Cordia cylindrostachya Stringbush wasteland no to control this weed 91
reclaimed land fill material. Ran out years ago. Clayey, compact,
poorly aerated, retains water (causes waterlogging or flooding during
wet season), more nutrients. Bear flora more similar to wasteland
areas. Less preferred for plant growth
Subsoil Subsoil reclaimed land Spontaneous subsoil plants (slide 6 / pg 5) 81 6/2
the surface or material on or from which an organism lives, grows, or
Substrate Substrate obtains its nourishment. 129
Habitat that lies below the lowest low tide level and remain
completely submerged. Variations in open sea conditions (pg 155).
Subtidal habitat Subtidal habitat Risks faced (pg 170). Function and values (pg 174 or slide 3 / pg 18) 147
freshwater air breathing species that can tolerate polluted and poor
Monopterus albus Swamp eel Managed yes oxygenated waters. predators 183 13 / 7
omnivorous. Prefers very slow-flowing to stagnant, swampy and
Parathelphusa reticulata Swamp forest crab yes, endemic acidic waters 30
Synusiae Synusiae A group of plant life forms with similar ecological requirements 19
one of the most common of the local seagrass community, but

considered nationally rare. Male has extended stands to hook onto
female flower. Grows by a creeping horizontal rhizome, densely
clothed with fibres of decayed leaves. Male plants bear the white
Enhalus acoroides Tape seagrass intertidal male flowers which detach and float away. 132-133 2/8
Tapioca Tapioca agricultral crop of old Singapore 5/3
fish that requires very pristine water to live. If found in a lake / river,
Puntius lateristriga T-barb / spanner barb yes it is a sign that the water is of great quality, can find in malaysia 14 / 4
mud creeping species that feeds on detritus with a highly protrusible
Telescopium telescopium Telescope shell coastal / mangrove snout 106
Morella Esculenta Malay Gale secondary (Adinandra) 56
Wrightia Religiosa Wild water plum Managed Planted in planting programme phase 3. 185
Brunfelsia Americana Lady of the night Managed Planted in planting programme phase 3. 185
key adinandra belukar species. Slow growing tree which produces

strong, heavy and durable timber. Moth-pollinated and dispersed
when bright red fruits are eaten by squirrels, fruit bats and birds.
Fagraea fragrans Tembusu secondary (Adinandra) yes Planted in planting programme phase 3. 57 5/6
only hard coral species that is locally extinct, after 2010 bleaching
Seriatopora hystrix Thin birdnest coral subtidal incident. 163
Thismia Thismia myco-heterotrophic plant. Probably extinct in Singapore 21
commonly found in seagrass and seaweed beds around Changi and
Colochirus quadrangularis Thorny sea cucumber intertidal Pulau Ubin 143
massive muscular claw bearing an enlarged molar tooth to crush

intertidal / coastal shells of snails. Hides under rocks and debris such as
Myomenippe hardwickii Thunder crab (mangrove) driftwood. 139
Panthera tigris Tiger nationally extinct, with the last individual shot in mid 1930s 25
managed ponds / introduced by the japanese during WW2 as a commercial food fish.
Oreochromis mossambicus Tilapia reservoir no Now one of the most common species in Singapore. 182
Lycopodiella Cernua Nodding Clubmoss Adinandra Belukar 55
Dicranopteris Linearis / DicranoptResam Fern Adinandra Belukar 55
Gahnia Tristis Erect Gahnia Adinandra Belukar 55
Eriachne pallescens slender eriachne Adinandra Belukar 55
Razor Fish Subtidal Has a needle.
Venomous. Has spines on dorsal fin that contains toxins. Edible
Stone Fish Subtidal however.
previously thought to be endemic, but turns out was a junior
Rasborichthys altior Tiny carp no synonym of the Chinese Rasborinus lineatus takakii 251
Dominates Adinandra Belukar. flowers that hang downwards.

Requires carpenter bee for buzz pollination. The 'dog face fruit bat'
eats the greenish fruit of the tiup tiup and disperses the seeds via
defecation. Keystone species as it flowers all year round. Mistletoes
occur on the tiup tiup trees as well. Cream-coloured flowers never
Adinandra dumosa Tiup tiup Low secondary forest yes open fully. 54 5/5
The young leaves are eaten raw to relieve stomach pains. The roots
are used as an aphrodisiac and they also contain anti-malarial
compounds. A decoction of the root is used to reduce fevers, reduce
high blood pressure, and relieve gastric pains. The roots are also
used to induce vomiting, and poultice sores, ulcers, and wounds. The
Eurycoma Longifolia Tongkat ali / Longjack Freshwater swamp yes bark is used for blood clotting in childbirth complications. 14 / 2
has a cover called an operculum to block the opening of the shell
Trochus maculatus Top shell intertidal when it retreats, protecting against predators and desiccation. Edible 136
primary / nee soon
Macrobrachium platycheles Torrent prawn swamp forest new species 30
Sea Urchin Intertidal Have spines instead of eviscertating.
plants that have weak stems and cannot stand erect. Without
Trailer Trailer support, grows on ground. 4/8
ability to cause injury without injecting toxin. E.g. stonefish (also
Traumatogenic Traumatogenic venomous) / razorfish / sea urchin. 159
leaf stalk bases collect water, forming breeding ground for aedes
mosquito. Bases have to be regularly filled with sand or punctured to
Ravenala madagascariensis Traveller's palm no prevent water collecting. 194 11 / 4
climb trees during high tide to avoid aquatic predators. Remain

motionless in tree to avoid aerial or terrestrial predators. Leaf eating
crab, thus important macrodecomposers (mangrove hard to
Episesarma spp. Tree climbing crabs coastal / mangrove decompose) 108
secondary forest that grows on un-degraded soil after disturbance of

primary forest, such as creation of large gaps by natural falling. More
Trema belukar Trema belukar secondary diverse than adinandra belukar. 63 5/4
characterized by constantly high humidity and temperature, absence
Tropical rainforest Tropical rainforest primary / secondary of frost, very little seasonal fluctuations and high diversity 14
Sonneratia Alba Perepat Mangroves Cone breathing roots
(worms that lives in tubes) exposed part of tube is strengthened by

sticking sand and small pebbles onto the tube, using mucus secreted
by the worm. Filter feeds by spreading tentacles during high tide and
Tubeworm Tubeworm intertidal when they know there are no predators. 2 / 11
B. hainesii is a hybrid between B. cylindrica as the maternal parent

and B. gymnorrhiza as the paternal one. Rare and only its trees were
found in 2003 at Sungei loyang and Sungei Jelutong in Pulau Ubin.
Bruguiera Hainesii Berus Mata Buaya coastal / mangrove yes Kneed Breathing Roots 5
Rediscovered after being nationally extinct, Nparks propagated and

planted this tree Chek Jawa, Palau Ubin, Pasir Ris Park as part of the
Singapore green plan, was found in Pulau Tekong and Sungei Buloh
Bruguiera sexangula Tumu mata buaya coastal / mangrove yes Wetland Reserve. 119
marine snail abundant at most rocky shores. Has a cover called an

operculum to block the opening of the shell when it retreats,
Turbo bruneus Turban shell intertidal protecting against predators and desiccation. 136
Common lithophytic moss. No flowers or seeds, contains spore
Barbula indica Twisted teeth moss Managed/ Reservoir no capsules, no xylem vassels like vascular plants 199 11 / 5
species selected for making conservation-related decisions, typically

because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other
Umbrella species Umbrella species species that make up the ecological community of its habitat
Primary Lowland
Calymperes Erosum - Evergreen Rainforest 19
originated from escaped or abandoned pets. Resides in Bidadari

area. Development of Bidadari could chase it to nature reserves,
Callosciurus finlaysonii Variable squirrel no threatening the native species. Likes to peel bark off trees. 13 / 4
stick pedals and rocks on itself from being detected by predators.
Camposcia retusa Velcro crab intertidal Stick plants on itself to regulate their heat 139-140 2 / 13
3 leaflets of different sizes (unlike rubber). Leaves and bark are used
in traditional medicine to treat stomach ache, to expel intestinal
Vitex pinnata Vitex pinnata primary / secondary yes worms and to treat wounds. 5/3
Penaeus Indicus Indian White Prawn Managed Brackish Water 177
seed in fruit germinates and the embryo grows to break through the
seedcoat, then the fruit wall. Seedlings will be ready to grow once
they contact the unstable mangrove substrate (a form of
Vivipary Vivipary coastal / mangrove adaptation). Seen in bakau, pisang-pisang, tengar, tumu 104 7/3
Mangrove Plant /
Ceriops Tagal Tengar Managed Reclaimed Land 177
Vrydagzynea lancifolia Vrydagzynea lancifolia yes spotted in BTNR in 2014 (first sighting after 80 years) 12 / 4
Polypedates Leucomystax Common Tree Frog Reclaimed/Coastal
marine snail, has flexible foot that always cleans the shell, smooth
shiny shell that is covered by a layer of flesh. Can be used as
Cypraea errones Wandering cowrie intertidal currency. Very clean shell due to self-cleaning mechanism. 137 2 / 12
Acrochordus granulatus Wart snake intertidal / seagrass endangered species supported by seagrass habitat 2/8
vacant urban land awaiting development, including construction

sites, idle land, abandoned land. Stages of succession: herbaceous
weed (which are mostly exotic), then larger and more aggressive
Wasteland Wasteland species, then trees. (pg 91) 89 6/6
Managed habitat /
Nymphaea species and hybrids Water Lilies reservoir Deliberately Planted 179
Introduced by a resident from south america, can grow without

forming seeds (by way of runners or stolons), can proliferate (e.g
Kranji Reservoir and Lower Peirce) and will be very hard to get rid of.
Can remove nitrogen and harmful substances like arsenic, can
eliminate native aquatic plants, reduce infiltration of sunlight,
Managed habitat / restrict use of waterways. source of fibre for Philippines, Thailand
Eichhornia crassipes Water hyacinth reservoir no and Vietnam. Invasive. 180, 242 11 / 2
Introduced in 1950s fromm Sri Lanka at NUS and botanic gardens

and was spread by flooding to fish ponds at AMK, YCK nad Seletar
Reservoir) Floating Aquatic fern. Used to extract nutrients and
pollutants from water, when dried out used as mulch. Produce
spores but they are genetically defective and do not produce
Managed Habitat / offspring. Grows very quickly by vegetative reproduction. Invasive
Salvina molesta Water spangle reservoir no species. 180 11 / 2
Nectarinia Jugularis Olive backed sunbird Managed Feeds on nectar and flowers, important pollinator. 202
Pycnonotus Goiavier Yellow vented bulbul Manager Imporrtant disperser of seeds. 202
Increasing in numbers in recent years, most striking species, hunts
Bulbulcus Ibis White coloured cattle egret Managed / ponds for worms, insects and small animals
Passer Montanus Eurasian Tree Sparrow Managed 202
Streptopelia Chinensis Spotted Dove Managed 202
Columba Livia Rock Pigeon Managed 202
aggressive and will attack in large numbers when provoked. Used as

