BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) – Battery University https://batteryuniversity.

com/learn/article/how_to_monitor_a_battery

Battery University

BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS)

Mercedes CEO Dieter Zetsche says, "The intelligence of the battery does not lie in the cell but in the complex battery system." This is reminiscent to
computers in the 1970s that had big hardware but little software.

Source: CleanTechnica

The purpose of a BMS is to:

1. Provide battery safety and longevity, a must-have for Li-ion.

2. Reveal state-of-function in the form of state-of-charge and state-of-health (capacity)
3. Prompt caution and service. This could be high temperature, cell imbalance or calibration.
4. Indicate end-of-life when the capacity falls below the user-set target threshold.

Not all BMS offer all these features. The most basic functions are battery protection and showing state-of-charge (SoC).

While SoC is helpful, the readout is incomplete without also tracking the capacity as the battery fades. The user may be accustomed to a battery that delivers full capacity,
but this condition is temporary and cannot be maintained. Capacity is the primary indicator of battery state-of-health (SoH) and should be part of the battery management
system (BMS). Knowing SoC and SoH provides state-of-function (SoF), the ultimate confidence of readiness, but technology to provide this information in an effective way
is being improved.

Building a better BMS is a challenge when considering that we still lack a dependable method to read state-of-charge, the most basic measure of a battery. (See BU-903:
How to Measure State-of-charge) Reading the remaining energy in a battery is more complex than dispensing liquid fuel. While a fuel tank has a fixed dimension and
delivers fuel which can be measured with great accuracy, an electrochemical storage system reduces its size and the in- and out-flowing coulombs cannot be assessed
with great accuracy as the battery ages.

The BMS also provides protection when charging and discharging; it disconnects the battery if set limits are exceeded or if a failure occurs. Established BMS standards
are the SMBus (System Management Bus) used for mostly portable applications, as well as the CAN Bus (Controller Area Network) and the simpler LIN Bus (Local
Interconnect Network) for automotive use.

1 of 9 26-04-2020, 02:23
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) – Battery University https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_monitor_a_battery

Stationary batteries were among the first to include supervisory systems and the most basic is voltage monitoring of individual cells. Some systems also include cell
temperature and current measurement. Recording a slight difference in cell temperature hints to a problem, and measuring the voltage drop of each cell at a given load
reveals cell resistance. Dry-out, corrosion, plate separation, and other malfunctions can thus be identified.

Although the BMS is effective in detecting anomalies; capacity fade, the most predictable health indicator, is difficult to estimate because voltage and internal resistance
are commonly not affected. The ability to read capacity fade from 100 to 70 percent would be valuable, but most BMS cannot do this effectively and the battery might be
given a clean bill of health even if the capacity has dropped to 50 percent. Most BMS only respond to anomalies that lie outside capacity estimation, such as voltage
differences among cells caused by cell imbalances and a change in internal resistance.

Some industrial and medical device manufacturers use a date stamp to determine the end of battery life, others observe the cycle count. While counting cycles may be
simplistic, no convention exists that defines a cycle and some systems simply call it a cycle when the battery is charged. (See BU-501: Basics About Discharging.) Date-
stamping has similar shortcomings in that it promotes premature replacement of batteries that are seldom used, while the heavy hitters may stay in service too long. (See
BU-803: Can Batteries be Restored?) To reduce risk of failure, authorities mandate early replacement, and a two-year service life is common. Prolonged storage will give
the batteries a very short working life.

Biomedical engineers are aware that most batteries are replaced too soon. iPhone owners have complained that their smartphones show 100 percent charge when the
battery is only 90 percent charged. Even military leaders say that their battery arsenal for combat is so poor that many soldiers carry rocks instead of batteries. Effective
battery management is either missing or is inadequate. Over-expectations with BMS are common and the user is stunned when stranded without battery power.

Let’s look at how a BMS works, note the shortcomings and examine up-and-coming technologies that could change the way batteries are monitored.

A BMS takes the imprint of the “chemical battery” during charging and discharge and establishes the “digital battery” that communicates with the user. Figure 1 illustrates
the battery components consisting of stored energy, the empty portion that can be refilled and the inactive part that is permanently lost. Rated capacity refers to the
manufacturer’s specified capacity in Ah (ampere-hours) that is only valid when the battery is new; available capacity designates the true energy storage capability derived
by deducting the inactive part. State-of-charge (SoC) refers to the stored energy, which also includes the inactive part.

