Vibration - Chapter 02-Ver1

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R.
Yang, NTNU MT
Chapter 2
Learning Objectives
Free Vibration of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems
Derive the equation of motion of a single DOF system using a
suitable technique such as Newton’s second law of motion,
2
D’Alembert’s (達朗伯) principle, the principle of virtual displacements,
and the principle of conservation of energy
Linearize the nonlinear equation of motion
Solve a spring-mass-damper system for different types of free-
vibration response depending on the amount of damping
Compute the natural frequency n, damped frequency d,
logarithmic decrement (遞減), and time constant
Determine whether a given system is stable or not
Find the response of systems with Coulomb and hysteretic damping
Find the free-vibration response using MATLAB
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台灣師範大學機電科技學系台灣師範大學機電科技學系
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
Chapter Outline Chapter Outline
2.1 Introduction 2.9 Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping

2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational System 2.10 Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping
2.3 Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System 2.11 Stability of Systems
2.4 Response of First-Order Systems and Time Constant
2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method
2.6 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping
2.7 Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots and
Corresponding Solutions
2.8 Parameter Variations and Root Locus Representations
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2.1 2.1 Introduction

Introduction
• Free Vibration occurs when a system oscillates only under an initial
disturbance with no external forces acting after the initial
disturbance
• Undamped vibrations result in the amplitude of motion remains
constant with time (e.g. in a vacuum)
2.1
• Damped vibrations occur when the amplitude of free vibration
diminishes gradually overtime, due to resistance offered by the
surrounding medium (e.g. air)
Free vibration of a spring-mass system (one DOF) in horizontal position
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2.1 Introduction 2.1 Introduction
• Several mechanical and structural systems can be idealized as

single degree of freedom systems, for example, the mass and
stiffness of a system
The mass is distributed, but for a
simple analysis, it can be
approximated by a single point mass.
Jr  l1  2  l 32 2
m
meq  mv  2 p  m
r 2
l2 l  l 
 2  1
The elasticity of the system, which
may be distributed throughout the
system, can also be idealized by a
single spring. Ex, the elements of
the follower system (pushrod,
rocker arm, valve, and valve Modeling of tall structure as
spring) are all elastic and can be spring-mass system
reduced to a single equivalent Idealization of a building frame
Equivalent spring-mass system for cam- spring of stiffness keq
follower system of Fig. 1.39
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2.2 2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational

Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational System System
Using Newton’s second law of motion

往下為正方向 to derivate the equation of motion,
the procedure can be summarized
F0  ks0 as follows:
1. Select a suitable coordinate
2.2
F1  ky system to describe the position of
mass in the system
會影響運動
2. Measure the displacement of the
之彈簧力 mass from its static equilibrium
W  mg position
3. Draw the free-body diagram of the
Undamped mass-spring system for free vibration mass
4. Apply Newton’s second law of
F  0 故物重 W 與Ｆ不影響運 motion
動，
0
F  W   ks  mg  0 因為一定會互相抵消
0 0
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台灣師範大學機電科技學系
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational
System 2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational
System
• Equation of Motion Using Newton’s Second Law of Motion:
For a rigid body undergoing rotational motion, Newton’s Law gives
If mass m is displaced a distance x(t) when acted upon by a
(2.2)
resultant force
F (t) in the same direction, The time rate of change of M (t)  J
d d d dx ( t )  the momentum of a particle (力矩) and
is equal to the net force where M is the resultant moment acting on the body and 
dt dt dt  dt 
m
F ( t )  P  ( mV ( t ))   
acting on the particle 2 2

are the resulting angular displacement and angular
and is in the direction of   d (t) / dt
If mass m is constant, this equation reduces to that force acceleration, respectively.
粒子動量的變化率等於作用在粒
F (t)  m 2 2  mx (2.1) 子上的淨力（即作用在粒子上的
For undamped single degree of freedom system, the application of
dt
d x(t)
合力），且沿著該力的方向
Eq. (2.1) to mass m yields the equation of motion:
where  d 2 x(t) is the acceleration of the mass
F  ma (2.3)
x dt 2
  kx  mx or mx  kx  0
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2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational 2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational
System System
1. D’Alembert’s Principle(達朗伯原理)
The equations of motion, Eqs. (2.1) & (2.2) can be rewritten as 2. Principle of Virtual Displacements
0 (2.4a) “If a system that is in equilibrium under the
F (t)  mx action of a set of forces is subjected to a
(2.4b) virtual displacement, then the total virtual
M (t)  J  0 work done by the forces will be zero.”
fictitious (向右為正)
The application of D’Alembert’s principle to the system shown in Consider spring-mass system as shown,
Fig.2.1(c) yields the equation of motion: the virtual work done by each force can be
computed as:
 kx  mx  0 or mx  kx  0 (2.3)
This fictitious (虛擬) force (or moment) is known as the inertia force (or Virtual work done by thespring force  WS  (kx)x
inertia moment) and the artificial state of equilibrium implied by Eq. Virtual work done by theinertia force  Wi  (mx)x
(2.4a) or (2.4b) is known as dynamic equilibrium
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System System
3. Principle of Conservation of Energy

“A system is said to be conservative if no energy is lost due to
2. Principle of Virtual Displacements (Cont.)
friction or energy-dissipating nonelastic members.”
When the total virtual work done by all the forces is set
If no work is done on the conservative system by external forces,
equal to zero, we obtain the total energy of the system remains constant. Thus the principle
 mxx  kxx  0 (2.5) of conservation of energy can be expressed as:
Since the virtual displacement can have an arbitrary value, x  0 , T  U  constant or d (T  U )  0 (2.6)
Eq.(2.5) gives the equation of motion of the spring-mass system as dt
T：the kinetic energy is stored in the mass by virtue of its velocity
mx  kx  0 (2.3) U：the potential energy is stored in the spring by virtue of its

elastic deformation
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System System
• Equation of Motion of a Spring-Mass System in Vertical Position:

Consider the configuration of the spring-mass system shown in the
3. Principle of Conservation of Energy (Cont)
figure 2.7
The kinetic and potential energies are given by:
mg
T  1 mx2 (2.7)
2 l0
U  1 kx2 (2.8)
2 U=potential energy of the spring
+ change in potential energy due
Substitution of Eqs. (2.7) & (2.8) into Eq. (2.6) yields the to change in elevation of the
mass m
desired equation
1 1
mx  kx  0 (2.3)  mgx  2 kx 2  mgx  2 kx2
W  mg  kst
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C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational System
System

Notice that Eqs. (2.3) and (2.10) are identical. This indicates that
when a mass moves in a vertical direction, we can ignore its weight,
For static equilibrium, provided we measure x from its static equilibrium position.
where w = weight of mass m,
W  mg  kst (2.9) st = static deflection (To solve two-order ODE)
g = acceleration due to gravity
Hence, Eq. (2.3) can be expressed as s2  k  0

