l Preface

l Contents
l Readme
(formerly Knitting Technology)
The Authors
Chandrasekhar Iyer graduated in textile technology from the Uni-
versity of Bombay, did an M.Sc. post-graduate study at the University
of Manchester and obtained his doctorate from the University of
Stuttgart. After gaining experience with spinning machinery makers,
the man-made fibre industry and in scientific research, he was a
Reader and tenured Professor from 1972 in the Department of Textiles
and Clothing at the Reutlingen University, from where he retired in
2002. He read on industrial processing engineering and technology in
the field of knitting, the planning and organisation of knitting mills as
well as filament production and processing. He also instructed in
a course for Industrial Master Fitters at Reutlingen. He still gives
lectures on a part-time basis, is responsible for staple and filament
yarn technology as well as industrial textiles in short courses for the
industry and does occassional consultancy work.
He has published a number of articles – not only on knitting techno-
logy – in German, Indian and several European technical journals. As
Officer of International Relations in Reutlingen he was particularly
interested in fostering the exchange of students and lecturers with
foreign educational institutions and gave short-term lectures and
papers at several of these universities.
In addition to his contribution to this book he is also responsible for
its English version.

Bernd Mammel was a lecturer from 1963 to 1999 in Reutlingen at the

"Tech" (Technical College), which is officially known as the Otto
Johannsen Technikum. It has an associated organisation with the
Reutlingen University and is in the same campus area. He was
responsible for industrial process engineering and technology in the
field of knitting. He also gave part-time lectures in machine drawing in
the Department of Textiles and Clothing at the Reutlingen University.
From 1992 until his retirement he was Head of the Technical College.
Bernd Mammel has strived since years for the further education of
specialists. Apart from his teaching and consultancy work he is, in this
connection, also the author of a number of technical publications and
was the chairman of the examination committee of the Reutlingen
Chamber of Commerce and Industry in the course for Industrial
Master Fitters in Textiles. In addition was for 17 years the Head of the
VDI (Association of German Engineers) work group on Textiles and
Clothing at the Reutlingen Centre for textile education, which is one
of the largest in Germany.

Wolfgang Schäch has worked in various knitting mills and in textile

scientific research after completing his post-graduate study in
mechanical engineering at the University of Stuttgart. As a Reader at
the Reutlingen University since 1965 he read on industrial processing
engineering, technology and product designing in the field of knitting
in the Department of Textiles, which he also headed until he retired in
2002.
As a long-time secretary of the German National Section of the
International Federation of Knitting Technologists and as International
General Secretary of this institution, he still stands up for the mainte-
nance of contacts and for the exchange of information between
experts on a national as well as an international level.
Iyer / Mammel / Schäch

Circular Knitting

Technology Process
Structures Yarns
Quality

Reprint
second edition

bei Meisenbach Bamberg

Circular Knitting is translated from German by co-author Chandrasekhar Iyer. The
German original edition entitled Rundstricken. Theorie und Praxis der Maschentechnik
(ISBN 3-87525-052-4) has likewise been published by the publishing house
Meisenbach GmbH in Bamberg in 1992, 1995 and 2004.

Third edition.

© 1992, 1995 and 2004,

Meisenbach GmbH, Franz-Ludwig-Strasse 7a, D-96047 Bamberg (Germany)

Die Deutsche Bibliothek – CIP-Einheitsaufnahme

Iyer, Chandrasekhar:
Circular knitting : technology, process, structures, yarns, quality /
Iyer/Mammel /Schäch. – 3., ed. – Bamberg : Meisenbach, 2004
Dt. Ausg. u.d.T.: Iyer, Chandrasekhar: Rundstricken
ISBN 3-87525-066-4
NE: Mammel, Bernd; Schäch, Wolfgang

The velours upholstery fabric pictured on the cover in original size

has been knitted on a MCPE machine by Mayer & Cie.,
diameter 30“, gauge E20.
Ground yarn: PES dtex 167f 32/1, plush yarn: polyacrylic Nm 50/2
Contents

