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the inscription on one end of the block. The surface of this end of the block is considerably
degraded, so that the inscription is quite difficult to see.
Fig 1b. Drawing of the Sheshonq fragment; Lamon and Shipton 1939: Fig. 70.
For the terminal date of the stratum, he turned to the campaign of Sheshonq I and the chance
discovery of a stela fragment bearing Sheshonq’s cartouche made a few years before by one of Fisher’s
foremen. The fragment had been recovered from a dump next to one of Schumacher’s minor
trenches along the eastern edge of the summit, just east of the northern complex of stables (no. 409
in Square M14; see Guy 1931, fig. 17). Although the find spot was not precise, Guy noted that Schum-
acher’s trench had penetrated ‘barely below Stratum IV’ and used the presence of the stela to date
the destruction of the stratum to Sheshonq’s campaign (1931: 44–48). (Harrison 2004, 7–8)
p u tt i n g s h e s h o nq i in h is place 7
I believe that this new information offers the possibility for a reconsideration of the
stratigraphic context from which the stela fragment came, and, from this, of the original
context in which the stela itself stood. It is essential to note that the argument presented is
intended to be a stratigraphic argument, not a chronological one, and that it does not,
therefore, enter into problems of text criticism and historicity. It is also essential to note that
the starting point is the elimination from consideration of the argument presented by Lamon
and Shipton:
Fisher noted similarities between the masonry of the podium building (338) at Megiddo and that of
the Omri and Ahab buildings at Samaria and was inclined therefore to attribute the Megiddo structure
to that period (see p. 58). However, if this were the case, the unstratified fragment of the Sheshonk
stela (Fig. 70), which must be dated to about 930 B.C., would have to be attributed to Stratum V. But,
since Stratum V could not have existed much beyond 1000 B.C. and in all probability was contem-
porary in its latter part with Saul (see p. 7), the Palestinian campaign of Sheshonk must have fallen
within the period of Stratum IV. (1939, 61)
This argument is both circular and non-stratigraphic, relying on the textual evidence to
assign a stratigraphic context to the Sheshonq Fragment.
Fig. 2. Schumacher’s Plan (1908, Tafel II) showing his north-east trench. Courtesy of the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago.
p u tt i n g s h e s h o nq i in h is place 9
Fig. 3. Guy’s plan showing Schumacher’s trench and the structures excavated by
the Chicago team in Grid Square M14 (1391: Fig 17). Courtesy of the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago.
While it is clear from the shape of the Sheshonq Fragment that it had been reworked
for use as a building stone in a wall, we have no evidence as to whether it was in such
secondary use at the time when it was removed to the dump by Schumacher’s workmen; it
is, therefore, not currently worthwhile to search for such a wall. What is worth considering
is the fact that in all of their statements concerning the context from which the fragment
was taken by Schumacher’s workmen, the Chicago team consistently ignored the possibility
that it had been found in Strata I to III, assigning it to Stratum IV. It is important to
understand why they took this view. As is now well understood, the reasoning which led
them to date Stratum IVA to Solomon was circular and non-stratigraphic, but as is clear
from the statement of Lamon and Shipton quoted above, while this reasoning prevented
10 palestine ex ploration quarte rl y, 141, 1, 2 009
them from assigning the original context of the fragment (and the earlier context of the intact
stela) to a stratum earlier than Stratum IV, it certainly did not prevent them from assigning
the original context of the fragment to a stratum later than Stratum IV. The reasoning that
led them to ignore Strata I to III is given in the accounts by Breasted and Fisher of the
discovery of the Sheshonq Fragment. From these accounts it is clear that the fragment was
discovered by the workmen not in the course of the removal of Schumacher’s dumps, in
which case it could have come from, for example, the bottom of the dump, which would,
in turn, mean that it had been in one of the first, latest, strata to be excavated, but rather
that it was found by the workmen as they walked over the undisturbed surface of the site as
it was left following Schumacher’s excavations, scavenging for useful building materials.
This, in turn, means that the fragment was found on the top, that is to say, the surface
(although not necessarily the summit or apex) of the dump, which, since dumps always
exhibit inverted stratigraphy, consisted of the material from the lowest level reached
by Schumacher. It then becomes important to establish which level was reached by
Schumacher in the area in which the Sheshonq Fragment was found.