The application of Newton’s second law of motion to mass m gives
t i t (2.15) m
mx  kx  0  x(t)  C1ei n  C2e n
s ( k
mx  k(x st ) W where C1 and C2 are constants 
)1 / 2
m
By using the identities  in
and since kst  W , we obtain
x(t)  A1 cos nt  A2 sin nt (2.16) ( e it  cos  t  i sin t )
mx  kx  0 (2.10) where A1 and A2 are new constants
 k 1/ 2
    =2 fn (2.26)
n
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台灣師範大學機電科技學系  m
台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -20-
System System
• Harmonic Motion
• Equation of Motion of a Spring-Mass System in Vertical Position: Eqs.(2.15), (2.16) & (2.18) are harmonic functions of time. Eq. (2.16) can
also be expressed as: x0
2 2 2 2 1/2
x0 A  A1  A2 [x0  ( n ) ]  amplitude

From Eq (2.16), we have x ( t )  A1 cos  n t  A2 sin  n t  x0 cos  n t  n sin n t A2 x0
A1 A2   tan 1 ( )  tan 1 ( )  phase angle
 A1  A2 (
2 2
cos  n t  sin n t ) A1 x0n
0
x(t  0)  A1  x A12  A2
2
A12  A22 A1  Acos
 A(cos  cos  n t  sin sin n t ) A2  Asin
x(t  0)   A  x 0
(2.17) (Initial conditions)
n 2  A cos(n t )
or or
Hence, A1  x0 and A2  x0 / n x ( t )  A1 cos  n t  A2 sin n t  x0 cos n t  x0 sinnt
n 2
x0 21/2
A0  A  [ x 0
) ]
n
(  amplitude
A1 A2
Solution of Eq. (2.3) is subjected to the initial conditions of Eq.  A1
2 2
 A2 ( cosn t  sin n t ) x
A 12  A 2 2 A12  A22 1 A1 1
0  tan ( )  tan (
0 n
)  phase angle
(2.17) which is given by  A0 (sin 0 cos n t  cos0 sin n t ) A2 x0
x (t )  x cos t  x0 sin t(2.18)  A0 sin(n t 0 ) A1  A0 sin0

A2  A0 cos0
0 n n
n -22-
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C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
System
System
• Harmonic Motion • Harmonic Motion x ( t  0)  A1  x0
The nature of harmonic oscillation can be represented graphically as x ( t  0 )  n A2  x0 ( 2.17) (Initial conditions)
shown in the figure 2.8.
A1  Acos
A2  Asin
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System System
• Harmonic Motion • Harmonic Motion
Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems: Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems:
1. When the spring-mass system is in a vertical position 1. When the spring-mass system is in a vertical position (Cont)
Circular natural frequency: 
k 1/ 2
 n   
=2 fn (2.26) Natural frequency in cycles per second:
m 1  g 1/ 2
   (2.29) We can compute the natural
n
f
k  W  mg
Spring constant, k: (2.27)   frequency and the period of
   vibration by simply measuring
2  st 
Hence, g st st
Natural period:  the static deflection st, we do
1/ 2  2 fn (2.28) 1
st  1/ 2 not need to know the spring
stiffness k and the mass m.
     n
  2   (2.30)
 
n fn g 

st 
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System System
• Harmonic Motion
• Harmonic Motion Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems:
A A2 A2 [x2
 ( x0) 2 ]1/ 2
1 2 0
(2.21) n
x (t )  A cos(n t )
Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems: 1
  tan ( A2 )  tan 1
( x0 )
A x
x0  is zero,
n
2. Velocity x(t) and the acceleration x(t) of the mass m at time t 3. If initial displacement
1 0
can be obtained as:

A  [ x02  ( x 0 x0
) 2 ]1/ 2 
x0    x0 (2.32)  n
x (t )  A cos(n t ) (2.21) x(t)  cosnt   sin nt n
n n x0 
x ( t )  dx ( t )  A sin( t   )   A cos( t     )   tan1 ( )
 2 x 2
 If initial velocity x0  is zero, A  [ x 0 2  ( x0 ) 2 ]1/ 2  x0
0n
n n n n
dt 2
x ( t )  d 2 x ( t )   2 A t   )   2 A cos( t     ) (2.31) x(t)  x0 cos nt (2.33)
dt 2 cos(
n
x
n n n n  tan 1 ( 0 )  0
x0n
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System System
• Harmonic Motion • Harmonic Motion
Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems: 4. Phase plane or state space representation of an undamped
system
4. The response of a single degree of freedom system can be
represented by:
x (t )  A cos( t ) (2.21)  cos( t )  x (2.34) x2  y2
n n
A A 2 A2
x ( t )   An sin(n t )
2 2
( x )2
x  y 1 ( 2.36)  x 2
 n

sin( n t  )   x  y ( 2.35) where y  x / n A A
2 2
A2 A2
An A  x2  x2
5. By squaring and adding Eqs. (2.34) & (2.35) A 2 ( A n )2
1
cos2 (nt )  sin 2 (nt ) 1 Displacement (x)-velocity (v) plane = Phase plane
x2  y2 1 (2.36)
A2 A2 -30-
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System System
Example 2.2 Free Vibration Response Due to Impact
Example 2.2 Free Vibration Response Due to Impact
A cantilever beam carries a mass M at the free end as shown in the
figure. A mass m falls from a height h onto the mass M and adheres to Solution
it without rebounding. Determine the resulting transverse vibration of Using the principle of conservation of momentum:
the beam.
mv m  ( M  m ) x0
 m   m 
x0   
v
m    2gh (E.1)
 Mm  Mm
Since free vibration of the beam with the new mass (M+m) occurs
about its own static equilibrium position, the initial conditions of the
problem can be stated:
mg  m 
x0   , x0    2gh (E.2)
k Mm
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System System
Example 2.5 Natural Frequency of Pulley System
Example 2.2 Free Vibration Response Due to Impact Determine the natural frequency of the system (先求 keq).
Solution (Cont.) Assume the pulleys to be frictionless and of negligible mass.
Thus the resulting free transverse vibration of the beam can be
expressed as
x(t)  Acos(nt )

where
  x 2  x 
1/ 2 k 3EI
A  x2  
0
 ,   tan1
0
 ,   
 0  
 n
 

0
x 
n
n M  ml 3 (M  m)
 
台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -33- 台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -34-
System System
Example 2.5 Natural Frequency of Pulley System Example 2.5 Natural Frequency of Pulley System
Solution
Solution
2W 2W  By displacing mass m from the static equilibrium position by x, the
The total movement of the mass m (point O) is 2  
  equation of motion of the mass can be written as
 k1 k2 
The equivalent spring constant of the system is mx  keq x  0 (E.2)
Weight of the mass  Net displacement of the mass Natural frequency is given by
Equivalent spring constant
 k eq 
2
kk
 1 1 4W (k  k )
W  4W     1 2
n  
1/ 2
  
1
1/ 2
 rad/sec (E.3)
k
eq 1 k k k k
21 2  m 4 m ( k1  k2 )

k k
k  1 2 (E.1)  n  1  k k 2 1/ 2
eq
4(k1  k2 )
fn  1
 cycles/sec (E.4)
2
4 m(k1  k2 ) 
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2.3 2.3 Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System

Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System
• From the theory of torsion of circular shafts, we have the relation:
M  GI0  (2.37)
t l
  h D  WD
4 2
(Mechanics of Materials)
J0
2.3
I   d 4 32 8g
0 32
where
Mt = torque that produces the twist θ,
G = shear modulus,
l = is the length of shaft,
I0 = polar moment of inertia of cross
section of shaft
Torsional vibration of a disc

