Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

An overview of study on recycled aggregate concrete in China (1996–2011)

Jianzhuang Xiao a,b,⇑, Wengui Li a, Yuhui Fan a, Xiao Huang a
a
Department of Building Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China
b
Committee of Recycled Aggregate Concrete, Civil Engineering Society, Shanghai 200092, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A series of investigations on the mechanical property, durability, and the structural performance of recy-
Received 1 September 2011 cled aggregate concrete (RAC) have been carried out in the past 15 years (1996–2011) in China. The
Received in revised form 5 December 2011 achievements of researches on recycled concrete are relatively sufficient to review and share with inves-
Accepted 23 December 2011
tigators from other countries. Some research progress of micro- and meso-structure of RAC is introduced
Available online 8 February 2012
in the first part of this paper. The second part of this paper is devoted to the mechanical properties of RAC
material: strength, elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, stress–strain curve. The third part of the paper gives
Keywords:
research on durability of RAC: carbonization, chloride penetration, shrinkage and creep. The last part pre-
Recycled coarse aggregate (RCA)
Natural aggregate concrete (NAC)
sents a review on the structural performance of RAC elements and structures: beams, columns, slabs,
Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) beam–column joints, shear walls as well as frames made with RAC. Results of all researches reveal that
Micro- and meso-structure with proper design and construction, it is safe and feasible to apply RAC as a structural material in civil
Mechanical property engineering. Moreover, in this paper, the relevant research results of RAC obtained in China and from
Durability other countries are compared and discussed. This review provides helpful directions to those who are
Structural performance already engaged in this research, and points out areas which are needed to promote safe and economic
use of RAC.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
2. Micro- and meso-structure of RAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
3. Mechanical properties of RAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.1. Mixture ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.2. Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.2.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.2.1.1. Influence of RCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.2.1.2. Statistical characteristics for compressive strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.2.2. Tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.2.2.1. Uniaxial tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.2.2.2. Splitting tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
3.2.3. Flexural tensile strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
3.2.4. Fracture energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
3.2.5. Shear strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
3.2.6. Multiaxial compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
3.2.7. Bond strength between recycled concrete and steel rebar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
3.3. Deformation characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
3.3.1. Modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
3.3.2. Peak strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
3.3.3. Ultimate strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
3.4. Stress–strain relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
3.4.1. Uniaxial compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Building Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China.
E-mail address: jzx@tongji.edu.cn (J. Xiao).

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.074
 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383 365

3.4.2. Uniaxial tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

3.4.3. Pure shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
4. Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
4.1. Deterioration by chemical reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
4.1.1. Carbonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
4.1.2. Chloride penetration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
4.2. Shrinkage and creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
4.2.1. Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
4.2.2. Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
5. Structural performance of recycled concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.1. RAC elements under monotonic loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.1.1. Flexural behavior of RAC beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.1.2. Shear behavior of RAC beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.1.3. RAC columns under axial and eccentric compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.1.4. RAC filled steel tubular columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.1.5. Flexural performance of RAC slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.2. RAC structures under cyclic loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
5.2.1. RAC beam–column joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
5.2.2. RAC shear walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.2.3. RAC block walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.2.4. RAC plane frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
5.3. Shaking table tests on RAC structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
5.3.1. Small-sized RAC block masonry structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
5.3.2. RAC frame structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6. Conclusions and recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