01 Knitting Technique ... 1

01.1 Fundamentals of stitch formation ... 1
01.1.1 400 years of mechanical stitch formation ... 1
01.1.2 An outline of knitting machines ... 6
01.1.3 Stitch formation with latch needles ... 9
01.1.4 Structural elements in knitted fabrics ... 10
01.1.4.1 Loop … 10
01.1.4.2 Stitch … 10 / Plain stitch / Purl stitch/
Needle loop / Sinker loop
01.1.4.3 Tuck loop … 10
01.1.4,4 Floatstitch … 10
01.1.4.5 Weft … 10
01.1.4.6 Filler … 10
01.1.5 Basic knitted structures ... 12
01.1.5.1 Arrangement of structural elements … 12
01.1.5.2 Plain knitted fabrics ... 12
01.1.5.3 Double knit fabrics (rib fabrics) … 12
Double knit rib fabrics /
Double knit interlock fabrics
01.1.5.4 Double knit purl fabrics ... 12

01 .2 Processes for large circular knitting machines … 14

01.2.1 Plain (single face) technique with latch needles … 14
01.2.1.1 Rest or ground position, Pos. 1 ... 16
01.2.1.2 Tucking-in position, Pos. 2 ... 16
01.2.1.3 Clearing position, Pos. 3 ... 16
01.2.1.4 Yarn presenting position, Pos. 4 … 16
01.2.1.5 Cast-on position, Pos. 5 ... 17
01.2.1.6 Knock-over position, Pos. 6 ... 17
01.2.2 Single face relative technology with latch needles ... 18
01.2.3 Compound needle technique ... 20
01 .2.3.1 Plain technique with compound needles ... 20
01 .2.3.2 Plain relative technique with compound needles … 24
01.2.4 Rib technique ... 27
01.2.4.1 Coordination between cylinder and dial grooves … 27
Rib setting of cylinder and dial / Interlock setting of cylinder
and dial / Conversion from rib to interlock setting
01.2.4.2 Coordination between cylinder and dial cams ... 29
Synchronised timing between cylinder and dial cams
Delayed timing between cylinder and dial cams / Conditions
for the use of delayed timing for dial and cylinder cams
01 2.5 Purl technique ... 38
01.2.5.1 Rib stitch formation ... 38
01.2.5.2 Purl stitch formation and needle transfer ... 38 Contents V
 01.3 Characteristics of circular knitting machines ... 44
01.3.1 Machine pitch and machine gauge ... 44
01.3.1.1 Machine pitch ... 44
01.3.1.2 English machine gauge ... 44
01 3.1.3 Pitch values for circular knitting machines
with special pattern devices and for small circular knitting
machines ... 44
01.3.1.4 Relation between machine pitch, English gauge,
machine nominal diameter and number of needles ... 44
01.3.1.5 Effective machine pitches (machine gauges) ... 44
01.3.2 Machine nominal diameter ... 45
01.3.3 Number of feeders / feeder density ... 45
01.3.4 Production speed, number of machine revolutions ... 45
01.3.5 Efficiency value / speed factor ... 46
01.4 Machine elements ... 46
01.4.1 Frame ... 46
01.4.2 Machine drive ... 48
01.4.2.1 Motor ... 48
01.4.2.2 Number of revolutions of the machine ... 49
01.4.2.3 Brake ... 51
01.4.2.4 Drive arrangement ... 52
01.4.3 Knitting elements ... 52
01.4.3.1 Needles ... 53
01.4.3.2 Holding-down / Knocking-over sinkers ... 58
01.4.3.3 Needle beds on circular knitting machines ... 60
01.4.4 Yarn feeder and its correct setting ... 61
01.4.5 Needle and sinker control units (cams) ... 63
01.4.5.1 Sliding cams .. 65
01.4.5.2 Flexible cams ... 66
01.4.5,3 Changeable cams ... 67
01.4.5.4 Alteration of course density through couliering ... 68
Vertical couliering / Diagonal couliering / Central couliering /
Vertical adjustment of needle dial
01.4.6 Fabric take-down ... 72
01.4.6.1 Fabric spreader ... 72
01.4.6.2 Fabric tensioning and winding devices ... 72
Fabric tensioning and winding devices with mechanical drive /
Fabric tensioning and winding devices with electrical drive
01.4.7 Yarn supply ... 79
01.4.7.1 Cone carrier device ... 79
01.4.7.2 Yarn delivery devices (Yarn metering and storage devices
on circular knitting machines) ... 84
Yarn delivery devices for constant yarn delivery, yarn metering
devices / Devices with constant yarn delivery per unit time,
Yarn metering devices with yarn reserve (Positive yarn
feeders) / Devices with variable yarn delivery per unit time and
yarn reserve (Storage yarn feeders)
01.4.8 Monitoring and maintenance systems ... 94
Yarn monitoring / Needle monitoring / Fabric monitoring /
Lubricating and oiling systems / Cleaning systems