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2.3 Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System 2.3 Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System
• Equation of Motion for the angular motion:
• Io is the polar moment of inertia of the cross section of the shaft:
Applying Newton’s Second Law of Motion,  ( t )  A1 cos  n t  A2 sinn t
 d 4
I 0 (2.38) J 0  kt  0 (2.40)   ( t  0)   0 and  ( t  0)  0
32 A1   0
• The shaft acts as a torsional spring with a torsional spring constant: The natural circular frequency is A2   0 /  n
kt
kt  M  GI  Gd 4
t 0
1/ 2
(2.39)
     2  fn (2.41)
 l 32l n
J
 0
The period and frequency of vibration in cycles per second are:
J 0
1  kt
1/ 2 1/ 2
  2   (2.42) , f    (2.43)
n   n  
J0
k 
 t 2 
-39- -40-
• Note the following aspects of this system: Example 2.6

Natural Frequency of Compound
1) If the cross section of the shaft supporting the disc is not circular,
Pendulum
an appropriate torsional spring constant is to be used(查文獻).
Any rigid body pivoted at a point
other than its center of mass will
2) The polar mass moment of inertia of a disc is given by oscillate about the pivot point under W sin
J  hD4  WD4 where ρ = mass density its own gravitational force. Such a
0 h = thickness system is known as a compound
32 8g D = diameter pendulum as shown. Find the natural
W = weight of the disc frequency of such a system.
3) An important application of a torsional pendulum is in a mechanical (逆時針為正)
clock  M  J0
  (W sin  )d  J0
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Example 2.6 Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum

Solution Example 2.6 Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum
For a displacement θ, the restoring torque (due to the weight of the Solution (See problem 2.61)
body W) is (Wd sin θ) and the equation of motion is Comparing with natural frequency of a simple pendulum n  ( g / l )1/ 2
J0 Wd sin  0 (E.1) (nonlinear)
, the length of equivalent simple pendulum is
l  J0 (E.4)  mgd 1/ 2
n    (E.3)
Hence, approximated by linear equation is md J 
J0 Wd  0 (E.2) (linear as  is small and sin   )  0
0 2,
If J 0 is replaced by mk where k
0
is the radius of gyration (迴轉) of
the body about O,
The natural frequency of the compound pendulum is   1/ 2   k2
 1/ 2 gd 1/ 2
 Wd  1/ 2  mgd 1/ 2  mgd
= mgd
      (E.5) , l  0
 (E.6)
n      
n  J  n  2   
(E.3) d
2
 mk 
   0
 k
   
0
J0  J0  0

Example 2.6 Natural Frequency of Compound

Pendulum Solution Example 2.6
If kG denotes the radius of gyration of the body about G, we have: Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum
Solution k 02  K G 2  d 2  KG 2  d
k2  d d d
k2  k 2 d 2 (E.7) and l  
G
d (E.8) Hence, from Eq.(E.5), ωn is given by
0 G  
gd  g  g  1/ 2  g  1/ 2  GA  d 
 d  1/ 2 1/ 2
 
If the line OG is extended to point A (全長 l 為 n  ( )          OA  l
2 2
OA), k
0  k 0 / d   l  OA 
Eq.(E.8) becomes I 0  I G  md 2 (平行軸定理)  
E.11)
(.11)

2
l  GA  d  OA mk This equation shows that, no matter whether the body is pivoted from
I
(E.9)
k : radius of gyration O or A, its natural frequency is the same. The point A is called the
Such that m : 物體之質量 center of percussion (擊發).
d :兩平行軸間(O - G)之垂直距離
k2 I
: 通過質心之慣性矩
G G
GA  d (可求得 or 假設被滿足) (E.10)

台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -45- -46-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
2.3 Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System 2.4

Response of First-Order Systems and Time Constant
Example 2.6
Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum
Solution：注意 Centre of percussion 所在位置的效果！
Applications of centre of percussion

-47-
2.4 台灣師範大學機電科技學系
-48-
2.4 Response of First-Order Systems and Time 2.4 Response of First-Order Systems and Time
Constant Constant
• Consider a turbine rotor mounted in bearings as shown • The application of Newton’s second law of motion yields the
equation of motion of the rotor as
Jw  c t w  0 2.47 (To solve one-order ODE)
where w  dw
dt
• Assuming the trial solution as
wt  Aest 2.48

Damping constant ct where A and s are unknown constants
• Using the initial condition, wt  0 w0 , Eq. (2.48) can be written as
w t   w0 est 2.49
-49- -50-
2.4 Response of First-Order Systems and Time 2.4 Response of First-Order Systems and Time
Constant Constant
• In dealing with exponentially decaying response, it is convenient to describe
• By substituting Eq. (2.49) into Eq. (2.47), we obtain the response in terms of a quantity known as the time constant
(). The time constant is defined as the value of time which makes
the exponent equal to -1.
w0est Js  ct  0 2.50 •  ct , the time constant
Because the exponent of Eq. (2.52) is known to be
Since w0  0 leads to “no motion” of the rotor, we assume w0  0 J
will be equal to
J
and Eq. (2.50) can be satisfied only if   2.53
ct
t
Js  ct  0 2.51 •
For 
c
w t   w0 e  2.54
t

J
 w0 e 1  0.368w0
Equation (2.51) is known as the characteristic equation which yields
s ct . Thus the solution, Eq. (2.49), becomes w t   w0 e ct t

(2.52) • Thus the response reduces to 0.368 times its initial value at a time equal
 J
J
to the time constant of the system.
-51- -52-
2.5 2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method

Rayleigh’s Energy Method
• The principle of conservation of energy, in the context of an
undamped vibrating system, can be restated as
T1 U1  T2 U2 (2.55)
where subscripts 1 and 2 denote two different instants of time
2.5
 T1  0 (at the static equilibrium position )  0 (at the max. displacement ) U2 (2.56)
• If the system is undergoing harmonic motion, then T1 and U2
denote the max. values of T and U, respectively
T U (2.57)
max max
• The application of Eq. (2.57), which is also known as Rayleigh’s

energy methods, gives the natural frequency of the system directly.
-54-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method 2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method

Example 2.8
Effect of Mass on n of a Spring
Example 2.8 Solution
Effect of Mass on n of a Spring The kinetic energy of the spring element of length dy is
Determine the effect of the mass of the spring on the natural
frequency of the spring-mass system shown in the figure below.  1  ms  yx 2
dTs  dy   (E.1)
2 l  l 
where ms is the mass of the spring
l: the total length of the spring
The total kinetic energy of the system can be expressed as
x: the displacement of the lower end
of the spring
T  kinetic energy of mass (Tm )  kinetic energy of spring (Ts )
y(x/l): the displacement at the distance y
 2 x 2  1
2 2
2
1 1 m s
l y
1
ms
mx 

2 y 0 
dy
 l 2   m x  2 3 x (E.2)
2l   2
  1 m ( X  sin t )2 1 ms (X sin t )2
n n n n
2 2 3
-55-
-56-
2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method 2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method
Example 2.8
Effect of Mass on n of a Spring Example 2.8
Solution Effect of Mass on n of a Spring
The total potential energy of the system is given by Solution
By equating Tmax and Umax, we obtain the expression for the natural
U  1 kx2 (E.3)  U  1 kX 2 cos t 2
n
frequency:
2 2