1. Introduction
The difficulties of disposing of the concrete rubble and demoli-
tion waste together with a developing scarcity of virgin aggregate
have prompted an urge to recycle waste concrete as natural aggre-
gate in fresh concrete. China is a large resource consumer with
shortage of resources and extensive management, and its eco-
nomic growth is increasingly constrained by resources and the
environment. According to statistics, China’s consumption of ce-
ment is 820 million tons and accounts for 55% of the world. It is
estimated that approximately 200 million tons of waste concrete
are currently produced annually in the mainland of China [1].
Moreover, some natural disasters such as Wenchuan earthquake
(2008), Yushu earthquake (2010) and Yunnan earthquake (2011)
in China have resulted in a great quantity of waste concrete. So it
can be foreseen that demolition contractors will be encouraged
to reuse and recycle the waste concrete in China.
On behalf of RILEM Technical Committee 37-DRC, Nixon pre-
pared a state-of-the-art report on recycled concrete as an aggre-
gate for concrete, covering the period 1945–1977 [2]. A second
state-of-the-art report on recycled aggregate and RAC was pre-
pared by Hansen, covering developments between 1978 and
Fig. 1. Meso-structure of RAC prepared with RCA [9].
1985 [3]. And the third state-of-the-art report was an updated ver-
sion of the second state-of-the-art report including developments
in the period 1985–1989 [4]. In 2002, ACI Committee 555 reported
information on evaluating and processing waste concrete for pro-
duction of aggregates suitable for reuses in concrete constructions
[5]. In recent years from 1996 to 2011, many Chinese investigators
have engaged in the studying of RAC and nearly all aspects of
mechanical property and structural performance have been cov-
ered. And up to today, two national symposiums on recycled con-
crete and two international conferences on waste concrete
recycling and management have been held in China. To summarize
all of those achievements, this paper is not only written primarily
as a state-of-the-art report on the recycled concrete in China but
also to provide the basis for the further study on recycled concrete.
2. Micro- and meso-structure of RAC
Du et al. [6] reported that the micro-hardness of recycled coarse
aggregate (RCA) was much higher than that of the interfacial tran-
sition zones (ITZs) in the RAC, and the micro-hardness of the inter-
face between the RCA and the new mortar matrix was the lowest.
Poon et al. [7] investigated the effect of microstructure of ITZ on
the compressive strength of RAC. Their scanning electron micros-
copy (SEM) observations revealed that the aggregate–cement ma-
trix interfacial zone of RAC consisted mainly of loose and porous
hydrates whereas the aggregate–cement matrix interfacial zone
of conventional concrete consisted mainly of dense hydrates. Tam
et al. [8] found that the microstructure of RAC was much more com-
plicated than that of the conventional concrete. RAC possessed two
ITZs, one is between the RCA and new mortar matrix, and the other
is between the RCA and the old mortar attached (old ITZ). The old
mortar of the RCA formed the weak link in RAC, which was com-
posed of many porosity and cracks. The structure of RAC is schemat-
ically shown in Fig. 1. Under the observation of SEM, many voids
and cracks were found between the RCA and mortar matrix (Fig. 2).
Similar results were obtained by researchers from other coun-
tries. Etxeberria et al. [9] found that the adhered old mortar on
366 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383
Fig. 2. The microstructure characteristics of ITZs in RAC [9].
the RCA was the weakest point. Contrary to the common opinion,
Nagataki and Gokce et al. reported that the adhered mortar is
not always the primary parameter determining the quality of the
RAC [10]. Rasheeduzzafar and Khan [11] concluded that the weak-
est link in RAC depended on the relative strength of the old mortar
and new mortar or the relative quality of the old ITZ and new ITZ.
3. Mechanical properties of RAC
3.1. Mixture ratio
A comprehensive experimental work has been carried out by
Xiao et al. [12] and Zhang et al. [13]. It is found that, in general,
the mix design procedure for RAC does not differ much from that
for conventional concrete. However, more water is required to
attain a similar workability owing to the high water absorption
of RCA. Tam et al. [8] proposed a two-stage mixing approach to im-
prove the compressive strength for RAC and lower the strength
variability. Other countries researchers such as Etxeberria et al.
[14] also found that recycled aggregates which were used in wet
condition but not saturated, could control the fresh concrete prop-
erties and the effective water to cement (w/c) ratio.
3.2. Strength
3.2.1. Compressive strength
3.2.1.1. Influence of RCA. Li et al. [15], Tang [16], Jin et al. [17] and
Kou et al. [18] had conducted experiments on the compressive
strength of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). The results indicate
that the amount of RCA has remarkable influence on the compres-
sive strength of concrete. Some typical findings are shown in Fig. 3,
which illustrates the relationship between the RCA replacement
percentage (%) and the relative compressive strength, defined as
the ratio of the compressive strength of RAC to that of the conven-
tional concrete. It can be seen from Fig. 3 that, in general, the con-
crete compressive strength decreases with the increase of the RCA
content. However, if the RCA content is less than 30%, the influence
on the compressive strength is not obvious. It is found by Li et al.
[15] that it is quite possible to achieve a desirable compressive
strength by adjusting the water to cement ratio. This confirmed
the earlier results by Buck [19] which also showed that it is possi-
ble to make RAC stronger than the parent concrete from which the
RCA were derived.
Nixon also found that the compressive strength of RAC is some-
what lower compared with the strength of control mixes of con-
ventional concrete [2]. Hansen concluded that the compressive
strength of RAC is largely controlled by a combination of the water
to cement ratio of the original concrete and the water to cement
ratio of the RAC when other factors are essentially identical [3].
Zhang and Ingham [20] confirmed that the properties of RCA affect
1.0
Relative Compressive Strength
0.8
0.6
Li et al., w/c ratio=0.43 [15]
0.4 Tang, w/c ratio=0.43 [16]
Jin et al., w/c ratio=0.45 [17]
Kou et al., w/c ratio=0.45 [18]
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
Fig. 3. Influence of RCA content on compressive strength.
the hardened properties of RAC. However, from investigations of
China and other countries, it can be found that the use of water
reducing agent and higher cement content is effective in producing
a higher strength RAC.
3.2.1.2. Statistical characteristics for compressive strength. Xiao et al.
[21] investigated the statistical characteristics for the compressive
strength of RAC with relatively uniform quality. It is found that
normal distribution model can be applied to fit the compressive
strength results of the RAC at a 95% confidence level with different
RCA contents (Fig. 4). Researchers from other countries also prove
that the coefficient of variation for compressive strength of RAC in
the laboratory is not much different from that of conventional con-
crete when one and the same RCA was used throughout the
production.
Xiao et al. [22] further studied the statistical characteristics for
the compressive strength of RAC with the RCA from different re-
sources. The test result reveals that the RCA with non-uniform
quality increases the discrete for the distribution of the compres-
sive strength of RAC. The normal model can still be used to de-
scribe the probability distribution for the compressive strength of
RAC. However, the coefficient of variation for compressive strength
is slightly larger than the RAC when the same RCA is applied.
3.2.2. Tensile strength
3.2.2.1. Uniaxial tensile strength. Fig. 5 shows the behavior of RAC
with different amounts of RCA under uniaxial tension by Xiao
and Lan [23]. The test results indicate that an increase of the RCA
content leads to a reduction in uniaxial tensile strength. When
the RCA replacement percentage is 100%, the strength is reduced
by 31% compared to that of conventional concrete with a similar
 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383 367

0.2
0.16
r=0 r=0
r=30% r=30%
0.16 r=50% r=50%
0.12 r=100%
r=100%
0.12

f (x)

f (x)
0.08
0.08

0.04 0.04

0 0
20 30 40 50 60 20 30 40 50 60
Compressive Strength (MPa) Compressive Strength (MPa)
(a) Normal distribution model (b) Lognormal distribution model
Fig. 4. Distribution model for compressive strength of RAC [21].

evident that the splitting tensile strength reduces as the RCA con-
1.0 tent increases. Researchers from other countries such as Ravindr-
Relative Uniaxial Tensile Strength

arajah et al. [28] reported that the splitting tensile strength of

0.8 RAC was consistently 10% lower than that of conventional con-
crete. Tabsh and Abdelfatah [29] reported that about 25–30% drop
in the tensile strength was observed in concrete made with RCA. It
0.6
may be concluded that in most cases there is somewhat difference
in tensile strength between RAC and conventional concrete.
0.4 Xiao et al., w/c ratio=0.43 [23] Xiao et al. [30] revealed that the splitting failure of RAC initiated
Liu et al., w/c ratio=0.43 [24] not only from the interfaces between the RCA and new cement
0.2 paste, but also from some of the RCA itself. It is also found that
the normal model can be used to describe the distributions for
the splitting tensile strength of concrete with different RCA con-
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 tents (see Fig. 7).
RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
3.2.3. Flexural tensile strength
Fig. 5. Uniaxial tensile strength as a function of RCA replacement percentage for
RAC. Xiao and Li [31], and Hu [32] found that the RCA replacement
percentage has only marginal influence on the flexural strength
of RAC (Fig. 8). Similar results were also obtained by Cheng [25].
Researchers from other countries such as Topçu and Sengel [33]
1.0 found that as the RCA replacement increased, the flexural strength
of RAC decreased. Whereas Ravindrarajah and Tam concluded no
Relative Splitting Tensile Strength

0.8
significant difference existed in the flexural strength of conven-
tional concrete and RAC made with RCA [34].

