KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

BACHELORS OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL AND BUILDING

ENGINEERING

SOIL MECHANICS TCBE 2204

GROUP THREE EVENING

MR LUWALAGA J.G MUNZI

NAME
MURUNGI CHRISTOPHER
KAYONDO RICHARD
AZIRA JIMMY
NAKAZIBWE RACHEAL
MASABA SOLOMON
NDUWAYO TRUST MUGISHA
MAFABI SHARRIF ALI
REGISTRATION No
19/U/ECE/17566/PE
19/U/ECD/17524/PD
19/U/ECD/18413/GV
18/U/ECE/15130/PE
19/U/ECE/17564/PE
19/U/ECD/17526/PD
18/U/ECD/9019/PD

1
PREFACE
During each semester, students of Civil Engineering are supposed to have theoretical and
practical lectures from the Kyambogo University civil engineering department and laboratories
as part of their education and requirement for the Bachelor of Civil Engineering degree course.

In this course unit, students are required to clearly observe and study soil and its tests. This
report is a summary of our research and practical done from the civil engineering department and
laboratories.

2
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the information given in this assignment report to be submitted to
Kyambogo University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Civil and building Engineering is
to the best of our research, observations and based on hands-on experience and knowledge we
obtained and has never been submitted for any academic award to any university or any other
institution of learning anywhere.

3
DEDICATION
We dedicate this report to our families and friends for their true support towards our research
both financially and academically May God reward them abundantly.

4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We first of all acknowledge the Almighty God who has given us life and good health which has
enabled us to complete our assignment and compile successfully this report despite of all the
hardships.

I acknowledge the staff of Kyambogo University, Mr. Luwalaga J.G. Munzi our lecturer and Mr.
Ocheng Paul our practical lecturer for teaching us.

Lastly, to our friends in the civil engineering class year two evening, thank you very much for
the company you are giving us all throughout, may the almighty bless you all.

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LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS
𝜌𝑏−𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜌𝑑−𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

ASTM American Standard for Testing Material.

BS British Standard.
CBR California Bearing Ratio.
MC Moisture Content.
MDD Maximum Dry Density.
OMC Optimum Moisture Content.
PI Plasticity Index.
PL Plastic Limit.
S Sample
TFV Ten Percent Fines Value.
UCS Ultimate compressive strength.

6
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents
PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................................ 1
DECLARATION......................................................................................................................................... 3
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................. 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................................................... 5
LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................. 9
2.1.1 Theory of Compaction:................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.2 soil as a particulate material: ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.2 DEFINITION ...................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1 Important terms: .......................................................................................................................... 11
2.3 PURPOSE OF SOIL COMPACTION ........................................................................................ 12
2.4 LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS ................................................................................. 12
2.4.1 Determination of dry density/moisture content relationship ................................................... 12
2.5 FIELD COMPACTION TESTS .................................................................................................. 23
2.5.1 DESIGN OF COMPACTION FOR ROADS, EMBANKMENTS ETC. ......................... 23
2.5.2 EQUIPMENTS OR TOOLS/ METHODS OF COMPACTION. ............................................ 26
2.5.2 FIELD COMPACTION TESTS. ......................................................................................... 31
Sand Replacement Method (In-Situ Density) ................................................................................. 31
Cone calibration and bulky density factor ..................................................................................... 31
Determination of the bulky density of sand to be used in the field ................................................ 32
2.5.3 Soil Strength Tests ....................................................................................................................... 33
CBR (California Bearing Ratio) Using One-Point Method........................................................... 33
Shear Box Method............................................................................................................................. 36
DCP (Dynamic Cone Penetrometer) ................................................................................................... 39
2.6 DEGREE OF COMPACTION .................................................................................................... 41
2.6.1 The degree of compaction achievable on site depends mainly on: .......................................... 41
2.6.2 The degree of compaction achieved in the field is expressed in terms of relative compaction,
CR: .......................................................................................................................................................... 41
2.6.3 An approximate procedure, suggested by D’ Appolonia et al, 1969, to determine the lift
thickness is as follows: .......................................................................................................................... 43
2.6.4 Moisture condition value ............................................................................................................. 43