biological control of insect agricultural pests. Have a mutualistic
relationship with sapsucking bugs, ants tend for the sugary
secretions of the bugs. Also has a relationship with sea hibiscus.
Nests consist of living leaves woven or glued together using sticky
Oecophylla smaragdina Weaver ants managed vegetation silk produced by larvae. 201
Balaenoptera Whalebone whale subtidal carcass was found floating off Pulau Bukom 158
primary lowland
Isopterygium albescens White symmetrical moss evergreen rainforest 19
dispersed by large birds such as hornbills which are extinct from
Myristicaceae Wild nutmeg BTNR (Strata C) Singapore, so it is especially vulnerable 38
Lasianthus, Urophyllum Coffee Family Primary (Strata D) 23
Aracaceae Palms Primary (Strata D) 23
medicinal purposes for: cancer, skin diseases, jaundice, liver
Curcuma aromatica Wild turmeric complaints, asthma and wounds 8/3
any plant, now growing wild, that was introduced from another
Xenophyte Xenophyte geographic location
a species of plant that has adapted to survive in an environment with

little liquid water. Main adaptations give ability to reduce water loss
Xerophyte Xerophyte and store water.
Anisophyllea Disticha Leechwood Primary (Strata D) 23
Agrostitachys Longifolia Jejulong Primary (Strata D) Shed leaves into pink blooms. Planted in planting programme phase 23
Cratoxylum Formosum / CratoxylMempat Managed 2. 185
Striking numerous blooms like hanging streamers, planted in
Cassia Fistula Golden Shower Managed planting programme phase 2. 185
Lagerstroemia Speciosa Rose of India Managed Bluish Purple Flowers, planted in planting programme phase 2. 185
notorious of forming multi-queen supercolonies and invading large

areas. Shown high degree of exploitative and interference
Anoplolepis gracilipes Yellow crazy ants no competition, may kill red land crabs and other endemic animals. 254 12 / 7
Delonix Regia Flame of the forest Managed Scarlett flowers. Planted in planting programme phase 2. 185
2nd most abundant street tree. Grows on rocky and sandy shorse.
Invasive house crow usually use this species to nest. Has bright
managed / sand fill yellow flowers and fruits are purple-brown. Planted in Planting
Peltophorum pterocarpum Yellow flame reclaimed land yes Programme phase 2. 190
Clusia Rosea Balsam Apple sandfill sites no 84
propagates vegetatively through the production of aerial bulbils
(makes it very difficult to kill off). Toxic plant, poison used to commit
murder or suicide. Also used in some African medicine and also
contains the steroid diogesin, which was used as an oral
Dioscorea sansibarensis Zanzibar yam no contraceptive. 13 / 7
Animal plankton in the sea that swim in the water column above the
Zooplankton Zooplankton subtidal sea bottom (pelagic) 156
type of algae. Forms a mutualistic relationship with hard corals. The

coral provides the algae with a protected environment and
compounds they need for photosynthesis. In return, the algae
produce oxygen and help the coral to remove wastes and supply the
coral with food (through photosynthesis). zooxanthellae are also
responsible for the colors of many corals. Also forms a mutualistic
relationship with the giant clam. (slide 2 / page 10). Also has a
Zooxanthellae Zooxanthellae subtidal relationship with flatworm and sea anemone. 162
Chapter Item
-Singapore's Forest Cover

-Extinction Rates
Singapore's Natural Heritage -Extinctions in marine environment
Singapore's Natural Heritage Singapore Green Plan 2012
Primary Vegetation Habitat Definitions
Primary Vegetation Primary Forest Definitions

Primary Vegetation Primary Forest Types
Primary Vegetation Primary Forest Cover in Singapore
Primary Vegetation Synusiae

Primary Vegetation BTNR
Primary Vegetation CCNR

Primary Vegetation Forest Canopy
Primary Vegetation Forest Growth Phases

Primary Vegetation Last Tiger
Primary Vegetation Economic Values of Primary Dryland Forests

Primary Vegetation Primary Freshwater Swamp Forest
Primary Vegetation Environment Conditions of Freshwater Swamp
Primary Vegetation Adaptations for Freshwater Swamp
Primary Vegetation Keystone Species Definitions
Primary Vegetation How to support forests?
Secondary Vegetation Secondary Vegetation Definition
Secondary Vegetation Secondary Vegetation Classification
Secondary Vegetation Ecological Succession

Secondary Vegetation Secondary Vegetation in Singapore
Secondary Vegetation Herbaceous Vegetation
Secondary Vegetation Low Secondary Forests
Secondary Vegetation Adinandra Belukar Environment Conditions

Secondary Vegetation Mosses and Liverworts
Secondary Vegetation Adinandra Belukar Development
Secondary Vegetation Adaptations for Adinandra Belukar
Secondary Vegetation Good Present Day Examples of Adinandra Belukar
Secondary Vegetation Environment Conditions of Trema Belukar

Secondary Vegetation Best present day examples of Tall Secondary Forests
Secondary Vegetation How to differentiate secondary from primary forests?
Secondary Vegetation Secondary Swamp Forest in CCNR
Secondary Vegetation Economic values of Secondary Forests

Secondary Vegetation Future of Secondary Forests
Waste and Reclaimed Land What is Wasteland And Reclaimed Land?
Waste and Reclaimed Land Reclaimed Land Area in Singapore
Waste and Reclaimed Land Which are reclaimed land areas in Singapore?
Waste and Reclaimed Land Reclaimed land areas outside of Singapore?
Waste and Reclaimed Land What determines the types of plants which grow at reclaimed land sit
Waste and Reclaimed Land Type of Reclamation fill material
Waste and Reclaimed Land Environmental Conditions of Reclaimed Land
Waste and Reclaimed Land Adaptations for Reclaimed Land

Waste and Reclaimed Land Number of plants in sand fill vs subsoil
Waste and Reclaimed Land Earliest Wasteland Vegetation Site in Singapore
Waste and Reclaimed Land Plants found on wasteland?
Waste and Reclaimed Land Future of Wasteland?
Coastal Vegetation How do tides work?
Coastal Vegetation 3 main types of Coastal Vegetation
Coastal Vegetation All about Mangrove Forests

Coastal Vegetation Mangrove forests in Singapore
Coastal Vegetation Where are the mangrove forests in Singapore?
Coastal Vegetation Mangrove Forest Environment Conditions

Coastal Vegetation Adaptations for Mangrove Forest
Coastal Vegetation Major, Minor, Associates

Coastal Vegetation Sandy Beaches
Coastal Vegetation Processes that Sandy Beaches Undergo
Coastal Vegetation Singapore Sandy Beaches
Coastal Vegetation Environmental Conditions of Sandy Beaches
Coastal Vegetation Beach Vegetation Succession (Seashore Morning Glory)

Coastal Vegetation Environmental Conditions of Rocky Shore
Coastal Vegetation Examples of Rocky Shores in Singapore
Coastal Vegetation Economic Values of Coastal Vegetation
Coastal Vegetation Future of Coastal Habitats
Intertidal Habitat 3 Different Zones of Intertidal Habitats

Intertidal Habitat Types of Intertidal Habitats
Intertidal Habitat Environmental Conditions in Intertidal Habitats
Intertidal Habitat Adaptations for Intertidal Habitats
Intertidal Habitat Reasons for living in Intertidal Habitat

Intertidal Habitat Seagrasses
Intertidal Habitat What eats Seagrasses?
Intertidal Habitat What does the Seagrass bed do?
Subtital Habitat Benthic Habitats

Subtital Habitat Shallow Water Sampling
Subtital Habitat Common Benthic Organisms
Subtital Habitat Importance of Seabed Benthic Habitats
Subtital Habitat 3 Principal Lifestyles of Open Sea
Subtital Habitat Why are plants not found on Seabed?

Subtital Habitat Difference between poisonous and venomous?
Subtital Habitat Coral Reef Habitat

Subtital Habitat How many % of coral reefs lost to land reclamation?
Subtital Habitat Fringing Reef vs Patch Reef
Subtital Habitat Zooxanthellae with Corals
Subtital Habitat Hard Corals

Subtital Habitat Different Corals of Singapore
Subtital Habitat Reef Associated Animals
Subtital Habitat Coral Spawning
Subtital Habitat Subtidal Problems
Managed Habitat Aquatic Habitats
Managed Habitat Aquatic Habitats Water Salinity

Managed Habitat Ponds
Managed Habitat Reservoirs
Managed Habitat Government Efforts to Clean up Pollution
Managed Habitat Cattail
Managed Habitat Singapore Planting Programme
Managed Habitat Motivations behind current planting programme

Managed Habitat Planting Management by Different Companies
Managed Habitat Streetscape Planting themes
Managed Habitat Streetscape Plantings

Managed Habitat Roadside Environmental Conditions
Managed Habitat Most Prominent group of animals in Managed habitat?
Managed Habitat 3 common strangler figs in Singapore

Managed Habitat Heritage Trees
Managed Habitat Nparks Statistics on Parks
Managed Habitat Park Environmental Conditions
Managed Habitat Singapore Botanic Gardens and Fort Canning Park

Managed Habitat Grassland Problems
Managed Habitat Rooftop Gardens
Managed Habitat Green Roofs / Rooftop Gardens Benefits

Managed Habitat Landscaping for Urban Spaces and High Rises / Green Mark Award
Managed Habitat Condos with green mark award?
Managed Habitat Community in Bloom scheme by Nparks
Managed Habitat Golf Courses in Singapore

Managed Habitat Farm
Managed Habitat Enviromental Conditions of Farms
Managed Habitat Agrotechnology Programme
Managed Habitat Problems for the Future
Managed Habitat Solutions for the Future
Managed Habitat Urban Problems
Human Impacts and ConservationSingapore in the past (1819)

Human Impacts and ConservationLand Use Changes
Human Impacts and ConservationHuman Impacts
Human Impacts and ConservationConservation
Human Impacts and ConservationWhich reserve was degazetted?