0.6
3.2.4. Fracture energy
Peng et al. [35] investigated the fracture energy of RAC with dif-
0.4 ferent RCA replacement percentage (0%, 30% and 100%). The test
Cheng, w/c ratio=0.47 [25]
specimens were notched beams (100 mm  100 mm  400 mm)
Shi et al., w/c ratio=0.49 [26]
Zhou et al., w/c ratio=0.46 [27] subjected to three-point bending. The results indicate that the frac-
0.2 ture energy of RAC is lower than that of conventional concrete with
the same water to binder ratio, as shown in Fig. 9. Researchers
0.0 from other countries such as Bordelon et al. [36] also found that
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 the RAC with a replacement ratio of 50% behaved similar fracture
RCA Replacement Precentage (%) properties as that of conventional concrete, but a 53% higher frac-
ture energy appeared when the RCA replacement ratio was 100%.
Fig. 6. Splitting tensile strength as a function of RCA replacement percentage for
RAC.
3.2.5. Shear strength
Based on the four-point-load beam test, Huang et al. [37], Liu
composition. Moreover, Liu et al. [24] found that the uniaxial ten- et al. [38] and Bai et al. [39] found that the shear failure mode of
sile strength of RAC was similar to that of conventional concrete. RAC is similar to that of conventional concrete. However, the shear
However, few literatures from researcher of other countries are strength decreases with the increase of the RCA content (see
found to study on the uniaxial tensile strength of RAC. Fig. 10). For the RAC with 100% RCA, the shear strength is approx-
imately 30% lower than that of conventional concrete. Few
3.2.2.2. Splitting tensile strength. Cheng [25], Shi et al. [26] and Zhou researchers from other countries conducted study on the shear
et al. [27] investigated the influence of RCA on the splitting tensile strength of RAC. Rahal [40] found that the shear strength of RAC
strength of RAC. In their tests, cube specimens were used. The test were on the average 90% of those of conventional concrete with
results are presented and compared in Fig. 6. From the figure, it is the same mix proportion.
368 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383

Fig. 7. Histograms for the distribution of splitting tensile strength of RAC [30].

1.0
1.0
Relative Flexural Strength

0.8

Relative Shear Strength

0.8

0.6
0.6
Xiao and Li, w/c ratio=0.43 [31]
0.4 Hu, w/c ratio=0.43 [32] 0.4 Huang et al., w/c ratio=0.46 [37]
Cheng, w/c ratio=0.47 [25] Liu et al., w/c ratio=0.40 [38]
Topcu and Sengel, w/c ratio=0.57 [33] Bai et al., w/c ratio=0.40 [39]
0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RCA Replacement Percentage (%) RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
Fig. 8. Flexural tensile strength as a function of RCA replacement percentage.
Fig. 10. Shear strength as a function of RCA replacement percentage for RAC.

350
70
NC RAC-30 RAC-100
300
60
Fracture Energy (J/m )
2

250 50
Stress (MPa)

200 40

150 30
RCA replacement ratio (0%)
100 20 RCA replacement ratio (50%)
RCA replacement ratio (100%)
50 10

0 0
W/B=0.26 W/B=0.40 W/B=0.60 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035
Strain
Fig. 9. Fracture energy as a function of water to cement ratio of RAC [36].
Fig. 11. The stress–strain relationship as a function of RCA replacement percentage
[42].

3.2.6. Multiaxial compressive strength

Based on the related axial tests on conventional concrete and
RAC-filled steel tubes, Xiao et al. [41] reported that the compres-
sive strength of confined RAC was slightly lower (within 20%) than
that of confined conventional concrete. Furthermore, steel tube
confined RAC displayed larger deformation than that of confined
conventional concrete. Xiao and Yang [42] also investigated the
property of GFRP (glass fiber reinforced plastics) confined RAC un-
der axial compression. It is found that the strength of GFRP con-
fined RAC is approximately 30% higher compared to that of
unconfined RAC. The test data also indicates that with the increase
of the RCA content, the strength of confined RAC decreases (see
Fig. 11). In other countries, Mahgoub et al. [43] reported that
RAC can gain significant strength and ductility if it is properly rein-
forced with lateral reinforcements.
3.2.7. Bond strength between recycled concrete and steel rebar
By pull-out tests, Xiao et al. [44], An et al. [45], Bai et al. [46]
studied the bond behavior between the RAC and steel rebar. It is
found that from Fig. 12, when plain rebar is used, the bond strength
decreases with the increase of the RCA replacement percentage.
However, the amount of RCA has only a minor influence on the
bond strength when the deformed rebar was applied. Eguchi
et al. [47], Corinaldesi and Moriconi [48] from other countries also
 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383 369

1.2 1.2

1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8

τ/τ0
τ/τ0
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
Test Test
0.2 Predicted 0.2 Predicted
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
s/s0 s/s0
(a) Plain rebar (b) Deformed rebar
Fig. 12. Comparison for the normalized bond–slip curves of RAC [44].

1.0 3.5

3.0
0.8
Relative Elastic Modulus

2.5

0.6
2.0

ε0 (10 )
-3
0.4 1.5
Xiao, w/c ratio=0.43 [49] Xiao, w/c ratio=0.43 [52]
Zhou et al., w/c ratio=0.46 [27] Deng et al., w/c ratio=0.44 [53]
Kou et al., w/c ratio=0.45 [18] 1.0
0.2 Etxeberria et al., w/c ratio=0.55 [14]
0.5

0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RCA Replacement Percentage (%) RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
Fig. 13. Elastic modulus as a function of RCA replacement percentage. Fig. 15. Ultimate strain as a function of RCA content of RAC.