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 Apparatus and sizes .............................................................................................................................. 44
Test procedure and plot........................................................................................................................ 44
Example plot and determination of MCV .......................................................................................... 45
Significance of MCV in earthworks .................................................................................................... 45
2.7 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL COMPACTION ..................................................................... 46
2.7.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOIL COMPACTION................................................................ 46
2.7.2 STRUCTURE AND ENGINEERING BEHAVIOUR OF COMPACTED SOIL. ................. 49
2.8 COMPACTION QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 52
2.9 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 54

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 SOIL COMPACTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Dr. Z. Khan. (2013). Compaction of Soil – Process, Necessity and Theory of Compaction.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, 36 (3):1-8
“Compaction of soil is an important process, as it helps soil to achieve certain physical
properties necessary for its proper behavior under loading: for example, proper compaction of an
earthen dam or a highway Embankment reduces the chances of its settlement, increases the shear
strength of the soil due to its increased density and reduces the permeability of the soil.”

To increase the shear strength, it is necessary to decrease the air voids in the soil. If the air voids
are left in the soil, the water can enter and occupy those voids. This in turn will lead to volume
change of the soil by either swelling or shrinking of the soil.

Fig.2.1. soil before and after compaction.

In 1933, Scientist R.R. Proctor showed that there is a direct relationship between the water
content in the soil and dry density of the soil to be compacted. He also showed that at a particular
water content termed as ‘optimum water content; soil attained maximum density at a specific
amount of compaction energy.

9
2.1.1 Theory of Compaction:
Compaction of soil is measured in terms of the dry density achieved. Dry density is weight of
soil solid per unit of total volume of the soil mass. Proctor showed that compaction depends
upon; moisture content, type of soil and compaction effort. He had suggested laboratory method
of study compaction in which soil sample is compacted in to a cylindrical mould of 1000 c.c. by
using standard compactive effort. Soil in the mould is weighted and its water content is
measured.

2.2 DEFINITION
1. Compaction is the process by which soil particles are packed more closely together by
dynamic loading such as rolling, tamping or vibration it is achieved through the reduction
of air voids with little or no change in water content of soil. In other words, compaction is
the use of equipment to compress soil into smaller volume thereby increasing its dry
density and improving its engineering properties. Compaction is achieved by reduction in
the volume of air, as solid and water are virtually incompressible as shown in the figure
2.2.

Fig.2.2, three phase diagrams showing the changes in soil when it is moved from its natural
location to a compaction fill.

2. Soil compaction is the densification of soil by application of a mechanical energy.

Soil compaction is measured in terms of dry unit weight, ƴd/ρd (kg/m3).

Compaction of soil is the process by which the solid particles are brought much closer together by
mechanical means, thereby increasing the dry density of the material by reduction of its pore space due

10
to the expulsion of air. The dry density which can be achieved depends on the degree of compaction
applied and on the amount of water present in the soil. For a given degree of compaction of a given
cohesive soil there is optimum moisture content (OMC) at which the dry density obtained reaches a
maximum value called maximum dry density (MDD).

2.2.1 Important terms:

Maximum Dry Density:
The dry density of soil corresponding to maximum compaction is known as maximum dry
density. It is denoted by (Yd.) max– maximum dry density of clay is more than that of sand. To
achieve maximum compaction in sand it must be compacted either in dry state or in a saturated
state.
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC):
The water content or moisture content at which the dry density is maximum for a given
compactive effort is known as optimum moisture content. Maximum dry density is achieved at
higher optimum moisture content for fine grained soils as compared to cohesion-less soil.

Table 2.1 Optimum values of maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.