Figure 1: Three parts of a battery

A battery consists of stored energy, the empty portion that can be recharged and the inactive portion
that is permanently lost due to aging.

A BMS is programmed to a rated capacity and it measures the in-and-outflowing coulombs that relate to the available capacity. As the capacity drops, the coulomb count
decreases and this discrepancy enables capacity estimation. The most accurate readings are possible when counting the coulombs from a fully discharged battery during
a complete charge or discharging a fully charged battery to the cut-off point. Such clean starts are seldom possible and real-life capacity estimations get muddled over
time.

A BMS sets flags when receiving a full discharge and charge. During a rest period, an advanced BMS may also calculate SoC on hand of the stable open circuit voltage
and begin counting the coulombs during charge and discharge from that vantage point. Some BMS also look at voltage recovery after removing a load to estimate SoC
and/or SoH.

Battery Sensing by Voltage-Current-Temperature

The old Volkswagen Beetle had minimal battery problems. Its battery management system applied charge to the battery and burned the over-charge energy on a resistor
while cruising through a relay-operated regulator. The car had no parasitic loads when parked.

Since then, modern vehicles have been inundated with onboard electronics to enhance safety, convenience, comfort and pleasure; features no one knew were needed.
For the accessories to function reliably, the state-of-charge of the battery must be known at all times. This is especially critical with start-stop technology that is being
adopted worldwide.

When the engine of a start-stop car is off at a red light, the battery draws 25–50 amperes to feed the lights, ventilators, windshield wipers and other accessories. The
battery must have enough charge to crank the engine, which requires an additional 350A for a brief moment. When the engine runs again and the car accelerates to the
posted speed limit, the battery only begins charging after a 10-second delay, a deferral allows channeling all energy to vehicle acceleration. When back in charge mode,
the lead acid battery is notoriously slow in charging.

2 of 9 26-04-2020, 02:23
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) – Battery University https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_monitor_a_battery

monitor (EBM) packaged in a small housing forming part of the positive battery clamp.

Figure 2: Battery sensor for starter battery

The sensor reads voltage, current and temperature to estimate state-of-charge and detect anomalies;
capacity assessment is not possible.

The EBM works well when the battery is new but most sensors do not adjust correctly to aging. The SoC accuracy of a new battery is about +/–10 percent. With aging, the
EBM begins to drift and the accuracy can drop to 20 percent and higher. This is in part connected to capacity fade, a value most BMS cannot estimate effectively. It is not
an oversight by engineers; they fully understand the complexities and shortcomings involved.

A typical start-stop vehicle goes through about 2,000 micro cycles per year. Such a strain would reduce the capacity of a standard starter battery to about 60 percent and
carmakers use different battery systems that include AGM and the Advanced Lead-carbon. (Also see BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life)

Automakers want to ensure that no driver gets stranded in traffic with a dead battery. To conserve energy, modern cars turn off unnecessary accessories when the battery
is low on charge and the motor stays on at a stoplight. Even with this measure, the state-of-charge can remain low if commuting in gridlock traffic because an idling motor
does not provide much charge to the battery. With lights, windshield wipers and electric heating elements engaged there could be a net discharge.

Battery monitoring is also important on hybrid vehicles to optimize charge levels. Intelligent charge management prevents overcharge and avoids deep discharge. When
the charge level is low, the internal combustion engine (ICE) engages earlier than normal and is left running longer for additional charge. On a fully charged battery the ICE
turns off and the car moves on electric energy in slow traffic.

An EV driver expects similar accuracies in energy reserve as is possible with a fuel-powered vehicle but current technology does not allow this. To compensate, the EV
battery is overrated and the fuel gauge is adjusted to preserve extra energy when the charge drops low to cover for inaccuracies. The EV driver is advised not to let the
charge go too low but to charge more often. A mid-charger range is best for the battery.