VI Contents
02 Needle Control and its Equipment ... 97

02.1 Direct needle control ... 97

02.1.1 Control through cam parts ... 97
02.1.2 Control through pattern wheel ... 98
02.2 Indirect needle control ... 101
02.2.1 Indirect needle control with fixed control sinker
arrangement ... 101
02.2.2 Indirect needle control through pattern drum ... 103
02.3 Electronically controlled needle selection
on circular knitting machines ... 106
02.3.1 Needle control through film tape ... 106
02.3.2 Needle control through machine memory ... 108
02.3.3 Pattern design and production preparation ... 111

03 Additional Equipment Patterning ... 113

03.1 Equipment for fleecy fabrics ... 113

03.1.1 Simple fleecy ... 113
03.1.2 Three-thread fleecy ... 113
03.2 Equipment for plush fabrics ... 118
Quality demands on plush
03.2.1 Unpatterned plush ... 118
03.2.2 Jacquard plush ... 122
The construction of the presentation technique

03.3 Yarn changer devices / stripers ... 126

03.3.1 Yarn changer device with mechanical control ... 126
03.3.2 Yarn changer device with electronical control ... 128
03.4 Wrap finger technique ... 132

Circular Knitting Machines

04 for Garment Length Fabrics ... 135

04.1 Rib and purl techniques ... 136

04.1.1 Fibres and yarns ... 136
04.1.2 Stitch density and quality ... 136
04.1.3 Performance ... 136
04.2 Purl pullover circular knitting machine ... 137
04.2.1 Double selection at the lower cylinder ... 137
04.2.2 Selection at the upper cylinder ... 138
04.3 Rib pullover circular knitting machine ... 140
04.3.1 Free individual needle selection in the knitting feeders ... 141
04.3.2 Means of free selection in the transfer feeders ... 141
04.3.3 Principle of selection ... 142 Contents VII
 05 Maehines for High-Pile Fabrics ... 144

06 Other Machines ... 146

06.1 Methods for loop transfer ... 146
06.1.1 Transferring of sinker loops ... 146
06.1.2 Transferring of needle loops ... 146
06.2 Machines for the production of transfer patterns ... 147
Cylinder transfer feeder, control sinker cam range /
Cylinder transfer feeder, needle cam range ... 150

07 Knitted and Fabric Structures ... 152

07.1 Pattern analysis of weft knits ... 152
07.1.1 Tools and technical aids ... 152
07.1.2 Methodical pattern analysis ... 152
07.1.3 Representation of weft knitted fabrics ... 154
07.1.3.1 Representation through mesh structure ... 154
07.1.3.2 Representation through technical notation (yarn path) ... 154
07.1.3.3 Symbols used for representation of needles ... 154
07.1.3.4 Representation of structural elements ... 155

07.2 Basic structures ... 156

07.3 Patterned structures ... 156

07.3.1 Patterned structures with one needle type ... 156
07.3.2 Patterned structures with two needle types ... 157
Plain structures / Rib patterned structures /
Rib patterned interlock structures
07.3.3 Patterned structures with four needle types ... 161
07.4 Plated structures... 162