2.5
30
RC-50
RC-30
2.0 25

20
1.5
ε0 (10 )

(MPa)
-3

15 RC-70 NC
1.0
Xiao et al., w/c ratio=0.43 [52]
Deng et al., w/c ratio=0.44 [53] 10
RC-100
0.5
5

0.0 0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
Fig. 16. Stress–strain curves of RAC under uniaxial compression [49].
Fig. 14. Peak strain as a function of RCA replacement percentage.

gave similar results that there has no obvious difference between
the bond strength of reinforced RAC and the bond strength of rein-
forced conventional concrete.
3.3. Deformation characteristics
3.3.1. Modulus of elasticity
Xiao [49] and Hu et al. [50] found up to 45% lower modulus of
elasticity for RAC with 100% RCA in comparison with that of con-
ventional concrete. Zhou et al. [27] reported the elastic modulus
of RAC is 15–26% lower than that of conventional concrete,
depending on the qualities of the parent concrete and the proper-
ties of the RCA as well. Kou et al. [18] also concluded that the elas-
tic modulus of RAC decreased as the RCA replacement percentage
increased and the elastic modulus of RAC with 100% RCA was about
40% lower than that of conventional concrete. Fig. 13 summarizes
that the elastic modulus decreases with the increase of the replace-
ment percentage of RCA. Researchers from other countries such as
Padmini et al. [51] also found that the elastic modulus of RAC was
lower compared to the elastic modulus of corresponding control
concrete made with natural aggregate. Generally, the decrease of
the elastic modulus of RAC is due to the large amount of old mortar
with comparatively low modulus of elasticity which is attached to
original aggregate in RAC.
3.3.2. Peak strain
Xiao et al. [52], and Deng et al. [53] studied the peak strain of
RAC prisms (100 mm  100 mm  300 mm) under uniaxial
370 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383

3.5 1.4
From up to down, r is
3.0 0 ,30 ,50 ,70 ,100 1.2

Relative Chloride Permeability

2.5 1.0
Stress /MPa

2.0 0.8

1.5 0.6
Zhang et al., w/b ratio=0.29 [64]
Du et al., w/b ratio=0.35 [65]
1.0 0.4 Hu et al., w/c ratio=0.42 [66]

0.5 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-6
Strain / 10 RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
Fig. 17. Stress–strain curves of RAC under uniaxial tension [23]. Fig. 19. Chloride permeability as a function of RAC replacement percentage.

2.4 1.6

1.4
2.0
Relative Depth of Carbonation

Relative Drying Shrinkage

1.2
1.6
1.0

1.2 0.8

0.6 Zhu and et al., w/c ratio=0.43 [69]

0.8
Lei and Xiao, w/b ratio=0.50 [59] Zhang et al., w/b ratio=0.29 [70]
Yuan et al., w/b ratio=0.43 [60] 0.4 Guo et al., w/c ratio=0.47 [71]
0.4 Zhang and Yan, w/b ratio=0.50 [61]
0.2

0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RCA Replacement Percentage (%) RCA Replacement Percentage (%)

Fig. 18. Depth of carbonation as a function of RAC replacement percentage. Fig. 20. Drying shrinkage as a function of RAC replacement percentage.

[56] have investigated the influence of RCA content on the

compression with different RCA contents. From Fig. 14, it can be stress–strain curves. The typical results obtained by Xiao et al.
seen that the value of the peak strain increases as the RCA content [49] for RAC with RCA replacement percentages of 0%, 30%, 50%,
increases. The main reason for the increase of the peak strain of 70% and 100% are illustrated in Fig. 16. Belén et al. [57] from other
RAC is due to the reduced elasticity modulus of RCA, which leads countries also found that the shape of the stress–strain curves of
to a larger deformation. Du et al. [54] also proved that the peak RAC was similar to that of conventional concrete, but the slop of
strain of RAC is much higher than that of conventional concrete. the stress–strain curves decreased.
Besides, Rahal [40] from other countries found that the strain at Various models for the stress–strain relationships of RAC under
the peak compressive stress in RAC were 5.5 larger than that in uniaxial compression have been proposed in China, e.g. by Wang
conventional concrete. and Yang [58]. In the Technical Code for ‘‘Application of Recycled
Aggregate Concrete’’ (DG/TJ08-2018-2007), the following analytical
3.3.3. Ultimate strain model was recommended:
Xiao [52] and Deng et al. [53] reported the ultimate strain at a (
stress level equals to 85% of the peak stress in the post-peak range. c1 x þ ð3  2c1 Þx2 þ ðc1  2Þx3 06x<1
y¼ x ð1Þ
It can be seen from Fig. 15 that the ultimate strain may decrease or c2 ðx1Þ2 þx
xP1
increase, depending on the value of RCA replacement percentage.
For a low RCA content, the ultimate strain decreases with the in- where x = e/e0, y = r/fc, e0 is the peak strain and fc is the axial com-
crease of the replacement percentage, while the opposite may be pressive strength. The parameters c1 and c2 are determined depend-
the case for a higher content of the replacement percentage. ing on the RCA replacement percentage (r).
However, Bernier et al. [55] from other countries found that the c1 ¼ 2:2ð0:748r 2  1:231r þ 0:975Þ
ultimate strain is about 1.75  103 for RAC made with RCA and ð2Þ
c2 ¼ 0:8ð7:6483r þ 1:142Þ
natural sand.

3.4. Stress–strain relationship 3.4.2. Uniaxial tension

The uniaxial tensile stress–strain relationship of RAC with dif-
3.4.1. Uniaxial compression ferent replacement percentages are shown in Fig. 17. With an in-
Prisms were usually used to test the stress–strain relationship crease of the RCA replacement percentage the tensile peak strain
in China. Xiao [49], Hu et al. [50], Du et al. [54] and Hao et al. of RAC is slightly increased whereas the tensile strength and the
 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383 371

2.1 tangent modulus of the RAC are decreased. Moreover, Liu et al. [24]
reported that the tensile strain of RAC is slightly higher than that of
1.8 conventional concrete. No information on the complete tensile
Relative Creep Deformation

stress–strain relationship of RAC was found in the literature from

1.5 other countries.
The analytical model of stress–strain relationship was firstly
1.2
proposed by Xiao and Lan [23] for RAC under uniaxial tension,
0.9 y ¼ gx  ðg  1Þx6 ð3Þ
Zuo and Wang, w/b ratio=0.47 [73]
0.6
Ye, w/c ratio=0.55 [74] where x = e/e0, y = r/ft, the parameter g is related to the RCA replace-
Domingo-Cabo et al.,w/c ratio=0.50 [72] ment percentage (r) and can be determined by:
0.3
g ¼ 0:07r þ 1:19 ð4Þ
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RCA Replacement Percentage (%) 3.4.3. Pure shear
The test results by Huang et al. [37], Liu et al. [38] and Bai et al.
Fig. 21. Creep deformation as a function of RAC replacement percentage. [39] shows that the shear failure mode of RAC specimens is similar

1.2

1.0
Relative Load

0.8

0.6
Cracking load
0.4 Yield load
Ultimate load

0.2

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
(a) Loading setup (b) Loading capacity of RAC beam
Fig. 22. Bend test and results of RAC beams [78].