The EV driver also anticipates the same driving range as the car ages. This is not possible and the drivable distance gets shorter with each passing year, but the BMS
makes allowances. A new battery may only charge to about 80 percent and discharge to 30 percent. As the capacity fades, the bandwidth gradually increases, providing
similar driving ranges as a new battery would. The distances traveled will be noticeably shorter when driving in cold temperatures because of reduced battery performance
and once the battery has aged beyond the energy compensation band of the BMS. (See BU-1003: Electric Vehicle.)

Adding Capacity Estimation in BMS

The EBM has limitations in that it cannot estimate capacity effectively. This can be overcome by adding capacity estimations. (See BU-904: How to Measure Capacity)
Figure 3 shows a BMS with common sensing points to which the ability to measure capacity has been added. Spectro™ stands for electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) with complex modeling. This converts a simple battery sensor to the state-of-function (SoF) level.

Figure 3: Spectro-BMS™ adds capacity as key element to estimate battery state-of-health.

Knowing SoF improves battery validation, but some device manufacturers refuse to reveal capacity readings to a consumer that are less than 100 percent, especially
during the warranty period. To conceal unwanted information, the data can be made code-accessible for service personnel use only. (See also BU-602: How does a
Battery Fuel Gauge Work?)

Consumer concerns put aside, SoF signifies a momentous improvement to BMS in terms of battery reliability as it tracks capacity fade and calculates the true runtime on
the available energy. Capacity-based BMS will also predict eventual replacement, an issue that cannot be fully satisfied with current BMS technologies. Future BMS will

3 of 9 26-04-2020, 02:23
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) – Battery University https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_monitor_a_battery

Last updated 2019-04-24

*** Please Read Regarding Comments ***

Comments are intended for "commenting," an open discussion amongst site visitors. Battery University monitors the comments and understands the importance of
expressing perspectives and opinions in a shared forum. However, all communication must be done with the use of appropriate language and the avoidance of spam and
discrimination.

If you have a suggestion or would like to report an error, please use the "contact us" form or email us at: BatteryU@cadex.com. We like to hear from you but we cannot
answer all inquiries. We recommend posting your question in the comment sections for the Battery University Group (BUG) to share.

Or Jump To A Different Article

Basics You Should Know

Introduction
BU-001: Sharing Battery Knowledge
BU-002: Introduction
BU-003: Dedication
Crash Course on Batteries
BU-101: When Was the Battery Invented?
BU-102: Early Innovators
BU-103: Global Battery Markets
BU-103a: Battery Breakthroughs: Myth or Fact?
BU-104: Getting to Know the Battery
BU-104a: Comparing the Battery with Other Power Sources
BU-104b: Battery Building Blocks
BU-104c: The Octagon Battery – What makes a Battery a Battery
BU-105: Battery Definitions and what they mean
BU-106: Advantages of Primary Batteries
BU-106a: Choices of Primary Batteries
BU-107: Comparison Table of Secondary Batteries
Battery Types
BU-201: How does the Lead Acid Battery Work?
BU-201a: Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)
BU-201b: Gel Lead Acid Battery
BU-202: New Lead Acid Systems
BU-203: Nickel-based Batteries
BU-204: How do Lithium Batteries Work?
BU-205: Types of Lithium-ion
BU-206: Lithium-polymer: Substance or Hype?
BU-208: Cycling Performance
BU-209: How does a Supercapacitor Work?
BU-210: How does the Fuel Cell Work?
BU-210a: Why does Sodium-sulfur need to be heated
BU-210b: How does the Flow Battery Work?
BU-211: Alternate Battery Systems
BU-212: Future Batteries
BU-214: Summary Table of Lead-based Batteries
BU-215: Summary Table of Nickel-based Batteries
BU-216: Summary Table of Lithium-based Batteries
BU-217: Summary Table of Alternate Batteries
BU-218: Summary Table of Future Batteries
Packaging and Safety
BU-301: A look at Old and New Battery Packaging
BU-301a: Types of Battery Cells
BU-302: Series and Parallel Battery Configurations
BU-303: Confusion with Voltages
BU-304: Why are Protection Circuits Needed?
BU-304a: Safety Concerns with Li-ion
BU-304b: Making Lithium-ion Safe
BU-304c: Battery Safety in Public
BU-305: Building a Lithium-ion Pack
BU-306: What is the Function of the Separator?
BU-307: How does Electrolyte Work?
BU-308: Availability of Lithium
BU-309: How does Graphite Work in Li-ion?