From the plans produced by the Chicago team it is clear that over the bulk of the length
of Schumacher’s north-east trench, between his main north–south trench across the centre
of the site and the eastern wall of stable complex 402–403, Schumacher’s excavations did
not penetrate deeply enough to cut the Stratum IV walls, or even the Stratum III walls
(Lamon and Shipton 1939, Fig. 71. Note that Stratum III pavement 400 in M14, the area
crossed by Schumacher’s trench, is undisturbed; Fig. 119 — Schumacher’s trench — is
clearly visible between building 402–403 and the letter ‘M’ designating Square M14; Kem-
pinski 1989, Plans 13 and 12). Further east, near the outer edge of the tell, Schumacher’s
plan shows three parallel walls. The inner pair of these walls have been convincingly linked
by Kempinski (1989, Plan 11. I am grateful to R.M. Porter for his assistance in checking this
connection.) to the two walls that extend northwards from building 402, which, in turn,
is assigned by both Lamon and Shipton (1939, Fig. 6) and Kempinski (1989, Plan 11
[Figure 4]) to Stratum VA. As already noted, it is not possible to say whether the Sheshonq
Fragment was removed by Schumacher’s workmen from a standing wall, or was in some
other, non-structural, context. What is clear is that Schumacher’s work in this area not
only reached Stratum VA, and removed it, but also that neither he nor the Chicago team
penetrated below Stratum V in this area (Kempinski 1989, Plans 11 (Stratum V) and 10
(Stratum VI)).
Some other possibilities that must be considered concern the question of whether or not
the Sheshonq Fragment came from the lowest level reached by Schumacher, or whether its
reuse was in Strata I to III. The first of these would be that the stone was removed to the
edge of the trench, where it was used to retain the spoil from the excavation and prevent it
from falling back into the trench. If this had been the case, the spoil from the lower levels
of the excavation would have overlain the stone on its northern side, and in the period
between the end of Schumacher’s excavations in 1905 and the discovery of the fragment
by the Chicago team in 1925 the material from the top of the spoil heap would have been
carried by erosion over the top of the stone. Yet it is clear that it was exposed on the
surface, and that it was not overlain by material from the lower levels of Schumacher’s
excavations.
Again, if the stone had been included in debris from Strata I to III placed near the apex
of the spoil heap, but overlain by material from the excavation of the lower levels of the
trench, and in the intervening period erosion had removed the overlying earlier material,
leaving the Shoshenq Fragment exposed on the surface, it might have given the false
appearance of having been one of the last objects to be excavated. While neither Guy nor
any other member of the Chicago team has left any record of having considered this
p u tt i n g s h e s h o nq i in h is place 11
possibility, it is one of the first that springs to the mind of any field archaeologist. Personal
observation of Megiddo indicates that it is not subject to such a high degree of erosion
as some other sites, and clearly in Guy’s judgement it was not the case that a high degree
of erosion of Schumacher’s spoil heap had taken place.
Fig. 5. Breasted’s
reconstruction of the
Sheshonq I Victory
Stela (1929: Fig 9).
p u tt i n g s h e s h o nq i in h is place 15
reused in any way, more of the fragments of a broken-up stela would remain in the occupa-
tion debris of the stratum in which the stela had been destroyed than would migrate up the
stratigraphic sequence to later strata. A second assumption would be that the normal pattern
of dispersal of a broken-up stela would follow a statistically normal decay-curve, with the
greatest number of fragments remaining close to the site of the destruction of the stela, with
a decline in the numbers found with distance, both horizontally and vertically, from the site
of the destruction. In the case of the Dan Stela, several of the fragments were immediately
reused in a restricted area around the spot where the stela would originally have stood, but
many pieces, most of the stela in fact, were sufficiently widely dispersed that they have not
yet been found. Some may have been moved far away from the gate area immediately after
the stela was broken up, while others may have been reused in the same structure in which
the first fragment was found, higher up in the same wall for example, only to be moved
elsewhere at a later date when the wall was demolished. These fragments may have been
dumped off the site as rubbish, or reused in another, as yet unexcavated, building on the
tell. Given that only one fragment of the Sheshonq Stela was found at Megiddo, and allow-
ing for the possibility that other fragments were missed by both the Schumacher and
Chicago excavation teams, perhaps due to the extremely degraded state of the surface of the
stone, it would appear that the dispersal pattern of the fragments of the Sheshonq Stela was
at least as widespread as that of the Dan Stela. Either the fragment found was remote from
the rest of the fragments spatially, or, with time, the fragments have been widely dispersed,
so that only this one has been discovered, or perhaps even both.