By assuming a harmonic motion 1/ 2
 k 
( E .5)  ( E .6)  n    (E.7)
x(t)  X cos nt (E.4) (代入(E.2)與(E.3) → 前頁) m ms 
The maximum kinetic and potential energies can be expressed as  3 
1 ms  2 2
1 2
Thus the effect of the mass of spring can be accounted for by adding
T 
 m  X (E.5) and Umax  kX (E.6)
max
2
n
2 one-third of its mass to the main mass.
 3
(sin  t 1) (cos nt 1)
57 n
-58-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT Eq. (E.1) can be used to express the velocity variation,
Example 2.9 Effect of Mass of Column on n of Water Tank (E.3)

(Considered in Ex. 2.1)
Eq. (E.2) becomes
dx
 EI  P l3 代入(E.1)
3y
(Mechanics of Materials) max (E.4)
The static deflection of a cantilever beam under a concentrated end load is given by
(E.1) If meq is the equivalent mass of the cantilever, its max. kinetic energy
can be expressed as
(E.5) (Eq. (E.4)=Eq. (E.5))
The kinetic energy of the spring element of length dx is given by (E.6)
(E.7) (the total effective mass)

1 m 2 (E.2)
dT  2 ( l dx ){ y ( x)}  (E.8) (The natural frequency)
-59- -60-
2.6 2.6 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping

Free Vibration with Viscous Damping
•Equation of Motion:
F  cx (2.58)
where c = damping
2.6
• From the figure, Newton’s law yields
that the equation of motion is
F  ma  mx  cx  kx (向下為正)
mx  cx  kx  0 (2.59)
(To solve two-order ODE)
-61- -62-
2.6 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping 2.6 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping
• Thus the general solution is
x(t)  C es t  C es t
1 2
• We assume a solution in the form 1 2

 c   c 
 c   c  2
2
x(t)  Cest (2.60) 

    
k

t

    
k

t
 2m  2m    2m  2m  
C
m m
where C and s are undetermined constants  C e  e  (2.64)

1 2
• The characteristic equation is where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants to be determined from the initial
ms2  cs  k  0 (2.61) conditions of the system
• The roots and solutions are
(2.65) cc  2mn     t
n    t
n
c c cc  2 
  x(t)Ce  Ce  1
2
2  1
c c 2
 4mk c  c  k ︱
s
1,2      (2.62) n
2m  2m m
2 m c c 2m 1 2
 2m  (2.69)
k 
x (t)  C es t and x (t)  C es t
1 2 (2.63)
m 
n
1 1 2 2
-63- -64-
• Critical Damping Constant and Damping Ratio:

The critical damping cc is defined as the value of the damping • Assuming that ζ ≠ 0, consider the following 3 cases:
constant c for which the radical (根號) in Eq.(2.62) becomes zero:
 cc 2 k k
   0  cc  2m  2 km  2mn (2.65) Case 1: Underdamped system (  1 or c  cc or c/ 2m  k/m)
m m
 2m  For this condition, (ζ2-1) is negative and the roots are
The damping ratio ζ is defined as:
s1    i 1   2 n 
  c / cc (2.66) s2    i 1 2  n
Thus the general solution for Eq.(2.64) is The solution Eq. (2.69) can be written in different forms:
    2 1     21 
x(t)  C e
  t

n 
 C e
 t

n
(2.69)
1 2
-65-
-
66-
The solution Eq. (2.69) can be written in different forms: Case 1: Underdamped system ( 1 or c  cc or c/ 2m  k / m)
For the initial conditions at t = 0, x (0)  x0 , x (0)  x0
x ( t )  C1e 
i 1 2 
 t
 C 2e
   i 1
 t
C x and C  x 0  n x0 (2.71)
2
n n
0
e
 t
n C e
i 1 2 
n
t 2
 C e i 1 n t
1 2
1  2
n
 1 2 
( C  C ) cos 1   t
 n t  i ( C1  C 2 ) sin  (C  )  (C )2
2
X  X 0
 e  n
t
1 1 2
2 2
n 1 2
  tan 1 ( C 1 ),   tan1 ( C2 )

e C  cos 1  
 t
n
 t  C  sin
1 1

t 2
n 2
2
n 0 C 2
and hence the solution becomes

C 1
 Xe sin  1   t  

n t
2
n
 x  x
cos  1    t  

X e  t (2.70) 2
x(t)  e t x0 cos 1 2 nt 

0 n 0
sin 1 
0 n n 0 n 2
nt  (2.72)
 1 2 

n

where (C’1,C’2), (X,Φ), and (X0, Φ0) are arbitrary constants to

be determined from the initial conditions The frequency of damped vibration is: d  1  2 n (2.76)
(d is smaller than n)
Case 1: Underdamped system ( 1 or c  cc or c/ 2m  k / m)

Case 2: Critically damped system (  1 or c  cc or c/ 2m  k/m)
Eq.(2.72) describes a damped harmonic motion. Its amplitude
In this case, the two roots are:
decreases exponentially with time, as shown in the figure below.
s s  cc  (2.77)
The frequency of damped vibration is:  d  1  2
n (2.76) 2  n
1
2m
Due to repeated roots, the solution of Eq.(2.59) is given by
x(t)  (C  C t)e t n
(2.78)
1 2
Application of initial conditions x (0)  x0 , x (0)  x0 gives:
C 1  x0 and C2  x0  n x0 (2.79)
Thus the solution becomes:
Variation of d with damping
n x0 te (2.80)

nt
-69- x(t)  x0  x0 -70-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
Case 2: Critically damped system ( 1 or c  ccor c/ 2m  k / m) Case 3: Overdamped system
(  1 or c  cc or c/ 2m  k / m )
It can be seen that the motion represented by Eq.(2.80) is a
aperiodic (非週期性) (i.e., non-periodic). The roots are real and distinct and are given by:
Since e
 t
n  0 as t   , the motion will eventually diminish to
zero, as indicated in the figure below.

s1     2 
1 n  0
s2     2
1 n  0
In this case, the solution Eq.(2.69) is given by:

  2    2 


1 nt 

1 nt
(2.81)
x(t)  C e   C e 
1 2
For the initial conditions at t = 0, x (0)  x0 , x (0)  x0

C  x0  n     1
2

x0 
  x0 n     1
2

x0  
, C 2
(2.82)
2 n  2  1
1
Comparison of motions with different types of damping 2 n  2  1

-71- -72-
台灣師範大學機電科技學系 The motion diminishes exponentially with time
• Logarithmic Decrement (對數遞減): the natural logarithm of the
ratio of any two successive amplitudes
Using Eq.(2.70), t t ,   2
2
 d d
1
x  X 0 e cos( t  )
1
 t
n1
d 1 0
d
x 2 X 0 e  cos( d t 2  ) 
n2
t (2.83) cos(d t2 0 )
0
 t
 cos(2  d t1 0 )
 
 e n1
e n d (2.84)  cos( t  )
 t   d 1 0
e n 1 d
The logarithmic decrement can be obtained from Eq.(2.84):
•Overdamped: time delay x
•Underdamped: overshooting
  ln 1    2 d  2   2 
  