Zero Air Void Line:

If all the air of soil could be expelled by compaction, the soil would become fully saturated or
the soil is at zero air voids condition. Practically it is impossible to attain full saturation by
compaction, the line showing the relationship between dry density and water content at
saturation is called zero air void line or theoretical saturation line. Zero air void line is shown in
figure 2.3

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 Fig.2.3 compaction curve

2.3 PURPOSE OF SOIL COMPACTION

Soil compaction is one of the most important parts of earth work for soil engineering.
Compaction is required for the following reasons:
 Compaction improves the engineering properties like shear strength and loading capacity,
density, permeability etc. of the fill.
 Compaction can reduce the buildup of large pressure that causes soil to liquefy during
earth quakes. Reduction in soil swelling (expansion) and collapse (soil contraction).
 It reduces the potential for excessive settlement.

 It reduces the amount of water that can be held in the soil by decreasing the void ratio and
thus helps in maintaining the required strength. Compaction reduces the void ratio
making it more difficult for water to flow through (water seepage) soil. This is important
if the soil is being used to retain water such as would be required for an earth dam.

 It reduces the chances of slope stability problems like landslides.

 It increases the erosion resistance which helps in maintaining the ground surface in
serviceable condition.

2.4 LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS

2.4.1 Determination of dry density/moisture content relationship
Types of test.
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 Three types of compaction test are described, each with procedural variations related to the
nature of the soil.
The first is the light manual compaction test in which a 2.5 kg rammer is used. The second is
the heavy manual compaction test which is similar but gives a much greater degree of
compaction by using a 4.5 kg rammer with a greater drop on thinner layers of soil. For both
these tests a compaction mould of 1 L internal volume is used for soil in which all particles
pass a 20 mm test sieve. If there is a limited amount of particles up to 37.5 mm size,
equivalent tests are carried out in the larger California Bearing Ratio (CBR) mould.
The third type of test makes use of a vibrating hammer, and is intended mainly for granular
soils passing a 37.5 mm test sieve, with no more than 30 % retained on a 20 mm test sieve.
The soil is compacted into a CBR mould.

The standard proctor compaction

the standard Proctor test was developed to deliver a standard amount of mechanical energy
(compactive effort) to determine the maximum dry unit weight of a soil.

Types of compaction tests

1.the light manual compaction test

This test covers the determination of the dry density of soil passing a 20 mm test sieve
when it is compacted in a specified manner over a range of moisture contents. The range
includes the optimum moisture content at which the maximum dry density for this degree
of compaction is obtained. In this test a 2.5 kg rammer falling through a height of 300mm
is used to compact the soil in three layers into a 1 L compaction mould.
1.1 Apparatus
 A cylindrical, corrosion-resistant metal mould
 A metal rammer having a 50; t 0.5 mm diameter circular face, and weighing 2.5
kg + 25 g.
 A balance readable to 1 g.
 A palette knife or spatula
 A straightedge, e.g. a steel strip about 300 mm long, 25 rnm wide, and 3 mm
thick, with one beveled edge.
 Test sieves, of aperture sizes 37.5mm and 20 mm and a receiver.
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  A corrosion-resistant metal orpiastics tray with sides
 Apparatus for moisture content determination
1.2 Preparation of samples

 Prepare and subdivide the initial sample to produce a representative sample of

about 6 kg of the soil.
 Add a suitable amount of water depending on the soil type and mix thoroughly.
 If the soil initially contains too much water allow it to partially air dry to the
lowest moisture content at which the soil is to be compacted, and mix thoroughly.
 If the soil is cohesive, seal in an airtight container and store for at least 24 h.
 Weigh to 0.1 % by mass the whole sample and record the mass.
 Remove and weigh to 0.1 % by mass the material retained on the 20 mm test
sieve.
 Subdivide the finer material

Grading zone

i) for soils passing the 20 mm test sieve

 Subdivide the initial sample to produce five or more representative samples,
each of about 2.5 kg
 Mix each sample thoroughly with a different amount of water to give a
suitable range of moisture contents
 If the soil initially contains more water than is required for the compaction at
the lower moisture contents, allow these samples to partially dry to the desired
moisture contents, and mix thoroughly
 If the soil is cohesive seal each sample in an airtight container and store for at
least 24 h.
ii) for soils passing the 37.5 mm rest sieve with at least 95 % passing the 20 rnm test
sieve
 Weigh the whole sample and record the mass.
 Remove and discard the material retained on the 20 mm test sieve
 Subdivide the finer material