In considering which of these two alternatives is more likely, another factor that should
be considered is the extent of the area of each of the strata that has been excavated. As has
been noted repeatedly, Strata I–III were completely removed over the whole of the tell by
the Chicago team. This means that either there were no further fragments in any of these
strata, or that any such fragments were missed. In the former case, this reduces both the
likelihood that the fragment which was identified came from one of these late strata, and
the likelihood that any of these formed the original context for the stela. The only way to
eliminate the latter possibility would be to excavate the Chicago dump and carefully
examine every fragment of worked limestone (the material from which the Sheshonq Stela
was carved) to determine whether any fragments had been missed. This would be a vastly
expensive operation, and not necessarily decisive. Strata IV and V were less completely
excavated, indeed some areas of each remain unexcavated to this day. It seems more prob-
able that the Sheshonq Fragment had been reused in one of these earlier strata uncovered
by Schumacher, in his north-eastern trench.
conclusions
The single most fundamental problem in all archaeology of periods for which there are
historical records is the correct linkage between the evidence of the documents and the
evidence from the excavations. This problem is intensified when the amount of directly
datable, inscribed objects from stratified contexts is limited, and doubly so when part of the
documentary record, in this case the biblical account, is not contemporary, but has suffered
from the vicissitudes of transmission for a considerable period before achieving the form in
which it survives, and cannot, therefore, be treated as a primary historical source.
It has been clear for more than 60 years that the argument which led the Chicago team
to link Sheshonq I to Stratum IV was fallacious, and that this stratum must be dated sub-
stantially later than they thought (Crowfoot 1940). It was also long thought that the Sheshonq
Fragment came from Stratum IV A, with the wider implication that the Sheshonq Stela
came from Stratum IV B (or, if preferred, from Stratum V A- IV B), and that the ceramic
16 palestine ex ploration quarte rl y, 141, 1, 2 009
assemblage associated with it in this stratum, the Iron II A culture (Chapman 1989, 106:
Table I, Columns X and Y; Chapman 1990, 16–17: Table 3), must, therefore, date from the
second half of the 10th century BC. My own ongoing work on the stratigraphy of Samaria
suggests that Kenyon was correct in assigning the Period I pottery, dated by Albright and
Wright to the late 11th to early 10th centuries BC, to her Period I, the construction of the
first phase of the palace of the kings of Israel by Omri in the early 9th century BC, thus
placing the Iron II A ceramic horizon into a post-Sheshonq I chronological horizon on the
conventional chronology.
On the basis of the purely stratigraphic argument set out above, it becomes clear that
Sheshonq I and his expedition should also be dated to the 9th century BC. The conven-
tional dates for Sheshonq I given by Kitchen (1986, 588: 945–924 BC; 2007, 166–167: 945–924
BC) have, however, been repeatedly challenged. In the first place, it has been suggested that
the placement of Sheshonq’s Asiatic expedition in regnal year 21 may be incorrect, and that
it might, instead, have taken place early in his reign (Dodson 2000, 8). Further, it has been
pointed out repeatedly that the absolute date for Sheshonq I relies on his assumed identifica-
tion with the biblical Shishak, who invaded Judah c. 925 BC (as reckoned by modern biblical
chronologists):
Egyptian chronologists, without always admitting it, have commonly based their chronology of this
period on the Biblical synchronism for Shoshenq’s invasion. (Hughes 1990, 190)
And
Although the present scholarly consensus seems to favour a date c. 945 B.C.E. for the accession of
Shishak . . . apart from the biblical synchronism with Rehoboam (which as I have noted above remains
problematic at best) there is no other external synchronism by which one might date his reign, and
the Egyptian chronological data themselves remain too fragmentary to permit chronological precision.
(Barnes 1991, 66–67)
In addition, in 1991 P. James and colleagues challenged the identification of the biblical
Shishak with Sheshonq I and suggested a date in the late 9th century for the latter (James,
et al. 1991, 257; P. James and R. Morkot have now raised that date to c. 835–815 BC —
personal communication from P. James).
This reinterpretation would also fit well with the observation, which has puzzled gen-
erations of scholars (Grabbe 2007, 81), that Sheshonq’s list makes no mention of places in
Judaea, but only those in the Northern Kingdom of Israel, and the Negev in the far south.
The placement of Sheshonq’s Stela in the Omride Stratum VA–IVB at Megiddo, together
with the list of names on his Karnak inscription, clearly indicates Sheshonq’s interest (regard-
less of the nature of the town-list in his inscription) was in the kingdom founded by Omri
in the north, rather than the Kingdom of Judah in the south as stated in 1 Kings 14.25-28,
as recognized by Tubb (2006, 114–115) and Finkelstein (Finkelstein and Silberman 2006,
105–106). The reassignment of the Sheshonq I Fragment to Stratum VA–IVB, therefore,
gives scope for both a general chronological reassessment of the linkage between the pri-
mary and secondary documentary sources and the archaeological record, and a reassessment
of the history of relations between the Levant and Egypt in the early Iron Age.
acknowledgements
I am grateful to Jonathan Tubb and Peter James for their critical comments, and especially for the
improved title of this paper. This paper is the result of nearly 20 years of discussions with Robert
Porter, for whose meticulous scholarship and friendly criticism I am also grateful. All errors of fact
and interpretation remain my own.
p u tt i n g s h e s h o nq i in h is place 17
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