(a) RCA replacement percentage 0 (b) RCA replacement percentage 25%

(c) RCA replacement percentage 50% (d) RCA replacement percentage 70%
Fig. 23. Crack patterns and failure mode of RAC beams with different RCA replacement [79].

100 300

80 250
Load (kN)

200
Load (kN)

60
150
40
100 RCA 0%
Conventional concrete beam RCA 25%
20 RAC beam
50 RCA 50%

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

Fig. 24. Load–deflection curves of concrete beams [78,80].

372 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383

1.0

Relative Shear Capacity

0.8

0.6

Zhou et al., w/c=0.45 [87]

0.4 Xiao and Lan, w/c ratio=0.43 [88]
Zhou and Jiang, w/c ratio=0.47 [89]

0.2

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RCA Replacement Percentage (%)

Fig. 28. Shear capacity of RAC beam with web reinforcement.

Fig. 25. Shear test setup [85].

1.0

Relative Compression Capacity

1.0
0.8
Relative Shear Capacity

0.8
0.6

Liu et al., w/c ratio=0.34 [92]

0.6 Xiao et al., w/c ratio=0.55 [93]
0.4
Zhou et al., w/c ratio=0.46 [94]
Li et al., w/c ratio=0.43 [84]
0.4 Ni et al., w/c ratio=0.50 [85] 0.2
Zhang et al., w/c ratio=0.57 [86]
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.0 RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fig. 29. Compression capacity of RAC column under axial compression.
RCA Replacement Percentage (%)

Fig. 26. Shear capacity of RAC beam without web reinforcement.

to that of conventional concrete, but the shear strength and defor-
mability are lower than those of conventional concrete. No litera-
ture from other countries has been found to focus on the pure
shear stress–strain relationship of RAC. The following formulation
was proposed to describe the stress–strain curve of RAC under pure
shear by Huang et al. [37]:
y ¼ ax4  2ax3 þ ða þ 1Þx
where x = c/cp, y = s/fv, c is shear strain, cp is peak shear strain, s is
shear stress (MPa), fv is shear strength (MPa). The parameter a de-
scribes the influence of the RCA replacement percentage and can
be determined by regression analysis (a = 0.8, when c = 0; a = 0.4,
when c = 30%; a = 0.3, when c = 50%).
4. Durability
4.1. Deterioration by chemical reaction
4.1.1. Carbonization
Lei and Xiao [59] found that carbonation behavior of RAC is not
only determined by the quality of new mortar but also by the qual-
ity and quantity of RCA. Yuan et al. [60] reported that the carbon-
ð5Þ ation depth increased with the increase of RCA replacement
percentage and the carbonation rate became slow with the in-
crease of ages. Zhang and Yan [61] presented that the carbonation
depth decreased when the RCA replacement percentage was more
than 70%. Generally, it may be concluded that the carbonation
resistance of RAC is lower compared to conventional concrete
and it mainly influenced by the RCA content, RCA quality and

(a) RCA replacement 0% (b) RCA replacement 50% (c) RCA replacement 100%
Fig. 27. Crack patterns and failure mode of RAC beams with web reinforcements [88].
 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383 373

600
1.0

Relative Compression Capacity

500
0.8
400
0.6
N (kN)

300
Liu et al., w/c ratio=0.34 [92]
r=0% 0.4 Xiao et al., w/c ratio=0.55 [93]
200 r=50% Zhou et al., w/c ratio=0.47 [95]
r=100% 0.2
100

0.0
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
M (kN.m)
Fig. 32. Compression capacity of RAC column under big eccentric compression.
Fig. 30. M–N correlation curve of RAC column [93].

curing age. The relationship between the depth of carbonation and
the replacement percentage at 28 days is shown in Fig. 18.
Researchers from other countries have similar results. Sagoe-
Crentsil et al. [62] found that a 10% increase in carbonation rate rel-
ative to conventional concrete at an accelerated carbonation rates
in 4% CO2 atmosphere. BCSJ [63] concluded that carbonation rates
were 1.2 to 2 times higher than those of control mixes when the
RAC was produced with RCA.
4.1.2. Chloride penetration
Zhang et al. [64] found that there was little difference between
the chloride penetration of concrete with RCA of high quality and
that of conventional concrete. Du et al. [65] reported that the resis-
tance of chloride ion penetration of RAC remains sufficient, but the
resistance of chloride penetration of RAC is lower than that of the
conventional concrete. Hu et al. [66] have proved that the chloride
ion permeability of RAC is inferior to that of conventional concrete.
The relationship between the chloride penetration and the RCA
replacement percentage at 28 days is displayed in Fig. 19. It may
be generally summarized that the resistance of chloride penetra-
tion of RAC is lower compared to that of conventional concrete,
and the resistance of chloride penetration of RAC decreases with
the increase of RCA replacement percentage. This conforms to
the conclusions by Otsuki et al. [67] and Sim and Park [68] from
other countries.
4.2. Shrinkage and creep
4.2.1. Shrinkage
Zhu and Wu [69] reported that the drying shrinkage of RAC in-
creased with the increasing of the RCA replacement percentage
and water to cement ratio, however the drying shrinkage decreased
when fly ash and superplasticizer were added in the RAC. Zhang et al.
[70] concluded that the shrinkage of high-quality RAC was close to
that of conventional concrete. Guo et al. [71] found that in the case
of a fixed amount of mixing water and cement content, the addition
of water reducing agent and RCA increased the shrinkage of RAC. It
may well be proved that the shrinkage of RAC is depended on the
RCA content as well as the mixture proportion. The relationship
between drying shrinkage deformation and the replacement
percentage at 28 days is presented in Fig. 20.
Domingo-Cabo et al. [72] found that the shrinkage of RAC in-
creased after 28 days. The RAC with a RCA replacement level of
20% showed a similar shrinkage to the conventional concretes in
the early stage. For a period of 6 months, the shrinkage in RAC
was 4% higher. In the case of a RCA replacement level of 50%, the
shrinkage was 12% greater than that of the conventional concrete
after 6 months. Moreover, Sagoe-Crentsil et al. [62] reported that
the drying shrinkage of RAC was about 25% higher than that of con-
ventional concrete, possibly due to the lower restraining capacity
of RCA particles compared to natural aggregate.