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1.3 Procedure
Compaction procedure for soil particles
a) Weigh the mould with baseplate attached to 1 g (mJ Measure the internal
dimensions to 0.1 mm.
b) Attach the extension to the mould and place the mould assembly on a solid base,
e.g. a concrete floor or plinth.
c) Place a quantity of moist soil in the mould such that when compacted it occupies
a little over one-third of the height of the mould body.
d) ~apply 27 blows from the rammer dropped from a where height of 300 mm above
the soil as controtled by the guide tube. Distribute the blows uniformly over the
surface and ensure that the rammer always falls freely and is not obstructed by
soil in the guide tube.
e) Repeat procedures c and d twice more, so that the amount of soil used is sufficient
to fill the mould body, with the surface not more than 6 mm proud of the upper
edge of the mould body.
f) Remove the extension, strike off the excess soil and level off the surface of the
compacted soil carefully to the top of the mould using the straightedge. Replace
any coarse particles, removed in the levelling process, by finer material from the
sample, welt pressed in.
g) Remove the compacted soil from the mould and place it on the metal tray. Take a
representative sample of the soil for determination of its moisture content.
h) Break up the remainder of the soil, rub it through the 20 rnm test sieve and mix
with the remainder of the prepared test sample.
i) Add a suitable increment of water and mix thoroughly into the soil.
j) Repeat c to h to give a total of at least five determinations. The moisture contents
shall be such that the optimum moisture content, at which the maximum dry
density occurs, lies near the middle of the range.

Compaction procedure for soil particles susceptible to crushing

i) Weigh, measure and prepare the mould as described in a and b

ii) Carry out a compaction test on each of the prepared samples as described in c to g

15
iii) Discard the remainder of each compacted sample.
iv) Calculations, plotting and expression of results
v) Calculate the internal volume, V (in cm3), of the mould.
vi) Calculate the bulk density. p (in Mg/m3), of each compacted specimen from the
equation

𝑚2 − 𝑚1
𝜌=
𝑉

Where

m1 is the mass of the mould and baseplate (in g)

m2 is the mass of mould, baseplate and compacted soil (in g)

k) On the same graph, plot the curves corresponding to 0 %, 5 % and 10 % air voids,
calculated from the equation
𝑉𝑎
1 − 100
𝜌𝑑 =
1 𝑤
𝜌𝑠 + 100𝜌𝑤
where
ρd is the dry density (in Mglrn3); p, is the particle density (in Mg/m3);
ρs, is the density of water (in Mglm3), assumed equal to 1;
ρw, is the volume of air voids in the soil, expressed as a percentage of the total
volume of the soil (equal to 0 %, 5 %, 10 % for the purpose of this plot);
w is the moisture content (in %).
Test report
The test report shall affirm that the test was carried out in accordance with this
Part of this standard and shall contain the following information:
(a) the method of test used
(b) the sample preparation procedure, and whether a single sample or separate
samples were used. In the case of stiff, cohesive soil the size of pieces to which
the soil was broken down shall be stated.
(c) the experimental points and the smooth curve drawn through them showing
the relationship between moisture content and dry density.

16
 (d) the dry density corresponding to the maximum dry density on the moisture
content/dry density curve, reported as the maximum dry density to the nearest
0.01 (in Mg/m3).
(e) the percentage moisture content corresponding to the maximum dry density on
the moisture content/dry density curve reported as the optimum moisture content
to two significant figures.
(f) the amount of stone retained on the 20 mm and 37.5 mm test sieves reported to
the nearest 1 % by dry mass;
(g) the particle density and whether measured (and if so, the method used) or
assumed.
(BS-1377:part4:1990 pg.)