•Critical damped: no overshooting x n

n d
and shortest time of mass return 1 2  n

2n 1 2 n
2
d
Undamped 2 2 c
    ( 2.85) c
Phase plane of a damped system  n (2.67)
12 1 2 n d 2m 2 -74-
-73-
m
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
• For small damping,
  2 if  1 (2.86)
   (2.88)
2
or
  2 ( 2.85)
1 2
x1  
(2.84)
e n d
   (2.87) x2
2  2   2
 0.3
-75- -76-
• Energy dissipated in Viscous Damping:

• Energy dissipated in Viscous Damping:
In a viscously damped system, the rate of change of energy with
time is given by: k parallel to c
W  Fx Consider the system shown in the figure.
2 The total force resisting the motion is
dW  dx 2
 force  velocity  Fv  cv  c  (2.93) F  kx  cv  kx  cx (2.95)
dt  dt 
x ( t ) X sin t If we assume simple harmonic motion is
Assume a simple harmonic motion as  d ,the energy
dissipated in a complete cycle is:
(2 / d )
 dx 2 2 2 2 2
x(t)  X sin d t (2.96)
W  t 0 c  dt
 0 cX d cos d t d (d t)  cd X (2.94) Eq.(2.95) becomes F  kX sin d t  cd X cos d t (2.97)
 dt  -77-
-78-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
• Computing the fraction of the total energy of the vibrating system that is dissipated in each
• Energy dissipated in Viscous Damping: cycle of motion,
Wc d
 2  c 
X2
The energy dissipated in a complete cycle will be

  2   2  4  constant (2.99)
W 1 2 2    2m 
2 m d X  d 
The spring force will not do any

2 c
2 / d    ( 2.85)
W 
t 0
Fvdt 0 net work over a complete cycle  2m
d
 2 
t  0
2
kX d sind t  cosd t d (d t )    (2.88)
2
 t20 cd X 2 cos2 d t  d (d t )  cd X 2 (2.98) where W is either the max potential energy ( 1 kX 2 ) or the max
1 2
1 2 2
2
mv
kinetic energy( 2 max  2 mX d )
x ( t )  X sin d t  x ( t )  X d cos d t  xmax ( t )  Xd

-79- -80-
• Torsional systems with Viscous Damping:
Consider a single degree of freedom torsional system with a viscous
The W/W is called the specific damping capacity and is used in damper as shown in figure.
comparing the damping capacity of engineering materials. Another
quantity known as the loss coefficient is also used for comparing the
damping capacity of engineering materials. The loss coefficient is The viscous damping torque is given by
defined as the ratio of the energy dissipated per radian and the total
strain energy. T  c  (2.101)
t
The loss coefficient is defined as The equation of motion can be derived as:
J0  ct  kt  0 (2.102)
loss coefficien t  (W / 2 )  W (2.100)
W 2W
where J0 = mass moment of inertia of disc
kt = spring constant of system
θ = angular displacement of disc
-81- -82-
2.6 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping Problem 2.99 (自己研讀)
Assuming that the phase angle () is zero, show that the
response x(t) of an underdamped single DOF system reaches a
• Torsional systems with Viscous Damping: Max. value when
sind t  1 2
In the underdamped case, the frequency of damped vibration is
given by
and a Min. value when
  1 2  (2.103) cc  2mn
d n sind t   1 2
where c c c 
c
c  n
n  kt 2m c 2m Also show that the equations of the curves passing through
(2.104)
J0 the Max. and Min. values of x(t) are given, respectively, by
and
k
m


n x 1  2
Xe
 t
n
  ct

ct  ct (2.105) and
2  t
c
tc
2J 
0 n
2 k J t
0
x   1  Xe n
ctc = critical torsional damping constant -84-

【prove】【prove】
【】

Example 2.11 Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Solution:
An underdamped shock absorber is to be designed for a motorcycle of

Since
mass 200 kg (shown in Fig.(a)). When the shock absorber is subjected
x1.5  x1 / 4,
to an initial vertical velocity due to a road bump, the resulting
displacement-time curve is to be as indicated in Fig.(b). Find the x 2  x1.5 / 4
necessary stiffness and damping constants of the shock absorber if the  x1 / 16
damped period of vibration is to be 2 s and the amplitude x1 is to be
The logarithmic decrement becomes
reduced to one-fourth in one half cycle (i.e., x 1.5 = x1/4). Also find the
minimum initial velocity that leads to a maximum displacement of 250  x   ln 16   2.7726  2
  ln 
1
 (E.1)
mm. x
 2 12
From which ζ can be found as 0.4037
Example 2.11 Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle Example 2.11 Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Solution: Solution:
(See Problem 2.99)
The damped period of vibration is given by 2 s. Hence,
The displacement of the mass will attain its max value at time t 1 is
2   2  2
d 2  2 sin  t  1   2
d 1 2 d 1
n
  2  3.4338 rad/s
d  d sin  t  sin  t  1  (0.4037) 2
d
1
1
 0.9149
n
2 1 (0.4037)2    t1  sin 1
(0.9149)  0.3678 sec
d

The critical damping constant can be obtained as 
2  t (E.2)
cc  2mn  2(200)(3.4338) 1.373.54 N - s/m The envelope passing through the max points is x  1 Xe n
Thus the damping constant is

c  cc  (0.4037)(1373.54)  554.4981 N - s/m
Since x = 250mm, 0.25  1  ( 0.4037)2 Xe( 0.4037 )( 3.4338 )( 0.3678)
The stiffness is  X  0.4550 m
k  mn2  (200)(3.4338)2  2358.2652 N/m -90-
-89-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
2.7
Example 2.11 Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots and
Solution: Corresponding Solutions
The velocity of mass can be obtained by

x(t)  Xe nt sin d t

x(t)  Xe nt ( n sin  t  d cos  t)
2.7
(E.3)
d d
When t = 0,
x(t  0)  x0  Xd  Xn 1 2


(0.4550)(3.4338) 1 (0.4037)2

1.4294 m/s
-91- -92-
2.7 Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots 2.7 Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots
and Corresponding Solutions and Corresponding Solutions
• Graphical Representation of Roots and Corresponding
• Roots of the Characteristic Equation
Solutions
The free vibration of a single-degree-of-freedom spring-mass-

The response of the system is given by x t   C1 e s
1
t
 C 2es t
2 2.111
viscous-damper system is governed by Eq. (2.59):
Following observations can be made by examining Eqs. (2.110) and

mx  cx  kx  0 2.106 (2.111):
(Important!)
whose characteristic equation can be expressed as (Eq. (2.61)):
1. The roots lying farther to the left in the s-plane indicate that the
2 corresponding responses decay faster than those associated with
ms  cs  k  0  s  c s  k  0
2 2
s1 , s2   c  c  4mk
roots closer to the imaginary axis.
m m 2m
2. If the roots have positive real values of s—that is, the roots lie in
s  2 w n s  wn  0
2 2
2.108 s1 , s2  wn  iwn 1 2 2.110 the right half of the s-plane—the corresponding response grows
The roots can be plotted in a complex exponentially and hence will be unstable.
plane, known as the s-plane
2.7 Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots 2.7 Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots
and Corresponding Solutions and Corresponding Solutions
• Graphical Representation of Roots and Corresponding • Graphical Representation of Roots and Corresponding
Solutions Solutions
3. If the roots lie on the imaginary axis (with zero real value),
the corresponding response will be naturally stable.
4. If the roots have a zero imaginary part, the corresponding
response will not oscillate. 必須交換
5. The response of the system will exhibit an oscillatory behavior
only when the roots have nonzero imaginary parts. Locations of
6. The farther the roots lie to the left of the s-plane, the faster characteristics
roots
the corresponding response decreases.
7. The larger the imaginary part of the roots, the higher the frequency
of oscillation of the corresponding response of the system.
-95- -96-
2.8 2.8 Parameter Variations and Root Locus