Human Impacts and ConservationWildlife Protection
Human Impacts and ConservationNparks
Human Impacts and ConservationBTNR
Human Impacts and ConservationEco-Link (17 million)
Human Impacts and ConservationFreshwater Habitats

Human Impacts and ConservationMangrove Habitats
Human Impacts and ConservationChek Jawa
Human Impacts and ConservationConsrvation of Marine habitats
Human Impacts and ConservationImposex

Human Impacts and ConservationSemakau Landfill
Human Impacts and ConservationAlien species

Human Impacts and ConservationPotential Invasive Plants in Singapore
Human Impacts and ConservationAlien Animals
Human Impacts and Conservation6 expendable birds of Singapore

Human Impacts and ConservationPet Trade
Human Impacts and ConservationPublic Education
Human Impacts and ConservationCITES
Human Impacts and ConservationBiodiversity and Conservation Research
Biodiversity Biodiversity Definition

Biodiversity Why is it important to conserve Biodiversity?
Biodiversity What's our national flower and our symbol?
Biodiversity United Nationals Millennium Development Goals
Biodiversity Components of Environment
Biodiversity Ecological Footprint
Biodiversity Living vs Dead System

Biodiversity Environment Values
Biodiversity International Conventions

Biodiversity Forest Ecosystem Goods and Services
Biodiversity Seagrass Ecosystem Goods and Services
Biodiversity Other Benefits

Biodiversity Casuarina in India (Example of Photoremediation)
Biodiversity Modified Ecosystem VS Natural Ecosystems
Biodiversity Threats to Biodiversity
Biodiversity Biodiversity in SG's Context

Biodiversity What has Singapore done?
Biodiversity Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum
Information
-More than 95% of Singapore's original forest cover has been cleared.
- 5% of Singapore's original forest cover remains.
- Especially high extinction rates of between 34% and 87% occurred in Forest Specialists such as butterflies, freshwater fish, bi
mammals
- Present forest reserves harbours over 50% of remaining native biodiversity.
- Species extinctions in marine environment is not as drastic
- Recognises the challenge of protecting nature while pursuing economic development.

- Aims to balance land use needs with natural heritage conservation through careful planning
- Sites identified as Nature Areas will be kept for as long as possible.
- Management includes reforestation of degraded areas and re-introduction of indigenous species back into the forests
- Heritage Roads scheme and Heritage Trees scheme introduced in 2001 to safeguard mature trees and greenery against inten
urbanisation.
- Retaining nature areas for as long as possible
-Through biodiversity surveys, verify and update data on indigenous flora and fauna
-Eatablishing more parks and connectors
-Setting up National Biodiversity Reference Centre
Habitat – The locality site and particular type of local environment occupied by an organism
Singapore Habitats – Terrestrial and Aquatic

o Terrestrial
o Primary, Secondary and Coastal Vegetation
• Vegetation – All the plant life in a particular area
• Forest – a large area covered by trees
• Tree – Usually a large woody plant with a single main stem or trunk
o Aquatic (Water)
• Abiotic (non-living)
o Lattitude
o Altitude
o Climate (rainfall, temperature, humidity, sunlight intensity)
o Soil
o Disturbance (natural and human)
• Biotic (living)
o Includes organism
o Other members of its own species
o Other species (competitors, parasites, predators, prey, symbionts (mutually benefiting organisms)
Primary Vegetation
• Vegetation in which continuity with the primeval vegetation has never been broken by clearance
• Vegetation that resembles known primary vegetation of same vegetation type
• Secondary forest may recover to become primary forest
The primary forests that covered Singapore are known broadly as tropical rainforest.
Primary Vegetation
• Primary Dryland Forests
• Primary freshwater swamp forest
•Primary Dryland Forests

- Covered about 82% of the land area of Singapore, with 13% occupied by mangrove forest and 5% by freshwater swamp fores
- Now covers only 0.43% of the original cover, with 20% in BTNR and 80% in patches in CCNR.
- Our forests are dominated by Insects rather than large mammals.
Plant
- Largelife forms with
mammals likesimilar ecologicaldeer,
tiger, elephant, requirements
tapir (like many diff jobs in a city)
- Top predator is now reticulated python
Autotrophic
- Categoried as(are green and
Tropical can automatically
Lowland fix foodorfor
Evergreen rainforest themselves
lowland through
dipterocarp photosynthesis)
(CCNR) or hill dipterocarp (BTNR)
o
• Mechanically independent
Primary freshwater swamp(erect
forestplants)
 Woody
• Single trunked
o Tree (big)
o Treelet (small)
• Multiple
o Shrub
 Non-woody
• Herb
o Mechanically dependent plants – leaning/climbing growing on
 Grow in water
• Hydrophyte
 Grow in air
• Leaning or climbing on another plant/support/ground (climber/creeper)
• Growing on another plant’s stem/branches (epiphyte)
• Growing as an epiphyte then sending roots to ground (hemi-epiphyte)
o Strangles host’s trunk
o Kills host to take over its space
o Locally, only figs do this
• Growing on another plant’s leaves (Epiphyll)
o Liverworts, algae or cyanobacteria
o In very wet habitats and blocks off sunlight
• Growing into the stem of another plant to extract water and mineral nutrients from that plant (Hemi-parasite)
o Hemi-parasites are green-coloured, so can photosynthesize
o Takes water and mineral nutrients from host plant
Heterotrophic (non-green, and cannot photosynthesize)
Saprophyte / myco-heterotroph (grow by obtaining nutrition from organic rotting matter)

• Achlorophyllous plant
• Nutrition obtained from rotting matter
• Association with a fungus
• Also called myco-heterotroph
Parasite (grow by obtaining all nutrition and water from other plants)
• Achlorophyllous plant
• Nutrition obtained from other plants
• Rafflesia (Absent in Singapore)
Primary Dryland Forest are of the hill dipterocarp forest type and the Seraya-Ridge forest subtype.
Primary Dryland Forest are of the lowland dipterocarp forest type and the red meranti-keruing forest subtype. Characterized b
Contains adinandra Belukar and Tall Secondary Forests as well
• Primary dryland has at most 5 strata because of high diversity, complexity of structure and great height of canopy
• Secondary forest has 1-2 strata
• Temperate forest has fewer strata
• Canopy strata of forest
o Stratum A: Emergent Trees
o Stratum B: Main canopy trees
o Stratum C: Sub-canopy trees (Dominated by coffee, custard apple, laurel, nutmet and rubber tree families)
o Stratum D: Treelet or shrub layer
o Stratum E: Forest floor herbs and seedlings
Forest Growth Cycle

Will die from:
• Old age
• Disease
• Lightning
• Windfall
• Falling trees
Forest 4 Stages
1. Gap
2. Building
3. Mature
4. Degenerate
Choa Chu Kang Village on 26 October 1930
• Direct Value
o Wood
o Fruits
o Wild Game
o Medicinal Extracts
• Indirect Value
o Aesthetics
o Recreation
o Education
o Amelioration of micro-climatic effects
o Maintenance of water quality
o Genetic resources for patents
o Removal of carbon
o Source of ornamental plants
• Freshwater Swamp forest (87ha)
o Forest that grows on ground that is temporarily to semi-permanently inundated by acidic mineral rich fresh water with w
fluctuations through periodic drying of soil (nee soon swamp forest)
o Different from peat swamp forest (which is acidic)
o Soils are waterlogged so trees develop adaptations similar to mangroves (prop and stilt roots) / Kneed breathing roots
o Entire world’s population of swamp forest crab found here only
- Similar to dryland forest except for excessive moisture

- Higher relative humidity levels
-Lower maximum temperatures
- Stilt / Prop roots for greater stability
- Breathing roots of various types such as plank
Keystone species – Species that have much more effect on a biological community in proportion to their individual biomass
Keystone plant species – Those that flower and fruit throughout the year
Keystone animal – general pollinator of several species
How do we support forests?

o Manage areas to support pollinators (insects, bird, bat) and dispersers (birds, bats, mammals)
o Propagate forest plants
o Re-introduce dispersers
o Give keystone species special protection
o Surveillance and enforcement against poaching and vandalism
o Minimize impact of construction
o Avoid introducing exotic species
o Lightning Protection
o Forbid Smoking
• Secondary vegetation = Vegetation that has re-grown after the destruction of the original vegetation (primary vegetation)
or, more commonly, human impacts.
Spontaneous - Vegetation that has arisen without deliberate human aid

- Herbaceous Vegetation
- Low Secondary Forest or Scrub
- Taill Secondary Forest
- Other Secondary Vegetation
Managed - Vegetation which is managed by periodic human intervention
• ecological succession: continuous, uni-directional change in vegetation

o bare -> some growth -> more growth (continuous, one-direction)
o Primary forest -> Cleared ground or big gap in forest canopy -> after clearing, first to appear is Trema belukar (if soil is un
still quite undisturbed, still got its nutrients) -> Tall secondary forest (if seed sources are available) -> Primary forest (if seed s
available)
o Primary forest -> Cleared ground -> Agriculture (soil is degraded when crops use of the nutrients.) -> Adinandra belukar
secondary forest (if seed sources available) -> Primary forest (if seed sources are available).
• Most common forest type in SG
• About 4% of Singapore’s area now – Originally = about 0%.
• Large continuous patches.
• Mostly in – Western reservoirs – Pulau Ubin – Pulau Tekong – BTNR and CCNR*
• Most common forest type in BTNR and CCNR. Indicative of past human activities even in nature reserves.
• Agricultural crops of old sg:
o Gambier (tb pg 61) (Tannin)
 Climber (mechanically dependent)
 plant that is v hungry for nutrients, take in a lot of nutrients from the ground
 ppl boil and extract tannin from it and let them solidify.  good for curing leather, for leather to become stronger and will
(value)
o Malayan Teak (Native)
o Pineapple
o Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber)
 not native -> Rubber comes from south America  used for latex.
 Rubber fruit will explode to disperse seeds.
 Look similar -> Vitex pinnata (got 5 leaflets 多了两个小小的叶, same size, no latex) but Hevea brasiliensis (rubber) got 3
SIZE, got latex)
 three segments in rubber fruit
 one seed in each segment
o Pepper
o Tapioca plant
 poor man’s food.
 Common but not native, also from South America
First phase of succession in area newly cleared of vegetation

-Lalang Grassland (Exotic Weedy species)
- Predominance of exotic non native species
• Trema belukar -> undegraded soil that has not gone through agriculture
o dominated by Trema species. 2 species, lesser trema and rough trema
o Tends to be found in nature reserves where soil is undisturbed.
o A natural type of secondary forest.
o Occurs when large gaps form in the canopy from natural (e.g., tree fall) or human disturbance.
o windstorm blew the tall trees down -> short secondary forest
• Adinandra belukar -> (human) gone through agriculture -> degraded soil
o species-poor, anthropogenic, low nutrients, acidic soil, few species can grow
o Very low species diversity in plants, fewer animals and microbes than in primary forest. Dominated by medium-sized to sh
tiup tiup, simpoh air, tembusu, tropical pitcher plants, common acacia, etc.
- Very acidic and nutrient poor soils