07.5 Speciality structures... 162

Fleecy/Three-thread fleecy / Interlock fleecy / Plush

07.6 Jacquard structures ... 163

07.6.1 Colour jacquard structures ... 163
Single jersey colour jacquard / Single jersey colour jacquard with
binding-in of floating yarns (three-way technique) / Rib colour jacquard /
Horizontal striper backing / Vertical striper backing / Twill backing
07.6.2 Rib relief jacquard structures ... 166
Single relief rib jacquards / Double relief rib jacquard
07.6.3 Rib tuck jacquard ... 170
07.6.4 Rib lock jacquard ... 170
VIII Contents 07.6.5 Rib transfer jacquard ... 170
07.7 Symbolic adjointment
between structure and process ... 171
Plain circular knitting machines ... 172
Rib circular knitting machines ... 178

07.8 Transposition of jacquard patterns

onto a jacquard circular knitting machine
with mechanical indirect needle control ... 182

08 Yarns for Circular Knitting... 188

08.1 Fibre materials ... 188

08.2 Count ... 190

08.2.1 Direct system and its units ... 190
08.2.2 Indirect system and its units ... 191
Metric number (Nm) / English number (Ne)
08.2.3 Count calculation and denotion for plies ... 191
08.2.3.1 Ply with yarns of the same count ... 194
Calculation of count on the direct system / Denotion based
on the direct system / Calculation of count on the indirect
system / Denotion based on the indirect system
08.2.3.2 Ply with yarns of differing counts ... 194
Calculation of count on the direct system / Denotion based on
the direct system / Calculation of count based on the indirect
system / Denotion based on the indirect system

08.3 Staple fibre yarns... 195

08.3.1 Spinning systems... 195
08.3.1.1 Cotton spinning system ... 196
Carded yarn / Combed yarn
08.3.1.2 Worsted spinning system ... 197
08.3.1.3 Semi-worsted spinning system ... 197
08.3.1.4 Woollen spinning system .. 198
08.3.2 Spinning techniques for staple fibre yarns ... 198
08.3.2.1 Ring spinning ... 198
08.3.2.2 Unconventional spinning techniques ... 199
OE rotor spinning / Other spinning techniques: Friction
spinning / Air jet spinning / Cover spinning / Yarns with ply
resemblance / Self-twist spinning / Ply spinning
08.3.3 Comparison between ring and rotor yarns ... 201
08.3.3.1 Process-based properties ... 202
08.3.3.2 Fibre-based properties ... 202

08.4 Filament yarns ... 203

08.4.1 The most important raw materials ... 203
08.4.2 Filament yarn types ... 203
08.4.2.1 Monofilament yarn ... 203
08.4.2.2 Multifilament yarns ... 203
08.4.2.3 Minifil yarns ... 203
08,4.2.4 Comingled yarn ... 204
08.4.2.5 Microfilament yarn ... 204 Contents IX
 08.4.3 Flat and textured filament yarns ... 204
08.4.3.1 False twist process ... 204
08.4.3.2 Bicomponent process ... 206
08.4.3.3 Knit-de-knit process ... 206
08.4.3.4 Air texturing process ... 207
Single yarn / Parallel yarn / Core-sheath yarn
08.4.3.5 Other texturing processes ... 208
08.4,3.6 Properties of textured yarns ... 208
Primary properties: Extension and elasticity / Volume /
Secondary properties: Weight / Dyeing behaviour /
Handle / Perspiration / Air textured yarn

08.5 Fibre blending in yarns and fabrics ... 209

08.5.1 Types of blend ... 210
08.5.1.1 Intimate blending ... 210
08.5.1.2 Core-sheath structures ... 210
Covering / Bicomponent yarns /
Air textured yarns / Open end yarns
08.5.1.3 The real ply ... 211
08.5.1.4 Comingled yarns ... 211
08.5.1.5 Feeder blending ... 211