Parameter Variations and Root Locus Representations
Representations
• Interpretations of wn , wd , and  in the s-plane
2 2
c k
Radius: n ms  cs k  0  s  m s  m  0
s 2  2 w n s  wn2  0 2.108
2.8
(Root s1)
s , s   c  c2  4mk
2
1
2m
s1 , s2  wn  1 2
2.110
iwn
The roots can be plotted in a complex
plane, known as the s-plane
The response of the system is given by
x t   C1e s 1
t
 C 2es t
2 2.111
-97- -98-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
2.8 Parameter Variations and Root Locus
Representations 2.8 Parameter Variations and Root Locus
Representations
•The different concentric circles represent •The horizontal line passing through
systems with different natural frequencies point A corresponds to the damped
natural frequency,  d   n 1  2 .
•The roots lying on the circle of radius n
correspond to the same natural frequency •The lines parallel to the real axis
denote systems having different
damped natural frequencies
-99- -100-
2.8 Parameter Variations and Root Locus 2.8 Parameter Variations and Root Locus
Representations Representations
• Interpretations of wn , wd , and  in the s-plane • Interpretations of wn , wd , and  in the s-plane

•The time constant is defined as the value
of time which makes the exponent equal to
•The angle made by the line OA
-1.
with the imaginary axis is given by
w s1 , s2   wn  iwn 1   2 2.110
sin    ;   sin1  2.113
x t   C1e s t  C 2es t 2.111
n
1 2
wn
•The time constant of the system, ,

•The radial lines passing
is defined as
through the origin correspond
to different damping ratios 1
   n
If   0, i .e.   0,  d  n
If   1, c  critical damping •Different lines parallel to the imaginary axis
i .e.   90o ,  d  0 denote reciprocals (倒數) of different time
constants
-101- -102-
• Variation of the damping ratio:
•Root Locus and Parameter Variations
We vary the damping constant from zero to infinity and study the
A plot or graph that shows how changes in one of the parameters of
migration (遷移) of the characteristic roots in the s-plane.
the system will modify the roots of the characteristic equation of the
From Eq. (2.109) when c = 0(=0),(c<0 results in an unstable system)
system is known as the root locus plot.
s    4mk    iwn 2.115

k
s1 , s 2   c   4mk 2.109
2
c
2m 1,2 2m m
(On the imaginary axis)
Noting that the real and imaginary parts of the roots in Eq. (2.109) can
be expressed as
 
c
 wn and
4mk  c2
 wn 1 2
 wd 2.116
 2m 2m
For 0   1 , we have  2  wd2  wn2 2.117

The equation of a circle
台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -103- 台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -104-
• Root Locus and Parameter Variations

undamped
Variation of the damping ratio:

underdamped
The radius vector will make an angle with the positive imaginary 注意根軌跡遷移方向！
axis with
  w
sin   n  
wn wn overdamped overdamped s1 s2  wn2  constant
w w 2
cos  d  n 1
>1, one root will approach - and
 1  2

wn wn underdamped the other root will approach zero
The two roots trace loci or paths in the form of circular arcs as the Breakaway point, undamped
=1, with repeated
damping ratio is increased from zero to unity as shown Roots, criticial damped
Root locus plot with variation of damping ratio ()

-105- -106-
2.8 Parameter Variations and Root Locus Example 2.13 Study of Roots with Variation of c
Representations
Example 2.13
Study of Roots with Variation of c undamped
Plot the root locus diagram of the system governed by the equation by
varying the value of c >0
underdamped
3 s 2  cs  27  0 s
Solution 2 s1
The roots of equation are given by
s   c  c2  324 E.2 criticial damped

1,2
6
We start with a value of C = 0 and the roots is as shown in the figure. overdamped
Eq. (E.2) gives the roots as indicated in the Table.
Root locus plot with variation of damping constant (c)
-107- -108-
2.8 Parameter Variations and Root Locus

Representations The spring stiffness cannot be negative for
real vibration, we consider the variation of
the values k from zero to infinity
Variation of the spring constant:
Since the spring constant does not appear explicitly in Eq. (2.108),
we consider a specific form of the characteristic equation (2.107)
as: 2
s 16s  k  0 2.121
The roots of Eq. (2.121) are given by
s  16   8  2.122
1,2
256  4k
64  k
2 Root locus plot with variation of spring constant (k)
-109-
2.8 Parameter Variations and Root Locus Negative values as well as zero value of
Representations mass need not be considered for
physical systems, we vary the value of
m in the range 1m
Variation of the mass:
To find the migration of the roots with a variation of the mass m, s2 s1

we consider a specific form of the characteristic equation, Eq.
(2.107), as
ms2 14s  20  0 2.123
whose roots are given by
s  14  196 80m 2.124

1,2
2 Root locus plot with variation of mass (m)
-111- -112-
2.9 2.9 Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping

Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
• Coulomb’s law of dry friction states that, when two bodies are in
contact, the force required to produce sliding is proportional to the
normal force acting in the plane of contact. Thus, the friction force
F is given by:
2.9
F  N  W  mg (2.125)
where N is normal force,
μ is the coefficient of sliding or kinetic friction
μ is 0.1 for lubricated metal, 0.3 for non-lubricated metal on metal, 1.0 for rubber on metal
• Coulomb damping is sometimes called constant damping, since the

damping force is independent of the displacement and velocity; it
depends only on the normal force N between the sliding surface
-113- -114-
2.9 Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping 2.9 Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
•Equation of Motion: (左到右運動)

• Equation of Motion:
Consider a single degree of freedom system with dry friction as Case 1.

shown in Fig.(a) below. When x is positive and dx/dt is positive or when x is negative and
dx/dt is positive (i.e., for the half cycle during which the mass
moves from left to right) the equation of motion can be obtained
using Newton’s second law (Fig.b):
mx   kx   N or mx  kx  N (2.126)
Hence N
Since friction force varies with the direction of velocity, we need to x(t)  A cos  t  A sin  t  (2.127)
consider two cases as indicated in Fig.(b) and (c).
1 n 2 n
k
where ωn = √k/m is the frequency of vibration
A1 & A2 are constants
-115- -116-
• Equation of Motion:
•Equation of Motion: (右到左運動)
4N 2 The amplitude is
Slope  ( ) ( ) reduced 4 N ,
k wn k
Case 2. as t is the period
When x is positive and dx/dt is negative or when x is negative and
dx/dt is negative (i.e., for the half cycle during which the mass 右到左運動
moves from right to left) the equation of motion can be derived 左到右運動
from Fig. (c):
 kx   N  mx or mx  kx  N (2.128)
6N
(x  )
The solution of the equation is given by: 0 k
x(t)  A cos  t  A sin  t  N (2.129)