- Lower plant diversity and animal life
- Rainfall, and sunlight intensity are similar to primary forest
- Temperatures are higher at midday than tall secondary forests
-Relative humidity slightly lower
Very patchy with clumps of trees interspersed with herbaceous vegetation and bare soil -> canopy closes and herbs shaded ou
Sendudok, simpoh air and rose myrtle are eliminated -> dominated by tiup tiup
- Tolerance of poor nutrient supply in the soil and periodic water stress
- Thick or leathery leaves
- Frequent or continuous production of large numbers of small seeded diminutive fruits
-Tolerant of acidic soils
-Not many mosses due to dry and poor nutrient conditions
11-ha forest in middle of NUS Kent Ridge Campus, Kent Ridge Park, Telok Blangah Hill Park, Mount Faber Park, MINDEF Live Fi
Western end of Palau Ubin, and Parts of Pulau Tekong
- Soils similar to primary forest since undegraded
- Relative humidity and light intensity and temperature levels are similar to primary forest
CCNR (dominant forest type), Former Sultan of Johor property/Learning Forest
Absence of the emergent trees such as the dipterocarps and rather uniform but smaller size of the trunks of various species
Hydrilla, Water Lilies and Lotus
ECONOMIC DIRECT VALUE OF SECONDARY FOREST

• wood for timber, fuelwood, construction
• wild game, etc. not so much direct use as well.
ECONOMIC INDIRECT VALUE OF SECONDARY FOREST

• acts as buffer area for primary forests -> protects them from noise, wind, heat etc.
• main role: water filtration -> cheaper alternative
• and other usual indirect effects of primary forests
• Human intervention
o Adinandra belukar:
 Modify soil (replace soil for plantings)
 Plant primary forest specie
o Trema belukar and tall secondary forest
 plant primary forest species
• Adinandra belukar patches retained for education

o Low species diversity makes it easy to understand (beginner’s rain forest!)
o Easy accessibility all over Singapore (many parks have this, e.g., Kent Ridge Park, Telok Blangah Hill Park, Mt. Faber Park)
o Good for teaching about forest
o Unique to this part of the world
• Secondary forest will dominate all of the tropics
o massive rate of loss of primary forest
o abandoned plantations and farms
o abandoned habitats
• Waste land (e.g. SG) is vacant urban land awaiting development and cleared to have low species diversity
• VS American waste land -> desert/polluted land
• Reclaimed land in Singapore = Land that has been reclaimed from the sea by dumping subsoil from inland areas or marine
dredged from seabeds in Singapore waters or purchased from neighbouring countries
-22.9% of current land area in 2008

- Increased from 578.1km to 710.2km in 2008
- Reclamation began in 1820 on southern bank of Singapore River
-From 1820 to 1900, most reclamation works centred on South Coast of Singapore Island
- From 1901 to 1960, reclamation mainly for specific public and military projects or localised protection for seaside properties
-1961 onwards, large-scale reclamation implemented for commercial industrial...
-Presednt day carried out by HDB, JTC and MPA
- Tuas and Tuas South, Jurong Industrial Park, Pandan Reservoir, West Coast Park,
Pasir Panjang Distripark, Tanjong Pagar Container Terminal,
Kallang Basin, Marina South and Marina East, ECP, Bedok,
Changi Airport Runways for T1,2,3, Changi Coast Road, Loyang Industrial Park,
Pasir Ris, Punggol, Simpang, Sembawang and Kranji (east of Kranji dam), Palau Tekong and afew other offshore islands
•Jakarta Bay, Macau, Manila Bay, Dubai Palm Islands, Hong Kong
Type of fill material used.
• Subsoil
o Inland excavations
o tend to be yellowish/clayey -> softer and stickier
o compact -> poorly aerated and hardly any life forms
o Retains water better and plants must be able to tolerate flooding
o Slightly more nutrients than marine sand which consists of silica, but still considered nutrient-poor
• Marine sand
o bought overseas, loose
o sandy -> well-aerated -> also allows water to drain through easily
o Retails no nutrients
• alluvial sand/marine clay

o found at bottom rivers
o intermediate in characteristic between subsoil and sand
• Similar to coastal habitats

• high light intensity
• high wind speeds
• high maximum temperatures
• low relative humidity
• salt spray -> very open, no plants -> wind blows sea spray
o metal rusts easily at the coastline
o physiological dryness -> drinking seawater -> draws water FROM body -> dehydrates body
• xerophyte (xeric = dry, phyte = plant)

• Xeromorphic = Having characteristics of a xerophyte
• Adaptation
o reduce water loss
 tiny or modified leaves
o e.g. casuarina -> swollen joints (dots) are their leaves + stem has become modified to photosynthesise)
o E.g. cactus -> spines as modified leaves + stem can photosynthesis
 thick-walled epidermal cells and cuticle
o several layers of wax secreted by the plant
 good stomatal control: CO2 in, water + O2 out
o got water -> stomata open (guard cells fully swollen) -> water can enter and go out
o found on underside
o store water (e.g. aloe vera)

 water storage cells
o Casuarina (reduced leaf to prevent loss of water, stem take over role of leaf to photosynthesize)
o Cactus (Spines are modified leaves, stem also take over role of photosynthesis)
More numberous plant species on subsoil fill sites than sandfill
Small area of cleared ground at the mouth of Singapore River
• Spontaneous wasteland plants (MOSTLY EXOTIC) pg 90

o Mostly exotic weeds
o Come from places (South America) that share similar climate with Singapore
o Old ships used soil as ballast (stabilise the ship) seeds found in the soil will be transported together
o African tulip (Exotic) -> west Africa -> flowers are very big -> accumulate water -> breed mosquito
o Malayan cherry (native) -> yellow-vented bubul, lesser dog-faced bat
o Mile-a-minute (exotic) -> grows very fast
FUTURE OF WASTE AND RECLAIMED LAND

• Waste  waiting for development  Even if rare species live there, habitat has to be removed.
• Reclaimed  reclaimed for certain purposes
• Instead of growing native species, we are growing exotics and conserving genetic resources for other countries, but we sh
actually grow our own native species and repopulate those areas
• Tides -> moon, sun and earth’s gravitational pull

o Moon has greatest influence
o When sun and moon are in alignment, it enhances the moon’s gravitational pull
o New moon/full moon -> high tide (spring tide) vs (neap tide 1-2m)
o Spring tide -> moon and sun
o Neap tide -> places at right angles from sun/moon
- Mangrove Forest
- Sandy Beach vegetation
- Rocky Shore or Cliff Vegetation
• Tropical/subtropical, intertidal saltwater community

• Frequently develop on gently sloping shores in sheltered areas where clamer waters allow settlement of suspended partic
• Dominated by tree and shrub
• Always must have freshwater input, if just seawater it may not grow so well
• One of the most dangerous
• Mangrove forests of Singapore established about 7000 years ago
o Anopheles epiroticus and Anopheles sinensis

 light brown, with pale and dark scales on their legs, proboscis and wings.
 Breeding habitats are sunlit brackish pools
 Bite at night
 Vector of Malaria (not endemic in Singapore)
o Culex quinquefasciatus
 golden-brown mosquito with a dark proboscis
 Breeding habitats are septic tanks and blocked drains.
 Bites during the night
 Vector of filariasis (not endemic in Singapore)  block the lymph node, the lymph cannot go back to the body and causes
• Status of Singapore mangroves:
o Primeval: fringed by mangroves, 13%, 7500 ha
o Present day: isolated patches and narrow strips, 659 ha
o are along the coast and must have freshwater input. Hence usually near mouth of rivers that are not fast flowing -> henc
sluggish streams
o planned to build bridge from johor to SG. But didn’t so that part of the mangrove is safe. Causeway built right on the seab
hence current cannot flow freely and cause disturbance -> affects the mangroves.
o Mangrove forest zone -> between mid-tide and high-tide -> Hence if climate change -> sea levels rise -> behind mangro
developments (for sg). Hence mangroves cannot move since urban. -> that level and lowest tide level could potentially be dro
the rising sea level.
o Salinity 28% (35% or less) -> varies due to the high and low tide change.
o Black part of the soil -> anaerobic -> H2S -> due to bacteria that fix sulplur -> smell of rotten eggs
o have strong wind and strong wave actions
o Mangroves get a lot of sunlight as there are no taller trees to shade off the mangroves. Hence sometimes we see the root
low and covered when high tide.
• Places with mangroves:

o Chek jawa
o Pulau tekong
o Lim chu kang (have coastal clean-ups)
o Sungei khatib bongsu
o Sungei Buloh
o Pasir Ris Park
o Poyan reservoir to sarimbun reservoir
o Southern Islands, Palau Semakau
- Anaerobic, unstable substrate

- High and fluctuating salinities from that of pure seawater to brackish conditions during low tide
- Rainfall is high throughout the year and temperatures dependent upon amount of sunlight
-Light intensity is also high
-Exposed to strong winds and high tides
-Wave action erodes the substrate
- Wash from regular and frequent ship traffic can cause erosion of substrate
• Adaptations for high salinity (plants)
o Salt secretion -> api api, sea holly
 Uptake salt
 Pump out through glands
o Salt ultrafiltration -> bakau, bruguiera, lumnitzera, perepat
 Take in only freshwater mostly. Root can filter out the salt.
• Adaptation for unstable substrate

o Modified roots
 Prop (can see trunk all the way to the bottom) or stilt -> bakau
 Plank -> nyireh, dungun
o Vivipary
 Ordinary -> embryo (the young plant within the seed) grows first to break through the seed coat then out of the fruit wal
attached to the parent plant. This condition is found in Bruguiera, Ceriops, Kandelia and Rhizophora species -> bakau
 Cryptovivipary -> embryo grows to break through the seed coat but not the fruit wall before it splits open. This condition
exhibited by Aegiceras, Avicennia and Nypa species -> api api, kacang-kacang, nipah palm
• Adaptation for anaerobic substrate

o Breathing roots
 Pencil -> looks like pencil. (very thin, sticking out.) -> api api.
 Cone roots -> perepat.
 Kneed roots -> look like knee half exposed -> bruguiera/tengar.
 Prop roots -> grow out from main trunk, propping the plant -> bakau
SANDY BEACH
• Coast which consists of sands usually between two rocky headlands
• when you have a beach and the wave deposit particles -> get sand then get beach.
• sand can be v colourful. Can be pieces of living orgs with shell. Pieces of org w skeleton (left pic, bottom yellow thingy)
• Sand is not permanent, can disappear, eroded by waves. and see the rock beneath.
• They undergo:
o Erosion
o Accretion
 Accretion -> sand can be brought in further
 Brunei artificial beach -> dig seabed to create beach. When you create a beach artificially, the waves will try to reclaim (s
the band. Brunei created large pieces of structures to prevent the wave from sweeping the sand away -> expensive
 breakwaters
o Continual cycle of erosion-accretion
• Sandy beaches of the past: Pasir panjang, changi beach, tanjong rhu, pasir ris beach
• Present day natural sandy beaches: changi beach, kampong wak hassan beach, kampong noordin beach, pulau tekutor (w
make it into meerkat sanctuary)
• Present day artificial beach: ECP, pasir ris, pular selatar, pulau serangoon
• Environmental conditions:
o Like reclaimed land
o High light intensity
o High wind speeds
o High max temp
o Low relative humidity
o Salt spray
o Pes-caprae association (after the seashore morning glory, Ipomoea pes-caprae)