4 of 9 26-04-2020, 02:23
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) – Battery University https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_monitor_a_battery

Charge Methods
BU-401: How do Battery Chargers Work?
BU-401a: Fast and Ultra-fast Chargers
BU-402: What Is C-rate?
BU-403: Charging Lead Acid
BU-404: What is Equalizing Charge?
BU-405: Charging with a Power Supply
BU-406: Battery as a Buffer
BU-407: Charging Nickel-cadmium
BU-408: Charging Nickel-metal-hydride
BU-409: Charging Lithium-ion
BU-409a: Why do Old Li-ion Batteries Take Long to Charge?
BU-410: Charging at High and Low Temperatures
BU-411: Charging from a USB Port
BU-412: Charging without Wires
BU-413: Charging with Solar, Turbine
BU-413a: How to Store Renewable Energy in a Battery
BU-414: How do Charger Chips Work?
BU-415: How to Charge and When to Charge?
Discharge Methods
BU-501: Basics about Discharging
BU-501a: Discharge Characteristics of Li-ion
BU-502: Discharging at High and Low Temperatures
BU-503: How to Calculate Battery Runtime
BU-504: How to Verify Sufficient Battery Capacity
"Smart" Battery
BU-601: How does a Smart Battery Work?
BU-602: How does a Battery Fuel Gauge Work?
BU-603: How to Calibrate a “Smart” Battery
BU-604: How to Process Data from a “Smart” Battery
Close Part One Menu

The Battery and You

From Birth to Retirement

BU-701: How to Prime Batteries
BU-702: How to Store Batteries
BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries
BU-704: How to Transport Batteries
BU-704a: Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air
BU-704b: CAUTION & Overpack Labels
BU-704c: Class 9 Label
BU-704d: NFPA 704 Rating
BU-705: How to Recycle Batteries
BU-705a: Battery Recycling as a Business
BU-706: Summary of Do’s and Don’ts
How to Prolong Battery Life
BU-801: Setting Battery Performance Standards
BU-801a: How to Rate Battery Runtime
BU-801b: How to Define Battery Life
BU-802: What Causes Capacity Loss?
BU-802a: How does Rising Internal Resistance affect Performance?
BU-802b: What does Elevated Self-discharge Do?
BU-802c: How Low can a Battery be Discharged?
BU-803: Can Batteries Be Restored?
BU-803a: Cell Matching and Balancing
BU-803b: What causes Cells to Short?
BU-803c: Loss of Electrolyte
BU-804: How to Prolong Lead-acid Batteries
BU-804a: Corrosion, Shedding and Internal Short
BU-804b: Sulfation and How to Prevent it
BU-804c: Acid Stratification and Surface Charge
BU-805: Additives to Boost Flooded Lead Acid
BU-806: Tracking Battery Capacity and Resistance as part of Aging
BU-806a: How Heat and Loading affect Battery Life
BU-807: How to Restore Nickel-based Batteries
BU-807a: Effect of Zapping

5 of 9 26-04-2020, 02:23
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) – Battery University https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_monitor_a_battery

BU-808b: What Causes Li-ion to Die?

BU-808c: Coulombic and Energy Efficiency with the Battery
BU-809: How to Maximize Runtime
BU-810: What Everyone Should Know About Aftermarket Batteries
Battery Testing and Monitoring
BU-901: Fundamentals in Battery Testing
BU-902: How to Measure Internal Resistance
BU-902a: How to Measure CCA
BU-903: How to Measure State-of-charge
BU-904: How to Measure Capacity
BU-905: Testing Lead Acid Batteries
BU-905a: Testing Starter Batteries in Vehicles
BU-906: Testing Nickel-based Batteries
BU-907: Testing Lithium-based Batteries
BU-907a: Battery Rapid-test Methods
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS)
BU-909: Battery Test Equipment
BU-910: How to Repair a Battery Pack
BU-911: How to Repair a Laptop Battery
BU-912: How to Test Mobile Phone Batteries
BU-913: How to Maintain Fleet Batteries
BU-914: Battery Test Summary Table
Close Part Two Menu