3 4 n k
n
where A3 & A4 are constants

Motion of the mass with Coulomb damping
-117- -118-
2.9 Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping

• Solution:
Eqs.(2.126) & (2.128) can be expressed as a single equation using

N = mg:
mx  mg sgn( x)  kx  0 (2.130)

1st half cycle
0 ≤ t ≤ π/ωn
where sgn(y) is called the sigum function, whose value is defined
as 1 for y > 0, -1 for y< 0, and 0 for y = 0.
Assuming initial conditions as
x(t  0)  x0 1st half cycle 2nd half cycle 3rd half cycle
0 ≤ t ≤ π/ωn π/ωn ≤ t ≤ 2π/ωn 2π/ωn ≤ t ≤ 3π/ωn
x(t  0)  0(2.131)
The solution is valid for half the cycle only, i.e., for 0 ≤ t ≤ π/ω n. Hence,
the solution becomes the initial conditions for the next half cycle.
-119- -120-
Initial conditions of
3rd half cycle
Initial conditions of 2 2π/ωn ≤ t ≤ 3π/ωn
2nd half cycle
π/ωn ≤ t ≤ 2π/ωn
停止運動前
半波的數目
-121- -122-
• Solution: • Solution:
Note the following characteristics of a system with Coulomb Note the following characteristics of a system with Coulomb
damping: damping:
1. The equation of motion is nonlinear with Coulomb damping, while it 3. The motion is periodic with Coulomb damping, while it can be
is linear with viscous damping nonperiodic in a viscously damped (overdamped) system.
2. The natural frequency of the system is unaltered with the addition 4. The system comes to rest after some time with Coulomb damping,
of Coulomb damping, while it is reduced with the addition of whereas the motion theoretically continues forever (perhaps with
viscous damping. an infinitesimally small amplitude) with viscous damping.
-123- -124-
• Solution: • Torsional Systems with Coulomb Damping:
Note the following characteristics of a system with Coulomb The equation governing the angular oscillations of the system is
damping: J 0  kt  T (2.136)
J 0  kt  T (2.137)
5. The amplitude reduces linearly with Coulomb damping, whereas it
reduces exponentially with viscous damping.
where T denotes the constant damping torque (similar to N for
linear vibrations)
6. In each successive cycle, the amplitude of motion is reduced by the amount 4μN/k,
so the amplitudes at the end of any two consecutive cycles are related:
X m  X m1  4N (2.135) The frequency of vibration is given by
k k
n  t (2.138)
-125- J 0
-126-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
2.9 Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
• Torsional Systems with Coulomb Damping:
Example 2.15
The amplitude of motion at the end of the rth half cycle (θr) is given
Pulley Subjected to Coulomb Damping
by: 2T
  r (2.139)
r

0
A steel shaft of length 1 m and diameter 50 mm is fixed at one end
2
kt and carries a pulley of mass moment of inertia 25 kg-m at the other
x 0  r 2 N   N
end. A band brake exerts a constant frictional torque of 400 N-m
The motion ceases when k k
 N around the circumference of the pulley. If the pulley is displaced by 6°
 T x 
 0  and released, determine (1) the number of cycles before the pulley
 0

 r  k
 (2.134)
 kt  2 N comes to rest and (2) the final settling position of the pulley.
r   (2.140)  
 2T   k 
 kt  For linear vibrations
 
-127- -128-
Example 2.15 Example 2.15

Pulley Subjected to Coulomb Damping Pulley Subjected to Coulomb Damping
Solution Solution
(1) The number of half cycles that elapse before the angular motion of With constant friction torque applied to the pulley = 400 N-m.,
the pullet ceases is:  T Eq.(2.140) gives

 0    400 
 kt  0.10472   
 49,087.5  
r   (E.1)
2 r
  5.926
T  800 
 
 k
t 0
 where θ = 6° = 0.10472 rad,

 
 49,087.5 
The torsional spring constant of the shaft given by
  
4
4 10
Thus the motion ceases after six half cycles.
kt  GJ   32
G( D ) (8 10 ) (0.05) 
32    49, 087.5 N-m/rad

l l 1 -130-
-129-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT 2.10

2.9 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping
Example 2.15 Pulley Subjected to Coulomb Damping

Solution
(2) The angular displacement after six half cycles by Eq. (2.139):
2.10
   r 2T (2.139)
r
 0
kt
 400 
  0.10472  6  2   0.006935 rad  0.39734
 49,087.5 
from the equilibrium position on the same side of the initial

displacement.
-131- -132-
2.10 Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping 2.10 Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping
• Consider the spring-viscous damper arrangement shown in the • For a harmonic motion of frequency ω and amplitude X,
figure below. The force needed to cause a displacement:
F  kx  cx (2.141)
x (t )  X sint (2.142)
F  kx  cx (2.141)
For a harmonic motion of frequency  and

amplitude X F (t)  kX sin t  cX cos t

x ( t )  X sint kx  c X 2  ( X sin t)2
 kx  c X 2  x2 (2.143)
As x=0
Spring-viscous-damper system
-133- -134-
• When F versus x is plotted, Eq.(2.143) represents a closed loop, as

shown in Fig(b). The area of the loop denotes the energy dissipated
by the damper in a cycle of motion and is given by:
W   Fdx
 02 / kX sin t  cX cos t X cos t dt  cX 2 (2.144)
The same with Eq. (2.98)
in Section 2.6.4
Fig. 2.44 Spring-viscous-damper system
• Hysteretic (遲滯) Damping: Fig. 2.45 Hysteresis loop
Energy is absorbed or dissipated by material during deformation due to
friction between internal planes, which slip or slide as the deformations The similarity between Figs 2.44(b) and 2.45(a) can be used to
take place. When a body having material damping is subjected to
vibration, the stress-strain diagram shows a hysteresis loop. The area of defined a hysteresis damping constant.
this loop denotes the energy lost per unit volume of the body per cycle ● Hence, the damping coefficient: c  h (2.145)
due to damping. 
where h = hysteresis damping constant
2 2
● Eqs.(2.144) and (2.145) gives: W   cX (2.144)   hX (2.146)
-135- -136-
• Complex Stiffness • Response of the system
 The energy loss per cycle can be expressed as

For general harmonic motion, x  Xei t , the force is given by
(=h/k)
F  kx  cx (2.141) W   hX 2 (2.146)   k  X 2 (2.150)
F  kXeit  ciXeit  (k  ic)x(2.147)
Thus, the force-displacement relation:
F  ( k  ih) x (2.148)
(1/4 週期的 energy loss)
 h
where k  ih  k  1 i   k (1  i ) (2.149)
 k
is called the complex stiffness of the system and =h/k is a
constant indicating a dimensionless measure of damping
• Response of the system • Response of the system
2  2 1   The equivalent viscous damping ratio