 Starts on bare ground (on accreting beaches)
 Non-woody (herbaceous) plants (herbs, trailers)
o leave have shape of goats foot. The seeds explodes out of the seed pod -> then get dispersed further away, get washed a
spread to another part.
o Barringtonia association (after the sea putat, Barringtonia asiatica)

 Succeeds pes-caprae association
 Woody plants (shrubs, trees, epiphytes)
 Have flower that only lasts for one night, will open at night. Will attract night flying moths and bats by producing a lot of n
flower gets pollinated by bat and when the fruit drop into the sea, can float.
• Environmental conditions more extreme than sandy beach
o Hot rocks, little or no soil, strong wave, landslides
o High light intensity
o High wind speeds
o High max temp
o Low relative humidity
o Salt spray
- Labrador Nature Reserve
- Southern end of Pulau Biola, Pulau Jong, St. John's Island, Pulau Sakijang Pelepah…
• Direct
o Timber
o Fuelwood and charcoal  bakau
o Wood chipboard
o Tannin (defensive mechanism against insects) and dyes
o Nipah palm products (attap chee, gula Melaka, roofing thatch, salt)
o Seafood -> a lot of the young hide among the roots of the mangroves  when older then swim back into the sea.
o Commercial honey
o Seaweed
o Pet food
o Land -> Reclaim the mangroves
• Indirect
o Food for marine organisms -> cuz of dead leaves, the dead leaves feed other orgs. When the leaves drop, eaten by other
o Nurseries for juvenile fishes
o natural sewage treatment -> if you see a lot of telescop telescopian (snail) -> means got a lot of waste present.
o Stabilise -> mangroves take most of the forest. The rest inland will be safe.
o Carbon sequestrian -> A lot of carbon stored in the mud. Hence if you remove trees, a lot of the carbon will be released b
air. Too much of it in the air will not be good.
o Ecotourism & education -> European ctries don’t have mangroves since too cold. Hence these tourists can come here. ->
opportunities. Private educators can also make money out of this
o horseshoe crab can produce blue blood -> can detect toxins from bacteria in the blood. This component can bind to toxin
bacteria and can show the ppl if toxin is present or absent (whether it is contaminated).
o Ornamental plants
• need to actively replant the propagules. Labrador Park -> protection to protect the sandy and beach vegetation. Also can
and coastal forest -> hence this place by protecting it can protect 3 habitats. -> also can use of ecotourism.
• rubbish go into mangroves and prevents the mangroves from generating -> hence threaten mangroves and our lives lol. S
pollution
• Supralittoral -> area where the high tide sea level will never reach
• Sublittoral -> area perpetually covered by water no matter how low the tide goes
• Littoral -> in-between / shore
Different types
o Mudflat -> e.g. Sungei Buloh -> Can be very soft (step and sink). There are orgs living IN the mud
o Seagrass -> e.g. chek jawa -> photosynthesise, provide refuge for organisms
o Sandflat -> e.g. chek jawa
o Mangrove (plant or habitat) -> e.g. Sungei Buloh
o Reef flat (coral reefs + all living things associated) -> e.g. Chek Jawa
o Rocky shore -> e.g. Labrador, Chek Jawa, St John’s Island, Sisters Island, etc.
o Algal bed -> e.g. chek jawa
Periodic inundation and exposure creates different environmental conditions

o Incoming tide
 high energy situation
 Wave action -> sand particles
 Incoming tide also brings about more marine predators
 Substratum instability
o Outgoing tide
 Low energy
 Exposure to UV radiation
 Exposure to Wind
 Desiccation -> Salinity increases as water recedes and evaporate
 Rain -> salinity decreases again -> osmotic fluctuation
 temperature drops from rain (temperature fluctuation)
 Terrestrial/aerial predators (e.g. humans)
• protect themselves against the harsh conditions

• Prevent themselves from being swept about with incoming & outgoing tide
• Prevent themselves from drying out and against solar radiation.
• BUT for plants, if got harsh conditions (and die), they are resilient if roots and stems are present, they are able to rejuvena
grow back again. -> not necessarily just decompose and become fertilisers.
-> High biodiversity in intertidal areas (even though environment is stressful)

o Abundance of nutrients (that are properly mixed) from land and sea
o Effective mixing of nutrients -> Sea water mix with freshwater -> the nutrients will settle down and they can get it.
o Strong solar energy
o Tide movements -> high concentration of dissolved oxygen
o Close contact between producers (e.g. plants) and consumers
o Complexity -> diversity of micro-habitats
• Seagrasses ARE NOT algae
o ONLY grp of flowering plants that is fully submerged in seawater
o Highly specialised
o have roots, stems and leaves unlike algae
o stems creep underground
o leaves project above seabed
o propagates easily
o Shallow coastal waters, sand flats with a mixture of mud, extending from mangroves or on coral reef flats
o Mixture of mud and flats
o 50 species of seagrass worldwide. 20 in SEA. 12 in SG.
o e.gs of seagrasses.
 Halophila ovalis. Ovalis -> oval in shape
 Halophila spinulosa -> leaves are spinal forms
 Cymodocea serrulata -> blade like serrulate
 Enhalus acoroides -> tape seagrass
o These are all scientific name not the common name.
o Sandy shore < muddy shore < rocky shore < coral flats
- Dugong
- snails, shrimps etc
• Seagrass beds
o Very high productivity
o Supports High species diversity
o Seagrasses can photosynthesise  Supports high species diversity
o Lead blades  surface area for epiphytes to grow
o Swimming animals  seek shelter and food
o Benthic animals (don’t swim)  crawl to feed on rich organic detritus
o Stem and roots are underground
o Roots penetrate deep and stabilise the substrate + provide good anchorage
o When they occur in extensive patches, provide refuge and nursery grounds to numerous species such as fish, seahorses, c
shrimps and molluscs.
o STORE CARBON
o support endangered species (dugong)
• (TB 148) Subtidal = benthic

• Muddy, sandy or rocky
• Muddy or sandy seabed referred to as “soft bottom habitats” -> can dig into them since soft. Subtidal can develop into sh
and deep water.
• Shallow, refers to manageable water, don’t need much help and equip can just dive down.
• deep, need submarines or other devices. Not easy to study seabed habitats (need specialized equipment and logistics sup
• relatively constant environment
• Benthic communities can be used as indicators of environmental change.
• Smith-Mclntyre grab. (tb pg 149) on the left, close the 2 valves, and just grab whatever that’s there. For shallow waters an
• Dredges -> Nets with pocket. Lay it flat, then pull and dredge. Can be used with help of boat. Depending on the mesh size
will collect diff orgs.
• Sledge -> have 2 sides, more sophisticated.
• Benthic organisms, particularly sessile forms (means stuck at the bottom) and filter feeders, are more affected by sedimen
They are filter feeders that are v badly affected by sedimentation. A lot of sediments. Filter feeders have difficulty trying to sur
a lot of sediments due to land reclamation.
• Sea fans (tb pg 154)
• sea pens (related to corals)
• Noble volute (Cymbiola nobilis) they are molluscs, found in the waters. They have protective egg cases
• Baler shell (Melo melo) molluscs, also endangered species.

• don’t really need to know about the water column
o just know that there’s upper, middle layer and deeper waters
• basket star (gorgonocephalus caputmedusae)
• condition the bottom sediment -> burrowing to oxygenate substrate -> bioturbation
• make use of accumulate nutrients
• contribute to food chain
• exploited for food ( cockles, clams, marine snails, solefish, etc.)
o Drifting -> plankton -> limited swimming ability; mostly microscopic; dependent on water currents for transport form on
another.
o Swimming -> Nekton (divided into pelagic and demersal.) -> strong swimmers, includes most adult fishes, squid, turtles,
whales; movement between areas independent of currents. Pelagic species occupy the upper water column, while demersal s
closer to the bottom.
o Attached -> Benthos -> Bottom-dwelling orgs; generally attached to the substratum or lifestyle strongly associated with
substratum. Orgs that are stuck there, once they are wiped out, they are gone. Unlike swimmers that can move around. Or dri
can just follow the current.
o Sediments
o If cannot see the things in the water -> means no light had penetrated into the sea.
o If no light, means no heat, water will be cold. And many of these plants will not be able to survive -> hence plants not fou
o Pressure -> greater in deeper seas, may not be able to survive when brought back up to land level. Hence may need to pr
down there before they bring it back up.
o Temperature difference is slight if there is effective tidal circulation
Difference between poisonous and venomous
• poisonous crab (after eating)
o Common name: mosaic reef crab one of the most poisonous crabs. 1mg of toxin is enough to kill an adult.
o eat it and kena poisoned
o toxins will not be destroyed by high temperatures
• venomous snails (injection)

o feeds on fast swimming fishes. Uses harpoon to shoot and penetrate prey and inject toxin, fish paralyse and drops to bott
eats fish.
• **If you bite it and you die, its poisonous, if it bites you and you die its venomous.
• high tide -> reef flat covered

• low-tide -> reef flat exposed, reef slope never exposed
• so corals living at reef flat have to have certain adaptations
• High Biodiversity
• patch reefs
o Associated with raised seafloor with no connection to land mass
o exposed during low tides and covered during high tides
o individual reefs
• Fringing reefs
• extends from land to water
• Main impact on existing reefs is sedimentation. Average visibility reduced from 10m in 1960s to 2m today. Sedimentation
go down and cover reefs.
o algae that live with animals

o can be found with corals -> animals
o also found in giant clams, nudibranchs etc.
o corals will secrete calcium
o is what gives corals their colour -> mutualistic relationship
o coral: provide home, zooxanthellae -> give excess food to the corals
o bleaching -> zooxanthellae moves away and corals lose their colour
o also found in giant clams and nudibranchs and sea anemone
o hard corals
 branching
 boulder
 foliose
 encrusting (form a thin layer stuck onto a stratum)
o Reef slope and reef crest have better environment, hence only species that can tolerate periodic exposure will survive on
water temp went up to 35 degrees during low tide. 2017 was hottest year in sg. (+1.3oC) -> most of us will not feel it but to th
will feel the effect.
o Corals do have species that can tolerate periodic exposure to low tide and heat (to a certain extent of temp increase).
o Reef flat: platigyra spp., favites spp.
o Reef slope: diploastrea spp.,tubinaria spp.
o Lying free on reef bed: adult mushroom coral (inflate themselves to increase buoyancy to move)
Soft Corals, Sponges, Hydroids, Sea Fans, Molluscs, Crustaceans, Echinoderms, portochordates and fish
o march/april
o They eject their sperms and eggs into the water. Water current may carry them off, away from parents to somewhere new
their own colony.
o Of the 255 coral species known from Singapore reefs, two are believed to be locally extinct. Seriatopora hystrix and Stylop
pistillata. The one on the right, stylophora pistillata reappeared briefly in 2006 before it disappeared after 2010 bleaching
• Habitat degradation/modification: Oil company find oil -> build oil rigs and leave them there to extract oil. Later find thin
on rig -> remove rig -> disturb habitat. Build rig -> disturb habitat, remove rig -> disturb habitat again. New practice in Thaila
other ctries) -> when rig is no longer in used, they clean it up and topple it into the ocean -> provide new substrate. -> becom
reef
• artificial barrier: release larvae into the sea, artificial barriers prevents the larvae from burrowing to the land to find shell
• toxic chemical and oil spills
• threat from invasive species -> species introduced into sg (could be from boats coming from other parts of world coming
When ships dock in sg, many of these org living on the bottom of the ship gets unloaded. When boat lives sg also carries org (f
transport them to somewhere else.
• species loss
• climate change -> monsoon patterns. Larvae of sessile animals carried by water current and can be linked to the monsoo
1. Reclaimed land revetments (200km long) - tend to develop growth of mangrove plants like bakau
2. Concrete piers and moorings - dense growth of sponges, soft corals, stinging corals, macroalgae, ascidians and crustacean
3. Brackish water habitats - archer fish thrives best
4. Freshwater habitats – Reservoirs, Rivers
5. Ponds
- In contact with Seawater (3%)