Batteries as Power Source

Amazing Value of a Battery

BU-1001: Batteries in Industries
BU-1002: Electric Powertrain, then and now
BU-1002a: Hybrid Electric Vehicles and the Battery
BU-1002b: Environmental Benefit of the Electric Powertrain
BU-1003: Electric Vehicle (EV)
BU-1003a: Battery Aging in an Electric Vehicle (EV)
BU-1004: Charging an Electric Vehicle
BU-1005: Does the Fuel Cell-powered Vehicle have a Future?
BU-1006: Cost of Mobile and Renewable Power
BU-1007: Net Calorific Value
BU-1008: Working towards Sustainability
BU-1009: Battery Paradox - Afterword
Information
BU-1101: Glossary
BU-1102: Abbreviations
BU-1103: Bibliography
BU-1104: About the Author
BU-1105: About Cadex
BU-1403: Author’s Creed
Learning Tools
BU-1501 Battery History
BU-1502 Basics about Batteries
BU-1503 How to Maintain Batteries
BU-1504 Battery Test & Analyzing Devices
BU-1505 Short History of Cadex
Battery Pool
Risk Management in Batteries
Predictive Test Methods for Starter Batteries
Why Mobile Phone Batteries do not last as long as an EV Battery
Battery Rapid-test Methods
How to Charge Li-ion with a Parasitic Load
Ultra-fast Charging
Assuring Safety of Lithium-ion in the Workforce
Diagnostic Battery Management
Tweaking the Mobile Phone Battery
Battery Test Methods
Battery Testing and Safety
How to Make Battery Performance Transparent
Battery Diagnostics On-the-fly
Making Battery State-of-health Transparent

6 of 9 26-04-2020, 02:23
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) – Battery University https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_monitor_a_battery

How to Care for the Battery

How to Rate Battery Runtime
Tesla’s iPhone Moment — How the Powerwall will Change Global Energy Use
Painting the Battery Green by giving it a Second Life
Charging without Wires — A Solution or Laziness
What everyone should know about Battery Chargers
A Look at Cell Formats and how to Build a good Battery
Battery Breakthroughs — Myth or Fact?
Rapid-test Methods that No Longer Work
Shipping Lithium-based Batteries by Air
How to make Batteries more Reliable and Longer Lasting
What causes Lithium-ion to die?
Safety of Lithium-ion Batteries
Recognizing Battery Capacity as the Missing Link
Managing Batteries for Warehouse Logistics
Caring for your Starter Battery
Giving Batteries a Second Life
How to Make Batteries in Medical Devices More Reliable
Possible Solutions for the Battery Problem on the Boeing 787
Impedance Spectroscopy Checks Battery Capacity in 15 Seconds
How to Improve the Battery Fuel Gauge
Examining Loading Characteristics on Primary and Secondary Batteries
Language Pool
BU-001: Compartir conocimiento sobre baterías
BU-002: Introducción
BU-003: Dedicatoria
BU-104: Conociendo la Batería
BU-302: Configuraciones de Baterías en Serie y Paralelo
Batteries in a Portable World
Change-log of “Batteries in a Portable World,” 4th edition: Chapters 1 - 3
Change-log of “Batteries in a Portable World,” 4th edition: Chapters 4 - 10
Close Part Three Menu

Like 21 Tweet Share 176

Comments (19)
On January 8, 2012 at 10:34pm

Alfred Mahon wrote:

Learned alot about my Prius 12 Volt Auxillary battery, that Toyota does not know or wants
to conceed lack of knowledgr Ihard to believe). “Just buy a NEW battery whenever you
think you need one or come in and we Toyota) will ghage and check it for you )for a good
dolllar fee of cource> What a guarnteed make buy/work system!!!! e I can locate a
CADEX—“Q-MAG Monitor. and stop my ansiety evry morning ,—-” will it start today?.

On November 7, 2012 at 2:42am

Jeremy Gidney wrote:

I am looking for a reliable method to determine a car battery’s state of charge. We perform emissions tests to determine catalyst performance. Variations in the battery state of charge
will change the CO2 and NOx emissions. Would your device enable me to datalog useful information with respect to the battery condition? How can I obtain one or more?