08.6 Yarn count and machine gauge ... 212

08.7 Knitting demands on yarns ... 216

08.7.1 Tenacity and breaking extension ... 216
08.7.2 Elasticity ... 218
08.7.3 Friction ... 218
08.7.3.1 Waxing of staple fibre yarns ... 219
08.7.3.2 Finishing of filarment yarns ... 220
08.7.3.3 Surface of yarn and abradant ... 220
08.7.4 Yarn evenness ... 221
08.7.5 Yarn count deviation ... 222
08.7.6 Take-off behaviour of yarns ... 223

08.8 Yarn supply for circular knitting machines ... 224

08.8.1 Draw twist bobbin ... 224
08.8.2 Draw winder bobbin ... 224
08.8.3 Cross-wound bobbin ... 224
08.8.3.1 Package size ... 225
08.8.3.2 Package shape ... 225
Cylindrical shape / Biconical shape / Conical shape
08.8.4 Winding methods for cross-wound bobbins ... 226
08.8.4.1 Random winding ... 226
08.8.4.2 Precision winding ... 226
08.8.4.3 Digital winding ... 227
08.8.5 Wind-on speed ... 227
08.8.6 Package hardness ... 228
08.8.7 Take-off yarn tension ... 228
08.8.8 Friction between yarn and cross-wound package ... 229
08.8.9 Negative yarn withdrawal ... 229
08.8.10 Positive yarn withdrawal ... 229

X Contents 08.9 Literature to chapter 08... 230

09 Quality and Production Monitoring ... 231
09.1 Faults and its causes in circular knitting ... 231
09.1.1 Pre-requisites for faultless knitwear production ... 231
09.1.1.1 Pre-requisites on the circular knitting machine ... 231
09.1.1.2 General production conditions for knitting ... 232
Selection of proper yarn count I Relation between knitted
structures and processing problems / Setting of the
knitting machine / Yarn storage / Air conditioning
of the knitting plant / Cleaning of knitting machines
09.1.1.3 Yarn pre-requisites ... 234
Influence of dyeing processes / Influence of spinning
processes / Influence of the winding process /
Factors affecting yarn production / Relationship between
yarn properties and knitted fabric qualities
09.1.2 Frequent faults in knitted fabrics, their definition,
cause and elimination ... 237
09.1.2.1 Definition of faults ... 237
09.1.2.2 Causes of faults and their avoidance ... 238
Cracks or holes / Drop stitches / Cloth fall-out / Snags /
Tuck and double stitches / Bunching-up / Vertical stripes /
Horizontal stripes / Soil stripes / Colour fly / Distorted stitches
09.1.3 Literature ... 248
09.2 Operational data acquisition ... 248

09.3 Production calculations ... 250

10 Appendage for Tables ... 252

10.1 Machine pitch and machine gauge ... 252

10.2 Nominal machine diameters ... 254

10.3 Number of feeders ... 256

10.4 Yarn counts ... 258

11 Fluff Blower Devices ... 262

12 Index ... 265

Contents XI
01
Knitting Technique
Individual
needle motion

V-bed machines Circular

knitting machines
recti-
linear radial
12 Knitting
Machines

Collective
needle motion

Straight bar Loop wheel Warp knitting

machines machines machines

recti- recti-
radial
linear linear
Positions Positions
Dial cam

Cylinder cam
Dial cam

Cylinder cam
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Date Signature
110 Latch needles for single Jersey and ribbed fabric circular knitting machines
112 Double hook latch needles (Groz-Beckert) for Links/Links circular knitting machines
edge

ring
02
Needle Control
and its Equipment
208

sinker

sinkers

clearing

clearing
N2,
03
Additional
Patterning Equipment
04 Circular
Knitting Machines
for Garment Length Fabrics
05
Machines
for High-Pile Fabrics
06
Other Machines
07
Knitted
and Fabric Structures
08
Yarns for Circular Knitting
09
Quality and
Production Monitoring
10
Appendage for Tables
11
Fluff Blower Devices
12 Index
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