- In contact with Freshwater (Less than two parts per thousand)
- Brackish Water (in between)
- Little Guilin in Bukit Batok
- Singapore Quarry Pond in BTNR
- Botanic Garden Pond
- Changi Creek Reservoir and South End Reservoir of Changi Airport
- Two ponds in Kent Ridge Park
- Ponds in Toa Payoh Town Park
-Bishan Park
-Bukit Panjang Park
-Punggol Park
-Woodlands Town Garden Park
-Yishun Pond adjacent to Yishun Park
17 Reservoirs in Singapore (larger bodies of water)

- Upper Seletar, Upper Peirce, Lower Peirce, Macritchie
- Sarimbun, Murai, Poyan, Tengeh Reservoir
- Bedok, Jurong Lake, Kranji, Lower Seletar, Marina, Pandan, Punggol, Seranggon Reservoir
MOST RECENT RESERVOIRS DEVELOPED WERE MARINA (2008), PUNGGOL (2009) AND SERANGOON (2010)
- Since late 1970s

- Phase out Pig Farms
- Phase out duck farms by 1987
- Clean up Geylang River, Kallang River, Pelton Canal, Rochor River, singapore River and Whampoa River
• Monocots
• A.k.a. bulrushes
• Stem and leaves make paper
• Rich in starch can make into biofuel
• Rhizomes and heart of stem edible
• Pollen used in TCM
• Planting along roads, parks, gardens launched in 1962

• Phase 1: planting over vacant areas ASAP, ended in 1978
• Phase 2: Add colour (1980s)
• Phase 3: Add fragrance (1980s)
• Current phase: mixed, massed planting
- Mixed massed plantings of shrubs and trees for less uniform and heterogenous look
-Good example is Cluny Rd and Holland-Napier Road
- Style is more interestin
-No grass, hence does not attract grassland pest such as javan and common mynas
-mixed crowns have less likelihood of roosts of several thousand birds
- Greater diversity of species means higher diversity of native animals will be attracted
-Plant disease epidemics less likely to occur
-Lower maintenance costs
• Mostly Nparks
• Except JTC developed industrial areas
• Restricted military areas
• Grounds of Changiairport –CAAS
• Southern islands by SentosaDevelopment Corporation
• Shell refineries –P. Bukom
• Educational institutions
• Different government ministries
- Coastal (for seaside roads with coconut trees, palms, and seashore trees)
- Forest (for roads through forests with dense plantings)
-Gateway (For plants in formal and distinctive arrangements)
- Parkway (Colorful shrubs and trees to form green verandah through)
- Rural ( Fruit trees lining open countryside roads to resemble Kampung days)
2000 ornamental plant species used in roadside plantings

1) Rain Tree (Bean family, Native of NS America)
2) Yellow flame (Native, rocky and sandy shores, Legume, loved by horticulturists)
3) Heritage trees (Based on appearance, Age 30-40, Girth of at least 5m, botanical, cultural, historical and social significance
value, cannot be felled, no excavations around roots, installed with lightning conductors)
4) Tembusu
5) Alexandra palm
6) Epiphytes (grow on other plants and usually found growing on trunk)
7) Lithophyte (plants which grow on hard surfaces and in cracks)
- Brighter, drier, windier, hotter and more polluted than forest
Birds
- Benjamin Fig
-Bodhi Tree (heart shape leaf blades)
- Malayan Banyan (aerial roots)
Looks at appearance, age (at least 30 to 40 years old), height, girth of trunk, educational, cultural historical and social significa
-54 Regional Parks including the Two National Parks Botanic Gardens and Fort Canning Park
- 243 Neighbourhood Parks
- 23 Park Connectors
• Vegetation similar to roadside plantings or streetscapes

• Turf area much bigger
• Contain recreational facilities for fitness, play, performance, historical artefacts etc
• Less pollution
• More ornamental plants
• Cooler, more humid, wetter
-Botanic Gardens Set up at present site at Cluny Road in 1859 by Agri-Horticultural Society but was handed over to British in 1
- Fort Canning Park used since 14th century as the seat of Temasek, and a botanic garden was established in 1822 at the site
• Javan myna feeding ground, increase in their numbers
• Potential vector of avian influenza H5N1 as they come close in contact with humans
• Need constant cutting
–rise in fossil fuel consumption
–labour intensive
• Harsher conditions
• Need drought tolerant plants
• Strong wind, rain deluge
• Advantages
–Cool building surface by 18oC
–Reduced ambient temperature by 3oC
–Reduce reflected glare by 15%
• Extra cost on
–Water proofing
–Support the extra weight of plants, soil, pots etc
–Water for irrigation
–Maintenance of the plants
Launched by URA in 2009 and BCA also launched green mark award to recognise developers for ecofriendly infrastructures.
Citylights, Icon, Newton Suites, RiverGate
More than 300 gardens sprouted under the programme which allows public to tend to gardens. Public can also harvest edible
• 17 in Singapore
• Lots of turf, artificial marshland, ponds, some trees, shrubs
• Many habitats to attract more wildlife
• Mostly quiet
• Seletar base golf course closed
• Not all bad
• Insecticides and pesticides under PUB control list
• National Service Resort and Country Club (NSRCC) Kranji, was the first to receive the Certified Audobon Cooperative Sanc
from 1999 to 2015 as well as Environmental Stewardship
• Golf courses with leases expiring within the next 10 years will have to make way for redevelopment
• Of the nine golf clubs with leases expiring within the next 10 years, two —Keppel Club and Marina Bay Golf Club —will no
leases renewed
• Three others —Tanah Merah Country Club (TMCC) and National Service Resort and Country Club (NSRCC) and Singapore I
Country Club (SICC) —will have their leases extended but they will be giving up part of the land they now occupy
• Crop or livestock
• Farms and farming areas have been dropping steadily but government is increasing the funding for growing food
• Private sector invest in foreign farmland
• Buffer against world food prices
• Vegetables (beansprouts, hydroponics, herbs and spices, organic)
• Orchids
• Fruits
• Cut flowers and ornamental plants
• Food fish or aquarium fish
• Chicken and Quail egg production
• Dairy farms: Dairy Folks, Viknesh Dairy Farm Pte Ltd, and Hay Dairies Pte Ltd.
• Others: Frog, crocodile, quail, bird and dog breeding
• Duck farms (phased out in 1999)
• Fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides are used in farms
- More open, drier, windier, hotter but soil fertility higher than forested sites due to fertiliser usage
Developed agrotech parks to maximise output from agricultural land in 1986. Parks are at LCK, Loyang, Mandai, Murai, Nee So
Problem
• More people
• Urbanization will be the norm
• Constant pressure to develop the land for housing, factories
• Less forest cover, now 4% forest cover
• Soil erosion due to high rainfall
• Political will to fund collection of propagules, grow them in nurseries, plant them
• Move forest into urban areas
• Planting native species instead of ornamentals
• Conserve for future generations
• Potential economic benefits as they could be sources of medicines, industrial products, useful
• 5% of new Bukit Timah campus was landscaped with native plants and a small area in Kent Ridge plant garden
• Training manpower for plant and horticulture industries
• Bird causing noise pollution, droppings, allergens (feather, dander),

• Diseases (avian influenza, West Nile virus)
• Planting can follow the recommendations of urban ecologist and
1. Avoid planting well spaced trees near apartment blocks
2. Avoid planting monocultures
3. Plant Crow-desirable species in designated areas
4. Plant species less suitable for crows
1. Under natural forest cover

2. Mangroves were intact
3. 150 inhabitants residing along the coasts
4. New plants and animals (Sun bear, Cream-coloured giant squirrel, Long-tailed macaque)
• Trading Hub
• Forest replaced by spice plantations
• Gambier, pepper widely planted while price was high
• Rubber planted
• Original forest lost to agriculture
• More immigrants came
• Land converted to housing
• Rivers converted to reservoirs
• Hills were levelled, vegetation cleared, land -reclaimed
- Military installations, naval base and camps
- 3 Airports need reclamation
• Semakau landfill = Pulau Sakeng + Pulau Semakau (amalgamated)
• Jurong Islands = Reclamation and Merger of 13 islands (amalgamated)
• Causeway (Built in 1923), Second link, Marina Bay Project
1) Lost Habitats (cannot be recovered)

• Airports
• Harbours
• Buildings
• Reclaimed sites
• Reservoirs
2) Disturbed habitats
• Highly disturbed
- Secondary forest, agricultural land growing wild
- Can slowly recover on its own but process can be hastened by man
• Slightly disturbed
- Primary forest with past shelling
3) Reconstituted or created habitats

• Reclaimed land (Spontaneous vegetation can grow)
• Managed areas: parks, gardens, streetscapes
Disturbance may create opportunities for alien plant and animal species to invade habitat and cause extinction of native organ
• Conservation started in 1900s

• British established terrestrial and mangrove nature reserves: Bukit Timah, parts of Changi, Pandan, Seletar and Kranji
• Nature reserves ordinance was formally established in 1951
• Pandan Reserve -1962

• Kranji Reserve -1973
• Labrador reserve -1973
• Central Catchment utilized by MINDEF
• Wild Animals and Bird Act protect most vertebrates drafted late 1800s
• National Parks Act, established in 1990, protects all plants and animals in reserves
• Today 4.7% of land are nature reserves
• Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve and Labrador Nature Reserve gazetted -2002
• New Species Found
- 150 new species of long-legged flies found in catchment areas and mangroves
- New worms
- Dwarf snakehead, Malayan porcupine thought extinct locally (Rediscovered in CCNR)
- Dumeril’s monitor lizard
- Greater mousedeer (Pulau Ubin) (Nocturnal and Has darker patches than Lesser Mousedeer)
- Lesser mousedeer (BTNR, CCNR) (Crepuscular - more active during dawn and dusk)
- Vrydagzynea lancifolia orchid
Established in 1990 to oversee management of Botanic Gardens, Fort Canning Park and nature reserves as well as conservatio
• Bukit Timah Expressway isolated Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR) from Central Catchment Nature Reserve (CCNR) sinc
• BTNR is surrounded by PIE, BKE, Hindhede Drive, Dairy Farm Road Upper Bukit Timah Road Condominiums, granite quarri
• Five new species of orthopterans (grasshoppers and crickets) were discovered