(a) 0 mm (b) 30 mm (c) 82 mm (d) 100 mm

Fig. 31. Crack patterns and failure mode of RAC columns with different eccentricity [93].
374 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383

1.0

Relative Compression Capacity

0.8

0.6

0.4 Shi et al., w/c ratio=0.49 [97]

Yang and Han, w/c ratio=0.50 [98]

0.2

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RCA Replacement Percentage (%)

Fig. 35. Compression capacity of RAC FST column.

Fig. 33. The RAC FST column testing [97].

Fig. 36. RAC slab test setup [99].

1.0
Relative Load Capacity

0.8

0.6

0.4 Cracking load

Fig. 34. The RAC FST column testing [98]. Ultimate load

0.2

4.2.2. Creep
0.0
Zou et al. [73] found that the creep deformation of RAC in- 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
creased with the increase of RCA content. The increase of the stress RCA Replacement Percentage (%)
level led to the increase of RAC creep. Additionally, the slag could
decrease the creep. Ye [74] reported that the creep deformation Fig. 37. Load capacity of RAC slabs [99].
of RAC with high quality RCA was obviously reduced compared
to those of concrete with RCA from traditional recycling technol-
ogy. It can be expected that the creep of RAC could be much larger of RAC after a period of 180 days. The relationship between the
than conventional concrete made with virgin aggregate. creep deformation and the replacement percentage at 56 days is
Domingo-Cabo et al. [72] revealed that the creep deformation of shown in Fig. 21. Moreover, Gomez-Soberon [75] reported that
RAC was similar to a conventional concrete, although some test re- the drying creep of RAC showed a more significant increase when
sults showed an influence of the replacement percentage on creep compared to the conventional concrete.
 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383 375

Fig. 41. Skeleton curves of RAC joints with different RCA content [101].
Fig. 38. RAC composite slab test setup [100].

(Fig. 22). Ding et al. [79] concluded that in each stage, the change
1.4 of mid-span deflection of RAC beams was similar to that of conven-
tional concrete beams, and the RCA replacement percentage (0%,
1.2 25%, 50% and 75%) had less impact on the failure pattern of RAC
beams (Fig. 23). Yang et al. [80] found that the mid-span deflection
Relative Load Capacity

1.0 of the concrete beams with RCA was larger than that of the conven-
tional concrete beams. Zhou et al. [81] have proved that the ultimate
0.8 moment of RAC beam was less than that of conventional concrete
beam, when the replacement ratio equals to 50%, 60%, 70% and
0.6
80%, the maximum loading capability decreases by 11%, 12%, 15%
Threshold load (debond)
and 16%, respectively. The relationship between the load–deflection
0.4 Load (deflection=1/200)
Ultimate load curves and the RCA replacement percentage is drawn in Fig. 24.
0.2 Fathifazl et al. [82] presented that at both the serviceability and
ultimate limit states, the flexural performance of beams made with
0.0 RAC is comparable to that of beams made of natural aggregate, and
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 the general flexural theory and current code provisions for flexural
RCA Replacement Percentage (%) design are applicable without alterations. Sato et al. [83] reported
that the effect of RCA on the deterioration of ultimate bending mo-
Fig. 39. Load capacity of RAC composite slabs [100].
ment and ductility was hardly observed because the RAC beam
failed in flexural or in flexural-shear after yielding of tension rein-
5. Structural performance of recycled concrete forcing bars, and thus the ultimate bending moment can be pre-
dicted by a conventional method.
5.1. RAC elements under monotonic loadings
5.1.2. Shear behavior of RAC beams
5.1.1. Flexural behavior of RAC beams For RAC beam without web reinforcements, Li et al. [84] re-
Deng and Yu [76], Bai and Wang [77], Liu and Yan [78] all ported that the shear capacity equations for conventional concrete
reported that the RAC beam had elastic, cracking, yield and ultimate were generally not suitable for RAC, especially for beams with a
stage. The average strain measured on the cross-section obliged to large RCA replacement. Ni et al. [85] found that the failure modes
the plane section assumption. Under the same conditions, the of RAC beams with different RCA replacements was similar to that
cracking and ultimate moment of RAC beam are similar to those of of conventional concrete, while the ultimate load was a little lower
conventional concrete beam. Before the crack appeared in the RAC than that of conventional concrete beams (Figs. 25 and 26). The re-
beam, the deflections were increased with the content of RCA search by Zhang et al. [86] showed that the deflection and diagonal

Fig. 40. Cracking pattern and distribution of RAC joints [101].

376 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383

F/kN of RCA content, whereas the deflection and diagonal crack width
was similar to the conventional concrete beam (Fig. 27). Zhou
and Jiang [89] found that the shear capacity of RAC beam dropped
less than 10%. The relationships between the shear capacity of RCA
beams (without and with web reinforcement) and the RCA replace-
ment percentage are shown in Figs. 26 and 28, respectively.
It may be concluded that the shear performance of RAC beam is
U/mm comparable to that of beams made of natural aggregate at service-
ability and ultimate limit states. This is also confirmed by research-
ers from other countries, such as Chio et al. [90] and Fathifazl et al.
[91].