On February 4, 2014 at 8:09pm

Rex Roberts wrote:

Where can I find a Q-Max?

On June 18, 2014 at 5:58am

Josh Phillips wrote:

This information is very inaccurate as of 2014. There are monitoring systems out there that can give you much more detailed information than what this article leads you to believe. For
instance, on an aging string of batteries you can still predict their life cycle by using a MidTronics meter for instance to see the current admittance, and comparing that against the
batteries original admittance from the date of manufacture. You can track this change over time by using a good battery monitoring system like the system available from Phoenix
Broadband Technologies. You can see the % of change from birth and setup alarms to email certain individuals when it falls below a certain %.

7 of 9 26-04-2020, 02:23
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) – Battery University https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_monitor_a_battery

On September 22, 2014 at 10:21am

James Buniak wrote:

” This is a demanding task when considering that there is still no dependable method to read state-of-charge”

On lead acid non vented batteries state of charge can be read by reading the specific gravity. Just a side note.

On April 26, 2016 at 4:26am

Justina Ambuga wrote:

hi, ,
i would like to get a battery package with the following specification, 60V,100AMPERE HOUR ,WITH BMS AND WITH CHARGER

On June 14, 2016 at 10:54am

Jorge University wrote:

hi,
i have a question about Bms, Can you use the same BMS to manage the charge of a li-ion and a li-poly battery?

thanks

On August 4, 2016 at 1:40pm

Kruti wrote:

anybody do reclamation or recycle various type of battery

On August 4, 2016 at 1:45pm

Kruti wrote:

anybody do reclaim or recycle batteries?

On September 22, 2016 at 9:54am

mohan wrote:

how to choose a battery for a race car??

On March 9, 2018 at 5:01am

Heza wrote:

What does it mean by SoF? How to calculate this parameter?

On April 24, 2018 at 12:27pm

Luis Leon wrote:

Hi, do you know any commercial battery pack with battery management system (BMS), that can monitor SOC, current and voltage of battery and send it to an energy management
system?.

On June 2, 2018 at 6:26pm

Tyrone wrote:

You can use a bluetooth battery monitor system to do it

On August 1, 2018 at 12:35am

hemavathi wrote:

Hi, do you know how to design bms for 18650 battery cell.. can you give document to design the 3s bms board.. this is my mini project..

On March 30, 2019 at 4:58am

May wrote:

I have read that the BMS includes failure prediction functions but it is not very clear what kind of failures can the BMS predict. Based on my limited understanding, the BMS monitors the
temperature, current and voltage signals and raises flags when any of these measurements or a combination of it goes out of the safety ranges. So I am curious to know whether there is

8 of 9 26-04-2020, 02:23
BU-908: Battery Management System (BMS) – Battery University https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_monitor_a_battery

On April 5, 2019 at 7:34am

Akshay wrote:

Hi team,

I would like to typical actions been taken by BMS once faults are detected by BMS in EVs.

Say Undervoltage is detected, overVoltage is detected. Our point is what BMS has to do once it is detected ?
It should turn of the EV all of sudden? Is there any standard procedure available for this?
Any standards are available for BMS CAN data format?

On May 10, 2019 at 1:10am

Chris Waghorne wrote:

Hi recent bought a 120amp battery for my kayak from China and I capsize as battery got submerged in salt water now all the electrical and Bluetooth doesn’t work but battery cells are ok
where can I replace the bms JBD SP55002-L

On June 4, 2019 at 1:41am

Zedlee Malesu wrote:

Dear Sir/Madam

Hello! Would you kindly send me the quotation for a BMS that is compatible with a lithium ion battery pack.

Kind regards
Zedlee Malesu

On February 17, 2020 at 9:33am

Anup Dessai wrote:

Can anyone tell me the difference between of enhanced version and balance version of BMS circuit

Join us on Facebook Follow us on Twitter

Learning the basics about batteries - sponsored by Cadex Electronics Inc.

© 2020 Isidor Buchmann. All rights reserved. Site by Coalescent Design. Home Disclaimer & Copyright Sitemap Links Visit Cadex

9 of 9 26-04-2020, 02:23