• Lesser Mousedeer (Traguluskanchil), and Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica)
• Asiophlugis thaumasia was presumed extinct in Singapore and was rediscovered recently
• Singapuriola separata
• Tremellia timah
• Under intense pressure
- Thousands of walkers use BTNR to exercise

- Practice for climbing Mt Kinabalu and other mountains
- Mountain bikers use the place during the day as well as night
- Recreation
- BTNR closed for urgent repairs
- Illegal trespassers
- Few freshwater habitats left in Singapore
- Natural freshwater systems include forest streams at Jungle Fall Valley at BTNR and few hectares of Nee Soon swamp forest
• Lost most of the mangroves in Singapore (Left only 5% of original area, and all remaining mangrove forests are secondar
• Good news is Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve and Pasir Ris Park (PRP)
• New stretches of mangroves planted at PRP
• Animal life slowly returning
- Smooth coated otter
- Owl Chick
- Mangrove Pitta
- Oriental Pied Hornbills
- Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker
- Dog-faced water snake
• Chek Jawa
- Pulau Ubin has been designated as a nature area so CJ is safe for the moment
- With the presence of board walk, it is also more permanent
- Six major habitats
1) Coastal forest
2) Mangroves
3) Rocky shore
4) Sandy shore and banks
5) Seagrass lagoon
6) Coral rubble
- 60% of coral reefs lost

-Conservation lags behind efforts on land.
-Trying to establish Marine Protected Area but not yet done
-Use of TBT by shipping community causes imposex in marine snails
-Excessive use of copper-salts for similar purpose caused terrible harm to marine invertebrates
-Spillage of toxic chemicals
• Singapore is the busiest port in the world

• Anti-fouling paint, Tributyltin, cause female marine snails to develop pseudo-penis
• Cause shell thickening, stunted growth, reproductive failure in oysters
• Semakau Landfill
- World’s first offshore landfill made from the seascape
- Cost $610 million
- Reclamation between two islands: Pulau Sakeng and Pulau Semakau
- Evicted residents on both islands to the mainland
- Started operation since 1 Apr, 1999, supposed to last till 2035 or beyond
- 200,000 tonnes of non-incinerable waste and incineration ash dumped here every year
- Divided into 2 phases
- Phase 1 is expected to be completely filled by 2016
- Corals were translocated to Sister’s island in 2014 and phase 2 has started to be developed
- 4.5 million square feet of XR-5, a geomembrane designed to withstand both the long-term effects of the tropical environm
the rigors of the installation process
- There was no translocation of marine life when phase 1 was being constructed
- Although sediment screen was set up to reduce sedimentation on the corals
- The destroyed mangroves were replanted using 400,000 saplings
- First time government organisations try to minimize impact of development on the marine environment
- There is no way a habitat can be moved, only certain important coral species were moved (Knobbly Sea Stars, Funeral Nu
Sunflower Mushroom Corals, Avicennia marina)
- Activities Such as sport fishing, birdwatching star-gazing
• Not native to Singapore

• Problem of alien invasive species is aggravated since Singapore has a very open economy
• Do well in man-made habitats, seriously affect native fauna
• Direct competition with local resources
• Introduce dangerous diseases
- Act as reservoirs for disease, including insects, rodents, and birds, which carry diseases such as yellow fever and malaria.
- E.g. West Nile Virus that spread across North America was carried by non-native mosquitoes.
• 2145 native vascular plants, 1826 exotic.
• Close to 46% of total flora are exotic.
• Some can potentially become alien invasives
• Direct effects:
- Compete for space, nutrients, water and light with natives because no natural herbivores and pathogens
- Crowd out and displace native species, causing local extinctions
• Indirect effects:
- Alter soil water content
- Nutrient cycling
- Light conditions
- Disturbance regimes
- Affect animal habitats
- Right now, 1826 out of 2145 plants in Singapore are exotic. However, no alien invasive species.
-Potential ones are precatory bean, saga tree, alligator weed, beggar's tick, air plant, thick-spiked snakewood, devilweed, kost
water hyacinth and hydrilla, lalang, morning glory, lantana, leucaena, mile a minute, giant sensitive plant, panic grass, buffalo
mission grass, elephant grass, spiked pepper, water lettuce, kudzu, castor oil plant, water spangle, seven golden candlesticks, c
weed, nightshade, singapore daisy, african tulip, dropseed, java plum, rose apple, para grass
-All are light demanding species
1) Myna
• Javan or white-vented Myna originates from Java
• Introduced in Singapore via the cage bird trade
• Established in Singapore since 1925 and is now the most abundant bird locally.
• It has grey plumage. Two distinct white patches can be clearly seen on the underside of the wings during flight.
• Common Myna is readily identified by the brown body, black hooded head and the bare yellow patch behind the eye.
• Droppings, noise
• Spreading zoonoses like histoplasmosis (fungal disease of the respiratory system, avian flu
2) Tilapia (Book)
3) Common Mollies (Book)
4) Guppies (Book)
5) Chinese soft shell turtle (Book)
6) American bullfrog (Book)
7) Calotes Versicolor (Book)
- House Crow
- Rock Pigeon
- Javan Myna
- Comnmon Myna
- Purple-backed starling
- Asian Glossy Starling
• Red-eared slider from the US
• Released by owners when they get too big
• Compete with native species for resources
• Released during religious festivals (E.g. Vesak Day)
• $10,000 fine for illegally releasing animals into nature areas
• Water Pollution
- Sungei Ulu Pandan in 1994
- Overflowing sewage pipe
- Koi, carp and South American armoured catfish died and floated to the surface
• Foreign Fish talents in local waters
- Knife Fish (Thailand/ Malaysia)
- Mayan Cichlid
- Jaguar Guapote
- Snakehead
• South American apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata)
- Entered through aquarium trade in 1980s
- Displaced native apple snail Pila scutata(white eggs)
• African Giant Land Snail (Book)
• Yellow crazy ants (Book) – impact red crabs
• Black Striped Mussel (Book) – carried by ships ballast water
• Need more environmental consciousness

• Educate through nature publications and nature programmes by LKCNHM or NGOs
• Bank sponsored many green activities e.g. President’s award for the environment
• Conservation of Nature areas, minimize disturbance, stop poaching, introducing exotic organisms by releasing them durin
• Prolong the lifespan of Semakau landfill
-Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
-Implementation enforced by AVA
-Singapore Botanic Gardens Herbarium (dates back to mid-1800s with 700,000 specimens)
- Raffles museum of biodiversity research houses two collections of herbarium sheet specimen and the animal specimens in zo
reference collection
- National Biodiversity Centre of NParks Board surveys biodiversity and is SG node of clearinghouse mechanism of Convention
Biological Diversity
-Grading system (SG index on cities biodiversity) to assess how well we are conserving our plants and animal species
- Biodiversity = “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia [among other things], terrestrial, m
other
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between specie
ecosystems.” from the Convention on Biological Diversity. --> SG’s biodiversity also has values!
-Plants and Animals are our natural capital
- Biodiversity is an important component to the resilience of a habitat
-Habitats provide important environmental goods and services
• Loss of species leads to a disruption of ecosystem processes.
• Biodiversity takes millions of years to evolve.
• Species provide a rich genetic bank of bioactive substances.
• Species simply have the right to exist.
• Biodiversity helps with life support.
• Ecosystems are resource systems – they provide goods and services and are capable of renewal and regeneration.
• Important to maintain healthy ecosystems in order to enjoy the goods and services
-National Flower: Vanda Miss Joaqium
- Symbol: Lion
-Environmental Sustainability is one of the 8 MDG to be addressed.

-Ecosystem health is a major factor in supporting achievement of these goals.
- Millennium Ecosystem Assessment completed in 2005 after 4 years of study
• Atmosphere (air) - Shield earth from UV (UV light harmful) - Moderates temperature - Life-support gases (Life support gas
• Biosphere (life) - Plants convert solar/chemical energy to organic matter - Facilitate cycling of materials - Environmental c
Physical environment modification
• Hydrosphere (water) - Moderates climate- absorbs/ releases heat - Contributes moisture to atmosphere and lithosphere
Contributes essential elements/compounds -> contributes essential.. to orgs.
• Lithosphere (soil) - Contributes essential elements/compounds
• The area of productive land and aquatic ecosystems needed to produce the resources demanded by people, and to assim
wastes produced.
• If everyone in the world lives like a typical Singaporean, we need 3.5 Earths to sustain all of us.
• Good living system -> coral reef system -> a lot of colours and life around it.
• Dead system -> may or may not recover. Once coral reef is dead, it will be covered by slime. Its secreted by some kind of
slime can be called biofilm, may encourage other org to come and settle down (good), but some may repel the org (hence bad
never survive again.
o Respect for human life and human diversity is consistent with a respect for biological diversity
o Nature has spiritual and aesthetic value that transcends economic value
o 3. Has anyone species (i.e., humans) the right to make another extinct?
• Aesthetic value
o Beautiful works
 e.g. Common birdwing (Troides helena cerberus)
 Blue spike moss (Selaginella willdenowii)
 Cicada tree (Ploiarium alternifolium)
o BUT Cockroaches and rats are very prolific
 E.g. American cockroach (Periplanata americana), Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)
 American: 14-16
 German: 48
• Mental health
o measurable mental benefits and may reduce risk of depression.
• Economic value -> what people will pay for a product/service

o DIRECT -> harvested
 Consumptive: consumed locally but NOT sold (e.g. honeycomb, durians)
 Productive: consumed locally/elsewhere AND sold
o INDIRECT
 Non-consumptive: services that provide enjoyment (e.g. fresh air, shade)
o Greenery ameliorating heat island effect -> if living next to forest, the greenery absorbs heat in city -> No forest, no rain
slowly release water + water is not so quickly lost when it rains
o Water filtration by the forest surrounding reservoirs -> water filtered -> comes out as streams, done by forest trees -> Ch
easier to treat clearer water -> if not less water will be contained (affect water catchment size) -> eventually less water in the
dams
o Forest provides space for recreation
o Landscape for photography
o Greenery improves patient recovery, human happiness and mental health -> reduce blood pressure and improves mood
hospitals.
 Potential: The potential to provide an economic benefit to humankind in the future.