5.1.3. RAC columns under axial and eccentric compression

Liu et al. [92] reported that the crack development and failure
process of RAC column had little difference from that of conven-
tional concrete column, but the cracks of the RAC column appeared
slightly earlier and more abrupt than those of the conventional
(a) 0% concrete column. Xiao et al. [93] found that the failure modes
and loading capacity of the RAC columns were similar to those of
F/kN conventional concrete column (Figs. 29–31). Zhou et al. [94]
proved that the bearing capacity of the RAC column gradually de-
creased with the increase of the content of RCA, but without signif-
icant decreasing range. When the RCA content accounted for 15%,
the bearing capacity of RAC column was 94% as much as that of
conventional concrete column. Zhou et al. [95] found the failure
mechanism of RAC column (slenderness ratio equals to 9.0) under
U/mm
big eccentric compression was also similar to the conventional
concrete columns, but the deformation was bigger than the con-
ventional concrete column. The relationships between the com-
pression capacity of RCA columns and the RCA replacement
percentage are shown in Fig. 32.
Kliszczewicz and Ajdukiewicz [96] from other countries also
concluded that RAC columns and conventional concrete columns
showed similar bearing capacity, but RAC columns had signifi-
cantly greater deformations. Differences in loading–bearing capac-
(b) 50% ity could be neglected in practice, but the differences in the
deformability should be considered carefully.
F/kN
5.1.4. RAC filled steel tubular columns
Both Shi et al. [97] and Yang and Han [98] reported that the
typical failure modes of RAC filled steel tubular (FST) columns with
different RCA replacement ratio, were similar to those of the
conventional FST columns with local buckling resulting in failure.
The ultimate load of RAC FST columns decreased with the increas-
U/mm ing of the RCA replacement ratio. Furthermore, RAC FST columns
displayed larger deformation and better ductility than those of
conventional concrete FST columns especially for larger RCA
replacement ratio (Figs. 33 and 34). The relationship between the
compression capacity and the RCA replacement percentage is
shown in Fig. 35. It can be concluded from the above results that
the RAC in-filled steel tubular column has slightly lower but com-
parable ultimate capacity compared to the conventional concrete
in-fill steel tubular column.
(c) 100%
5.1.5. Flexural performance of RAC slabs
Fig. 42. Hysteretic curves of high-rise concrete shear wall [105].
Zhou et al. [99] investigated the RAC slabs with the same cross
section but different RCA replacement ratio (5%, 10% and 15%), and
found that with the increasing of the RCA replacement percentage,
crack width of RAC beam were bigger than those of conventional the cracking load and the ultimate load of the RAC slab decreased,
concrete beam, the shear capacity of RAC beam reduced with the and the ultimate load deceased much obviously (Fig. 36 and
increase of RCA content. Fig. 37). Xiao et al. [100] investigated the longitudinal shearing
For RAC beam with web reinforcements, Zhang et al. [87] con- properties of steel deck RAC composite slabs with different RCA
cluded the shear behavior of RAC beam was similar to that of the replacement ratio (0%, 30% and 100%) and found that, when the
conventional concrete beam, but the ultimate load was a little low- RCA replacement percentage was greater than 30%, the shear
er than that of conventional concrete. Xiao and Lan [88] proved capacity began to decrease (Figs. 38 and 39). It can be seen from
that the shear capacity of RAC beams reduced with the increase the results that the RCA content does not have a significant
 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383 377

(a) r=0% (b) r=50% (c) r=100%

Fig. 43. Failure mode of high-rise concrete shear wall [105].

(a) Multi-ribbed slab wall schematic diagram (b) Test setup

Fig. 44. Schematic diagram and test setup of multi-ribbed RAC slab wall [107].

(a) r=0% (b) r=50% (c) r=100%

Fig. 45. Failure mode of multi-ribbed concrete slab wall [107].

influence on the ultimate loads of RAC composite slabs but has an
obvious influence on the ultimate load of ordinary slab, and this
should be investigated further in the future.
5.2. RAC structures under cyclic loading
5.2.1. RAC beam–column joints
Xiao and Zhu [101] found that the seismic behavior of joints
with RAC with different RCA replacement ratio (0%, 50% and
100%) was slightly lower than that of joints with conventional con-
crete. However, the seismic behavior still met the related require-
ments of earthquake-resistance designing (Figs. 40 and 41). Bai
et al. [102] gave the similar results, but reported the ductility
and energy dissipation of RAC beam–column joints was slightly
smaller than those of conventional concrete frame joints. Xiao
et al. [103] also reported that the bearing capacity of RAC pre-cast
frame joint was similar to that of conventional concrete pre-cast
joint. It may be concluded that the recycled RAC can be applied
in the concrete frame joints.
Corinaldesi et al. [104] from other countries also concluded that
the RAC joint showed adequate structural behavior, and RAC joints
should be properly designed in order to achieve safe structural per-
formance by suitably considering the actual RAC shear capacity
and stiffness.
378 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383

(a) Test setup (b) RAC block wall specimen (mm)

Fig. 46. Test set-up and specimen of RAC block walls [109].

(a) Vertical stress: 0 MPa (b) Vertical stress: 0.319 MPa (c) Vertical stress: 0.624 MPa
Fig. 47. Failure mode of hollow block masonry walls [110].

120
FRAC-0
90
FRAC-30
FRAC-50 60
Lateral load (kN)

FRAC-100
30
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
-30
-60
-90
-120
Top displacement (mm)
(a) Test set up (b) Skeleton curves
Fig. 48. Test set-up and specimen of RAC frame structure [111].

5.2.2. RAC shear walls
Cao et al. [105,106] carried out a low cyclic reversed loading test
on shear walls with shear span to depth ratios of 2.0 and 1.0, and
found that shear walls with RCAs showed poor performance, and
the more of the RCA replacement, the poorer the performance of
the RAC shear wall was (Figs. 42 and 43). Additionally, the RAC
shear wall with concealed bracing showed much better seismic per-
formance. Yu et al. [107] studied the seismic performance of three
1:2 scale RAC multi-ribbed composite walls with different RCA
replacement ratio, and found that the failure pattern of multi-
ribbed wall (Figs. 44 and 45) with RCAs was shear failure; the hor-
izontal bearing capacity of RAC multi-ribbed wall with 50% RCA was
not lower than that of conventional concrete wall. However, when
the RCA reached 100%, the bearing capacity was reduced by 18%;
but the ductility was increased with the increase of the replacement
percentage of RCA. Zhang et al. [108] investigated the seismic
behavior of three 1/4 scaled RAC coupled shear wall and found that
compared to the conventional concrete coupled shear walls, the
RAC coupled shear walls showed poorer performance, and the cou-
pled shear walls with top part using RAC and bottom part using
conventional concrete had the similar performance with conven-
tional concrete coupled shear wall.
On the basis of the above results from different types of shear
walls, it is concluded that compared to the conventional concrete
shear wall, RAC shear wall shows slightly poorer seismic perfor-
mance, and with the increase of the RCA replacement ratio, the
seismic behavior of RAC shear wall decreases.
5.2.3. RAC block walls
Xiao et al. [109] reported that the small-sized RAC block wall
had good seismic behavior under low frequency cyclic loading test.
The tie column–beam confined system affected the resistance
 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383 379

Fig. 49. RAC block masonry structure model [114].

(a) Tie column (b) Masonry wall

Fig. 50. Crack developing for the masonry model [114].