2. Method using vibrating hammer

This test covers the determination of the dry density of soil, which may contain some
particles up to coarse gravel site, when it is compacted by vibration in a specified manner
over a range of moisture contents. The range includes the optimum moisture content at
which the maximum dry density for the specified degree of compaction is obtained. In
this test the soil is compacted into a CBR mould using an electrically operated vibrating
hammer.
Apparatus
 A cylindrical, corrosion-resistant metal mould, i.e. the CBR mould
 An electric vibrating hammer having a power consumption between 600 Wand
750 W and operating at a frequency between 25 Hz to 45 Hz.
 A steel tamper for attachment to the vibrating hammer.
 Supporting guide frame for vibrating hammer
 A depth gauge or steel rule, or other device which enables the sample depth to be
measured to an accuracy of 0.5 mm.
 A balance readable to 5 g.
 A straightedge, e.g. a steel strip about 300 mm long, 25 mm wide, and 3 mm
thick. with one bevelled edge.
 Test sieves, of aperture sizes 37.5 rnm and 20 mm, and receiver

17
 A corrosion-resistant metal or plastics tray with sides
 A scoop.
 A stop clock readable to 1 s.
Calibration of vibrating hammer
The vibrating hammer shall be maintained in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions. Its working parts shall not be badly worn.
i) Material. Clean, dry, silica sand, from the Woburn Beds of the Lower
Greensand in the Leighton Buzzard district*. The grading shall be such that 100
% passes a 600 mm test sieve and 100 % is retained on a 63 pm test sieve. The
sand shall be free from flaky particles, silt, clay and organic matter.
Procedure
a) Weigh the mould, with baseplate attached, to 5 g/m). Measure the internal
dimensions to 0.5 rnm
b) Attach the extension e mould and pl ace the mould assembly on a solid base,
e.g. a concrete floor or plinth.
c) Place a quantity of moist soil in the mould such that when compacted it
occupies a little over one-third of the height of the mould body.
d) Place the circular tamper on the soil and compact with the vibrating hammer
for 60 ± 2 s. During this period apply a steady downward force on the hammer
so that the total downward force on the sample, including that from the mass
of the hammer, is between 300 N and 400 N.
e) Repeat b and d twice more.
f) Remove any loose material lying on the surface of the sample around the sides
of the mould.
g) Lay a straightedge across the top of the extension collar and measure down to
the surface of the sample to an accuracy of 0.5 mm. Take readings at four
points spaced evenly over the surface of the sample all at least 15 mm from
the side of the mould. Calculate the mean height, h (in mm, of the sample. If
the sample is less than 127 mm or more than 133 mm in height, reject it and
repeat the test from c) until a sample of the required height is obtained.
h) Weigh the soil and mould with baseplate to 5 g (in mm).

18
 i) Remove the compacted soil from the mould and place it on the metal tray.
Take a representative sample of the soil for determination of its moisture
content.
j) 0 Break up the remainder of the soil, rub it through 0 the 20 mm or the 37.5
mm test sieve and mix with the t remainder of the prepared test sample.
k) Add a suitable increment of water and mix thoroughly into the soil.
Compaction procedure for soil particle susceptible to crushing
a) Weigh, measure and prepare the CBR mould
b) Carry out a compaction test on each of the prepared samples in turn as described
c) Discard the remainder of each compacted sample.
d) Calculations, plotting and expression of results
e) Calculate the bulk density, p (in Mg/m3), of each compacted specimen from the
equation
𝑚2 −𝑚1
𝜌 =( )1000
𝐴ℎ

where
m1 is the mass of mould and baseplate {in g);
m2 is the mass of mould, baseplate and compacted soil (in g)
h is the height of the compacted sample (in mm); A is the circular area of the mould
(in mm2).
f) Calculate the dry density, pd (in Mg/m3), of each compacted specimen from the
equation
100𝑝
ρd=100+𝑤

where w is the moisture content of the soil (in %)

g) Plot the dry densities obtained from a series of determinations as ordinates against the
corresponding moisture contents as abscissae. Draw a curve of best fit to the plotted
points and identify the position of the maximum on this curve. Read off the values of
dry density and moisture content, to three significant figures, corresponding to that
point.
h) On the same graph, plot the curves corresponding to 0 %, 5 % and 10 % air voids,
calculated from the equation