o Important to keep all biodiversity options available, because you never know which will yield important uses or values
o Uses vary with time too -> may have potential value in the FUTURE. But if its removed/gone, will have no chance of havin
value. E.g. Cockroach, got protein that can harvest, could be beneficial for us. Hence with R&D the potential value may CHANG
o E.g. Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) -> Almost made extinct based on timber value -> Pacific Northwest, in Canadian coast -
paclitaxel for curing lung, ovarian and breast cancers
o E.g. genes -> you can earn royalties from patenting products utilizing genes -> Ppl have tried to patent Tamarind
• 1) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

o Ensures that international trade in specimens do not threaten survival
o Level 1: Pandas, tigers (very threatened and on the brink of extinction)
o Level 2: Slightly better
o Level 3: Endangered but can be allowed trading for research purposes
• 2) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
o conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from
genetic resources
o E.g. Pharmaceutical companies
• Goods (tb pg 277): Timber, Fuel wood, Pulp, Fruits, Leaves, Roots, Traditional medicines (and poisons)
• Services (pg 278): Retard soil erosion, Regulate climate (taking in co2), Regulate water cycle (can absorb water and transp
release into the atmosphere and fall as rain), Energy flow and chemical cycling (Convert solar energy into chem energy), Carbo
(plants need co2 to photosynthesise. Good at photosynthesising and trapping them into carbo.), Purify air and water (bc they
water from ground and release into atmosphere), Provided habitat to numerous species (provided habitat for org to live IN or
o Resin (?) comes from (?) plant
o Smilax makes sarsi drink
o Habitats are useful for bioremediation as they are effective in trapping and fixing or breaking down pollutants. Filter wate
o Mangrove and seagrass habitats help to retard erosion, trap sediment and buffer impact of storms hitting coast.
• Goods: food, medicine, fertiliser, fodder -> e.g phyllophorus

• Services: binds sediments, reduced turbidity, retards erosion, pollution filter, nursey, support large invertebrate stocks, cr
habitat of dugongs, food for green turtles and young hawksbill
o Dugongs feed entirely on seagrasses
o Physical environment protection
 Mangroves protected them from tsunami
 prevents mud and sand from being washed away
 helps regenerate soil by aerating it, allowing plants and animals to flourish (allow fisherman to catch)
o Balanced cycling of materials: E.g. Forest – Materials, water, nutrients etc. Bacteria: Fresh water fish produce ammonia in
Nitrosomas spp consume Ammonia and convert to Nitrite -> Nitrobacter spp consume nitrite and convert it to nitrate -> Plant
nitrate for growth. Plants and animals help in the cycling of the materials. If an org gets eaten by another org, the nutrients an
gets transferred to that org.
 Mud lobsters -> It excavates below the surface of the mud, pushing mud to the surface and making its home higher as it d
way, it helps to bring nutrients from deep underground to the surface, helping in the recycling of nutrients in the ecosystem. A
to dig the burrow and tunnel for home for all other organisms to live in.
o Ecotourism: involves conservation, profits and locals. Principles of ecotourism: Minimise impact; Build environmental and
awareness and respect; Provide positive experiences for bother visitors and hosts; Provide direct financial benefits for conserv
Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people; Raise sensitivity to host countries’ political, environmental, and
climate.
o Carbon fixation and Carbon sink: (look at diag)

o Plant convert CO2 to Oxygen
o When the plants die, the whole plant will fall and get buried and get piled deeper and deeper until it becomes fossil
o Burn to release Carbon back to atmosphere
o Soil enrichment
 earthworms promotes the growth of trees, particularly fruit trees
o Stores and purifies water: Water cycle. water gonna be expensive commodity in the future since not possible that we hav
freshwater ALL the time. We need to buy raw water and treat the freshwater. Water treatment is gonna be ex. SG is surround
seawater, so how are we gonna purify it to drink? So freshwater more expensive and essential than seawater. SG q innovative
desalination plants, collect waste water and convert them into drinkable and potable water (NEWater).
 Charmonix Mont Blanc Water
o Filters and detoxifies pollutants and wastes products. Biochemical Mechanisms of Detoxification in Higher Plants: Basis o
Phytoremediation. Phytoremediation buffer. Basic removal pathways include volatilization, plant accumulation, soil and plant
biodegration. Pollutants must be within rotting zone. -> Higher plants can detoxify soil. They can absorb the toxins in the soil a
the soil.
• Casuarina (in india) (Example of Phytoremediation)
o Absorb salt
o can live in very saline environment
o grows very fast, can be harvested within a year
o Soil Remediation
o the species in Singapore is different
• Modified ecosystems depend on external inputs (e.g pesticides, herbicides, fertilisers)

• Natural ecosystems do not need these inputs to maintain productivity.
• Modified ecosystems have lower productivity than natural ecosystems.
• Ecosystems are resource systems, capable of renewal and regeneration.
• Ecosystems provide services that benefit human society.
• Healthy ecosystems provide a wide range of services. Stress reduces quality and quantity of these services.
• To enjoy ecosystem goods and services, ecosystem integrity must be maintained.
• Introduced species.
o Unintentional Introductions
 Ship Ballast
 Organisms in timber /packing materials
 In / On various modes of transportation
 Organisms in imported nursery soil
 Organisms in imported fruits and vegetables
 Tourists and their luggages
o Intentional Introductions
 Release of unwanted pets (e.g Red Ear Slider)
 Plants introduced for gardening
 Biological Control (House Crow)
• Over-exploitation.
o Fisheries
o Forest, Water, Hunting
• Excessive habitat degradation.
o Dumping of toxic contaminants
o Rubbish
• Result in unsustainable use of biological resources
• Urbanization leads to:

• Habitat Loss
• Singapore has lost > 95% of forests > 98% of mangroves > 60% of coral reefs
• Habitat Fragmentation
• Habitat Degradation
• Which causes species extinction and loss of ecological benefits
• We do not depend on our ecosystems for goods.
• We do not depend much on our ecosystems for services.
• Cleaning of Singapore River and Kallang Basin
o 10 year programme commencing in 1977
 Pigs and duck farms • Unsewered premises • Street hawkers • Riverine activities • Vegetable wholesale activities
 “Biochemical Oxygen Demand” - The breakdown of organic matter in water by microorganisms consumes dissolved oxyge
 Total Suspended Solids - refer to the amount of particles suspended in water.
 269 tons of rubbish removed
 Aquatic biodiversity increased from 18 families to 47 families in 1992 (SG River)
Kallang River (28 to 41 families in 1995)
• Palau Semakau
o Combination of biodiversity and development
 Mangrove Rehabilitation, Coral
• Sister Island Marine Park (given protection as public park)
• Comprehensive Mega Marine Survey
o 2 Massive Expeditions (Northern and Southern)
• Eco-friendly Buildings
o Capitagreen
o NTU School of Art
o Oasia hotel
o Eco-Sanctuary
o Tree-house
Opened on 18 April 2015, and houses the Raffles Natural History Collection
TB pg
13
14
14
15
20 - 21
16
18
22
24
25
34
35
35
35
39-46
51
51
52
54
55
60
60-61
62
63
65-66
65
66
71
71
77
77
79
81
81
82
82
85
89
90
92
95
97
97
99-100
101
101
104
112
112
113
115
116
118
127
127
127
128
130
130
132
148
149
155
159
160
162
162
163
167
170
176
176
179
178
184
185
186
188
187
187
188
202
197
204
207
208
208
209
209
209
211
213
213
215
216
217
224-225
225
226
226
226
227
230
230-231
233
234
234
236
240 onwards
245
247
248
251
257
263
273
274
275
279

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Scientific Name Common Name Habitat Native?

Additional Info TB pg Slides / pg

species poor forest that grows on degraded soil (due to human

Previously introduced from Africa, however, found that the flowers

carry infectious diseases such as Chytridiomycosis. Chytrid fungus

branches are prone to collapse (hazard) and it is susceptible to

2nd most prominent in mangrove, behind bakau. Have breathing

most conspicuous of mangrove forest. Possess prop or stilt roots for

Attach permanently nto rocks and surround themselves with

the variability among living organisms from all sources including,

Living components e.g organisms, other members of its own species

the incorporation of carbon into organic compounds by living

can be found on sandfill sites, grows naturally in beach vegetation.

3043.1ha total area. 153.6ha primary forest. 2000 plants, several

conservation can be considered a milestone as it was done by the

Economic value of coastal vegetation (pg 119)

venomous. Toxic peptides are used to treat neuropathic or chronic

stressed coral, due to pollution or warm water temperatures, expel

Associated with Diatoms. Sudden population explosions causes

forms majority of trees in Singapore. Dip = two, tero = wings.

carnivorous predators, prey on bivalve and barnacles. Bore hole

spiny skinned animals. Commonly found in local intertidal habitats

the area of productive land and aquatic ecosystems needed to

margins along boundaries and paths have higher light intensity,

Autotrophic plants that grow on leaves of other plants (usually found

Autotrophic plants that grow on the stems or branches of other

lives mainly in burrows in the ground, coming out to forage at high

land devoted to cultivation of crops or raising of livestock. Conditions

hemiepiphyte, kill host. Strangler figs roots take in nutrients and

1. primary - clear ground or gap in canopy - Trema belukar (if soil

forest that is temporarily to semipermanently inundated by non-

forms relationship with zooxanthellae, Clams host the algae to

Primarily Nocturnal. black and reddish brown. Can reach 30mm.

Native to Trinidad introduced as biological control agent. prey on

Recognised by their heart-shaped gaster that they hold in a raised

forms symbiotic relationship with sea anemone. Hermit crab use

Common flowering plant lithophytes. Small fleshy herb with tiny

Found in canals and reservoirs (Kranji) difficult to eradicate as it

Autotrophic plants that grow in water or very wet conditions, in the

condition where females (marine snails) develop male reproductive

Seashore that is periodically exposed at low tide and covered at high

lies on seagrass bed. Possibly one of the largest echinoderms in

the only exotic plant found in Singapore's primary forests. Serious

can rapidly invade newly cleared land because it has wind-dispersed

composite organism. Symbiotic relationship between algae & fungi.

dominated by foliose and laminar growth forms such as Pectinia,

snakewood is a species which has the potential to compete with the

Nocturnal. mainly distributed in BTNR and CCNR. Critically

grow in intertidal zone, oxygen poor, unstable substrate, high and

salt secretors / ultrafiltrators (to deal with seawater), breathing roots

bought or dredged from Singapore sea. Sandy, loose, well aerated,

graze largely on algae, and in some cases, on encrusting organisms

meranti family consists of dipterocarps, which dominates the

Invasive species from south america, preys on mosquito larvae to

Rarely seen as they live underground in extensive burrow systems

extracts oxygen from volume of water held in gills. Modified pectoral

Free living and solitary, young individuals are attached to substrate

attached to rocks, subject to predation by humans, birds and other

Shellfish poisoning associated with dinoflagellate species. Shellfish

adults of these species use long ovipositors to penetrate the wall of

hardy species which are the first to colonize previously disrupted or

common climbers on trees and shrubs in adinandra belukar.

phase 1: planting of trees over vacant areas asap, phase 2: planting