Fig. 51. RAC frame model [116].

mechanism of the RAC block wall, as shown in Fig. 46. Ni et al.
[110] investigated the seismic behavior of RAC hollow block ma-
sonry wall under different vertical loading, and found that RAC hol-
low block masonry walls without vertical load had a main crack,
whereas the walls with vertical load had no obvious main crack
but uniformly distributed, and the hysteresis curves of the walls
were plump (Fig. 47). It is concluded that the RAC hollow block
wall has sufficient ductility, energy dissipation and seismic perfor-
mance, and can be suitable for the design of RAC block masonry
structure in the aseismic area.
5.2.4. RAC plane frame
Xiao et al. [111] investigated the seismic tests of four 1/2 scaled
RAC frames under low-frequency cyclic lateral load with constant
vertical actions, and concluded that the general seismic behavior
of RAC frame structure declined with an increase of the RCA
replacement percentage (see Fig. 48). Min et al. [112] conducted
low-cyclic reverse lateral loading tests on two RAC frames with
RCA replacement of 25% and 50% respectively, and found that the
RAC frames had well seismic performance. Moreover, Cao et al.
[113] conducted a comparative study on the seismic behavior of
two 1/2.5 scaled two-storey RAC frames under low-cyclic loading
action, and found that the loading–carrying capacity of RAC frame
is similar to that of conventional concrete frame. The ductility of
RAC frame can meet the seismic requirements and the failure pro-
cess meets the principle of ‘strong column and weak beam’.
It can be expected that RAC frame has well seismic perfor-
mance, and with the increase of RCA replacement ratio, the seismic
380 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383
(a) Beam
Fig. 52. Failure pattern of RAC frame structure [116].
performance does not decrease obviously, which indicates that it is
feasible to apply RAC frame to practical engineering. However, no
information was found in the literature from other countries on
the seismic behavior of RAC frames.
5.3. Shaking table tests on RAC structures
5.3.1. Small-sized RAC block masonry structure
Xiao et al. [114] investigated the behavior of a RAC block ma-
sonry structure on the shaking table (Fig. 49). The dynamic re-
sponse of the model under intensity 8 of frequently occurred,
basic and seldom occurred earthquake were tested. The model’s
maximum drift under three occurrences was respectively less than
the allowable value recommended by the Chinese Code for Seismic
Design of Buildings [115]. Tiny cracks were found on the wall,
however it showed RAC masonry structure constrained by ‘tie col-
umn + ring beam’ system exhibited a good seismic behavior
(Fig. 50). However, similar literature from other countries was
not yet found to be focused on the seismic performance of RAC
block masonry structure.
5.3.2. RAC frame structure
Xiao et al. [116] firstly investigated the seismic performance of
the RAC frame structure by the shaking table test in the world. A 1/
4 scaled model of a 6-storey RAC frame structure was tested on a
shaking table. Dynamic characteristics of the structure were tested
and recorded (Fig. 51). By intensive analysis of the failure mecha-
nism and structural elastic–plastic response, the overall seismic
performance of RAC frame structure was evaluated. It is found that
the RAC frame structure with proper design and construction had
good load-bearing capacity, deformation capacity, energy dissipa-
tion capacity and other seismic performance to withstand earth-
quake strikes. The failure mode is a typical ‘‘Strong column and
weak beam’’, and the RAC frame structure is able to withstand
rarely occurring earthquakes of intensity eight (Fig. 52).
6. Conclusions and recommendations
This paper presents a state-of-the-art review on the relevant re-
searches and findings on the mechanical properties, durability and
structural performances of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) in
China. The main conclusions can be summarized in the following:
(1) Microstructure:
(a) The microstructure of RAC is much more complicated
than that of the conventional concrete. RAC possesses
two types of ITZ, one between the RCA and new mortar
matrix and the other between RCA and old mortar
attached (old ITZ).
(b) Column
(b) The old mortar of the RCA forms the weak link in RAC,
which is composed of many porosity and cracks.
(c) These pores and cracks increase the consumption of
water, which leading to less water for hydration at the
ITZ regions of RAC.
(2) Mechanical properties:
(a) The quality of RCA has a considerable effect on the prob-
ability distribution for the strength of RAC.
(b) The compressive, tensile and shear strengths of RAC are
generally lower than those of conventional concrete.
(c) The modulus of elasticity for RAC generally reduces as
the RCA content increases; however the strain at peak
stress is larger than that of conventional concrete.
(d) The RCA replacement percentage has nearly no influence
on the bond strength between RAC and deformed rebar.
(3) Durability:
(a) Both the carbonation resistance and the chloride pene-
tration of RAC reduce with the increase of the RCA
replacement percentage.
(b) The drying shrinkage of RAC increases with the increas-
ing of the RCA replacement percentage and water to
cement ratio, but it decreases when an amount of fly
ash and water reducing agent are mixed in the RAC.
(c) The creep of RAC is higher compared to conventional
concrete. And the creep of RAC increases with the
increase of the RCA replacement. But the addition of slag
and high quality RCA can decrease the creep obviously.
(4) Structural performance:
(a) The structural behavior of RAC elements/members is
generally slightly weaker in comparison to that of ele-
ments made with natural aggregates.
(b) RAC frame/joints have well seismic performance, and
with the increase of RCA replacement percentage, the
seismic performance does not decrease obviously, which
indicate that it is feasible to apply RAC frame/joints to
practical engineering.
(c) Through proper construction and durability design, RAC
can be used as a structural material from the view points
of the loading capacity as well as seismic behavior.
(5) Recommendation:
(a) It is necessary to study the influence of RCA on the
microstructure and micromechanical properties of RAC.
As for the authors, the nanoindentation method is being
used to evaluate the nanoscale properties of old interfa-
cial transition zones and new interfacial transition zones
in the RAC.
(b) It is imperative that optimum mixes design should be
made in order to obtain the required slump and strength
for the RAC.
 J. Xiao et al. / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 364–383
(c) Considering the acceptance criteria for structural con-
crete in the current concrete and seismic codes, it is
technically feasible to build concrete structures with
RAC, but more tests on the serviceability of RAC ele-
ments and structures need to be carried out in the
future.
(d) Recycling concrete waste is not only a technical problem
but also a management task, which need to be paid more
attention in the world.
Acknowledgements
The present work was sponsored by the National Science Foun-
dation (51178340) and the Shanghai Science and Technique Com-
mittee (No. 10231202000). Jianzhuang Xiao also highly appreciates
the DFG Program, which sponsored him to do research in Siegen
University in Germany. Miss. Pham Thi Loan is acknowledged by
her active discussions.
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