19
 𝑉
1− 𝑎
ρd = 1 100
𝑤
+
𝜌𝑠 100𝜌𝑤

where
ρd is the dry density (in Mg/m3);
ρs, is the particle density ‘: n Mg/m3);
ρw, is the density of water (in ~), g/m3 equal to 1: V, is the volume of air voids in the
soil, expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the soil (equal to 0 %, 5 %. 10
% for the purpose of this plot); w is the moisture content (in %)
Test report
The test report shall affirm that the test was carried out in accordance with this Part of
this standard and shall contain the following information:
(a) the method of test used;
(b) the sample preparation procedure, and whether a single sample or separate
samples were used;
(c) the experimental points and the smooth curve drawn through them showing
the relationship between moisture content and dry density;
(d) the dry density corresponding to the maximum dry density on the moisture
content/dry density curve reported as the maximum dry density to the nearest
0.0'1 (in Mg/m3)
(e) the percentage moisture content corresponding to the maximum dry density on
the moisture content/dry density curve reported as the optimum moisture
content to two significant figures; {f) the amount of stone retained on the 37.5
mm test sieve reported to the nearest 1 % by dry mass;
(f) the particle density and whether measured (and if so, the method used} or
assumed; the particle density and whether measured (and if so, the method
used} or assumed
(BS-1377:part4 1990)

3. Method using 4.5 kg rammer for soils

Objectives

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  The main objective of this compaction test is to obtain the relationship between the
compacted dry density and the moisture content of the soil, using two magnitudes of the
compaction efforts. The maximum dry density obtained in the laboratory is related to that
in the field and the degree of compaction is calculated as a percentage.
 To determine the amount of moisture content required during the compaction process
 To reduce the air voids in the soil that may lead to loosening of the soil during harsh
conditions
 To increase on the density of the soil hence increasing on its strength.

Reference

BS 1377: Part 4: 1990

Apparatus used

4.5kg rammer was used of diameter 50mm and 450mm height drop, a drying oven at a temperature of
1050c, balance readable to 1g, moisture tins, moulds with the base plate and extension collar
assembled, straight edge, rubber mallet, graduated cylinder, a 20mm sieve and a metal tray

Procedure

i. A representative soil sample of about 15kg was dried and passed through a 20mm sieve.
The sample was then divided into five portions of 2.5kg each.
ii. The weight of the mould to be used was weighed and recorded. The inside surface of the
mould was oiled to enable the compacted samples not to stick on the sides of the mould.
iii. The first portion of the sample was put on a tray, and mixed with water uniformly until the
soil could form a mould in the hands. The amount of water added was recorded from the
graduated cylinder and the soil sample was divided into 5 other portions since we were to
do a 5point compaction test.
iv. Each portion was added into the cylindrical metallic mould and 27 blows were applied on
to each layer of the sample using a 4.5kg rammer.
v. The weight of the compacted soil and the mould was read and recorded from the balance.
vi. The compacted soil was removed from the mould and a representative sample was picked
for moisture determination.

21
vii. The other 2.5kg of the remaining four portions of the soil samples were treated the same
way as in procedure (iii) to (vi) above and the results tabulated.
viii. The bulky density and the dry density for the soil sample was calculated from the formulae
below.

m2 −m1
Bulk density, ρ = v
x1000

100ρ
Dry density, ρd =
100 + mc

Where;

m2 is the mass of the mould, base plate and compacted soil

m1 is the mass of the mould and the base plate

V is the volume of the mould

22
Figure 2.1.1: Shows dry density against moisture content

2.5 FIELD COMPACTION TESTS

2.5.1 DESIGN OF COMPACTION FOR ROADS, EMBANKMENTS ETC.
Compaction of embankments

23
Uniformity of compaction is of prime importance in preventing uneven settlement. Although
some settlement can be tolerated it is important that it is minimized, especially on the approaches
to bridges and culverts where adequate compaction is essential.

In the United Kingdom, compaction requirements are usually specified by means of a method
specification which eliminates the need for in situ density tests (Department of Transport
(1986)). In tropical countries it is more usual to use an end product specification. It is therefore
essential that laboratory tests are carried out to determine the dry density/moisture content
relationships for the soils to be used and to define the achievable densities. In the tropics the
prevailing high temperatures promote the drying of soils. This can be beneficial with soils of
high plasticity but, generally, greater care is necessary to keep the moisture content of the soil as
close as possible to the optimum for compaction with the particular compaction plant in use.