2  
P 166
h  h
2
 Eq.(2.88)   2 eq    k    2  2k (2.156) ( h   k)
(  0) eq
Thus the equivalent damping constant is
P 160
 c  2    k  h (2.157)
P 165 Eq.(2.65)-(2.67)
c eq
mk  mk
Eq.(2.85) eq c 2  
(  0)
Response of a hysteretically damped system
(  k  mk  k )
ln(1  x )  x as x  0 m 
ex., ln(1  0.00001)  0.00001
Note that the method of finding an equivalent viscous damping coefficient for
a structurally damped system is valid only for harmonic excitation

Example 2.17
Response of a Hysteretically Damped Bridge Structure
Example 2.17 Solution
Response of a Hysteretically Damped Bridge Structure Using the ratio of successive amplitudes,
X j 
  ln   ln(1.04)  ln(1 )
A bridge structure is modeled as a single degree of freedom system 
X

5  j 1 
with an equivalent mass of 5 X 10 kg and an equivalent stiffness of
1 1.04 or
  0.04  0.0127
6
25 X10 N/m. During a free vibration test, the ratio of successive 
amplitudes was found to be 1.04. Estimate the structural damping The equivalent viscous damping coefficient is
constant (β) and the approximate free vibration response of the
bridge. c  k  k   km (E.1)
eq
 k
m
cc  2 km =2 (25 106 )(5 105 )  7071.0678103 N s / m
-141-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
2.11
Example 2.17
Stability of Systems
Response of a Hysteretically Damped Bridge Structure
Solution
Using the known values of the equivalent stiffness and equivalent
mass,
ceq  (0.0127) (25106 )(5105 )  44.9013103 N - s/m
2.11
Since ceq < cc, the bridge is underdamped (<1). Hence, its free
vibration response is
 x  x 
 t  2 2 P 161
x(t)  e x0 cos 1 n t  sin 1 t
0 n 0
n
n 
 1 2   Eq.(2.72)
 n

c
  eq  40.9013103  0.0063
c 7071.0678103
c
x0 and x0 denote the initial displacement and initial velocity given to the bridge at
the start of free vibration
-143- -144-
2.11 Stability of Systems 2.11 Stability of Systems
• Stability is one of the most important characteristics for any

vibrating system
• A asymptotically (漸近) stable (called stable in controls literature) is
when its free-vibration response approaches zero as time
approaches infinity.
Marginally (臨界) stable
• A system is considered to be unstable if its free-vibration response (漸進的)
grows without bound (approaches infinity) as time approaches

infinity.
• A system is stable (called marginally (臨界) stable in controls
literature) if its free-vibration response neither decays nor grows,
but remains constant or oscillates as time approaches infinity.
(極點落在 s-plane 虛軸上之系統稱為臨界穩定(marginal stable))
-145- -146-
2.11 Stability of Systems

Stability can be interpreted in terms of the roots of the
characteristic roots of the system. Example 2.18
Stability of a System
Consider a uniform rigid bar, of mass m

and length l, pivoted at one end and
connected symmetrically by two springs at
the other end, as shown in the figure.
Assuming that the springs are unstretched
Locations of when the bar is vertical, derive the
characteristics
roots equation of motion of the system for
small angular displacements of the bar
about the pivot point, and investigate the
stability behavior of the system.
-147- -148-
2.11 Stability of Systems 2.11 Stability of Systems

Example 2.18 Stability of a System
 2  3Wl 
Example 2.18  2  12kl  E.4
Where  2 
Stability of a System  2ml 

E.5
2 2
The characteristic equation is given by s  0
The equation of motion of the bar, for rotation about the point O, is The solution of Eq. (E.2) depends on the sign of 
2 as indicated below.
ml 2 l 
Case 1. When 12kl 3Wl / 2ml
2
 2
0
3   2kl sin l cos W 2 sin  0 E.1
 t  A1 cos wnt  A2 sin wnt E.6
For small oscillations, Eq. (E.1) reduces to
 12kl2  1/ 2
E.2
2
ml2 Wl 3Wl
3   2kl   2   0  
 E.7 
2ml
where w  
n
 
    0 E.3
2
A stable system with stable oscillations
-150-
-149-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
Example 2.18 Stability of a System Example 2.18 Stability of a System

Case 2. When 12kl2 3Wl / 2ml2  0  Case 3. When
12kl 2 3Wl/ 2ml2  0
t  C1t  C2 E.8 t  B1et  B2et E.10
For the initial conditions t  00 and t  00 For the initial conditions t  00 and t  00
1
  t    0 t 0 E.9  t  2  0 0 e  0 0 e  t t E.11
Equation (E.9) shows that the system is unstable with the angular Equation (E.11) shows that increases exponentially with time; hence
displacement increasing linearly at a constant velocity the motion is unstable.
-151- -152-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
1.12 Examples using MATLAB
• To practice by yourself from Ex. 2.19 to Ex.2.22

• The source codes of all MATLAB programs are given
at the companion website
Homework:
The Problems 2.160-2.163 are assigned as homework,

the due date of hand over is 29/Oct./2012 (Mon.).
1. Paper report (must add annotation)

2. Program
-153-

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Chapter Outline Chapter Outline

2.1 Introduction 2.9 Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping

2.1 2.1 Introduction

Free vibration of a spring-mass system (one DOF) in horizontal position

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

2.1 Introduction 2.1 Introduction

• Several mechanical and structural systems can be idealized as

2.2 2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational

Using Newton’s second law of motion

acting on the particle 2 2

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

3. Principle of Conservation of Energy

mx  kx  0 (2.3) U：the potential energy is stored in the spring by virtue of its

• Equation of Motion of a Spring-Mass System in Vertical Position:

• Equation of Motion of a Spring-Mass System in Vertical Position:

Hence, Eq. (2.3) can be expressed as s2  k  0

x (t )  x cos t  x0 sin t(2.18)  A0 sin(n t 0 ) A1  A0 sin0

• Harmonic Motion • Harmonic Motion

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

can be obtained as:

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

x(t)  Acos(nt )

台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -33- 台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -34-

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

2.3 2.3 Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System

Torsional vibration of a disc

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

• Note the following aspects of this system: Example 2.6

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

Example 2.6 Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum

-43- 台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -44-

Example 2.6 Natural Frequency of Compound

GA  d (可求得 or 假設被滿足) (E.10)

2.3 Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System 2.4

Applications of centre of percussion

wt  Aest 2.48

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

s ct . Thus the solution, Eq. (2.49), becomes w t   w0 e ct t

2.5 2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method

T1 U1  T2 U2 (2.55)

where subscripts 1 and 2 denote two different instants of time

• The application of Eq. (2.57), which is also known as Rayleigh’s

2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method 2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method

2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method 2.5 Rayleigh’s Energy Method

Example 2.9 Effect of Mass of Column on n of Water Tank (E.3)

The kinetic energy of the spring element of length dx is given by (E.6)

(E.7) (the total effective mass)

dT  2 ( l dx ){ y ( x)}  (E.8) (The natural frequency)

2.6 2.6 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

• We assume a solution in the form 1 2

x(t)  Cest (2.60) 

where C and s are undetermined constants  C e  e  (2.64)

• Critical Damping Constant and Damping Ratio:

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

  tan 1 ( C 1 ),   tan1 ( C2 )

and hence the solution becomes

where (C’1,C’2), (X,Φ), and (X0, Φ0) are arbitrary constants to

Case 1: Underdamped system ( 1 or c  cc or c/ 2m  k / m)

n x0 te (2.80)