The upper 500 mm of soil immediately beneath the subbase or capping layer i e the top of the
embankment fill or the natural subgrade, should be well compacted In practice this means that a
minimum level of 93-95 per cent of the maximum dry density obtained in the British Standard
(Heavy) Compaction Test, 4 5 kg rammer should be specified (a level of 98 per cent is usually
specified for roadbases and sub-bases). The same density should also be specified for fill behind
abutments to bridges and for the backfill behind culverts. For the lower layers of an
embankment, a compaction level of 90-93 per cent of the maximum dry density obtained in the
British Standard (Heavy) Compaction Test, 4.5 kg rammer, is suitable, or a level of 95100 per
cent of the maximum density obtained in the lighter test using the 2.5 kg yammer. The British
Standard Vibrating Hammer Test (BS 1377, Part 4 (1990)) should be used for non-cohesive soils
and a level of 90-93 per cent of maximum density should be specified for the lower layers and 95
per cent for the upper layers. Compaction trials should always be carried out to determine the
best way to achieve the specified density with the plant available (Parsons (1993)).

In and areas where water is either unavailable or expensive to haul, the dry compaction
techniques developed by O'Connell et al (1987) and Ellis (1980) should be considered. Figure
2.5.2 illustrates that high densities can be achieved at low moisture contents using conventional
compaction plant, and field trials have shown that embankments can be successfully constructed
using these methods. Whitlow, R., 1990. Basic soil mechanics.

24
 Fig 2.5.2

Table 2.5.1 REOOV.MENDED MINIMUM REQUREMENTS FOR COMPACIION OF

EMBANKMENTS CONDITION OF EXPOSURE

class of CONDITION 1 CONDITION 2

Soil (Not Subject to Inundation) (Subject to Periods of Inundation)
(AA9C Height of Slope Compaction Height of Slope Compaction
M 145-49 Fill (f t.) (% Fill (f t.) (%
of AASHO of AASHO
Max. D.) Max. D)
A-1 Not critical 3/2 to 1 95+ Not Critical 2 to 1 95

A-3 Not critical 3/2 to 1 100+ Not Critical 2 to 1 100+

A-2-4 Less than 2 to 1 95+ Less than 3 to 1 95

50) 10)
A-2-5 Less than 10 to 50) 3 to 1 95 to 100
50)
A-4 Less than 2 to 1 95+ Less than 3 to 1 95 to 100
50) 50)

25
 A-5 Less than
50)
A-6 Less than 2 to 1 90-95a Less than 3 to 1 95 to 100
50) SO
A-7

Embankments.
Because of the wide difference in the range of values indicative of the measures of various soil
properties, hard-and-fast limiting values of densities for compaction cannot be drawn. Discussion
under "Degree of Densification Needed" and the range of values in Table 1 relate need with
design of slopes under the two conditions of (1) inundation and (2) not subject to inundation. The
values of relative density (percent of standard AASHO) are all less than the maximum
practicable limits. Hence no compromise need be made due to construction limitations. Such
com-promise may need to be made for very high fill s indicating high compaction requirements.
That must then be done by flattening slopes or using selected soils. An analysis of conditions f o
r high fills should be made by soil mechanics methods which are beyond the scope of this report.

2.5.2 EQUIPMENTS OR TOOLS/ METHODS OF COMPACTION.

Method of Field Compaction:
A suitable method of compaction is selected in the field to achieve the maximum dry density.

The method of compaction includes the following steps:

(i) Selecting the borrow soil.

(ii) Loading the soil from the pit, transporting and dumping it to the site, (bulldozers and wheel
loaders can transport soils for short distances. Scrapers are very efficient for moderate distance.
Dump trucks can be used to transport instead of scrapes, especially when the soil is being
excavated by loaders).

(iii) Spreading the dumped soil into thin layers normally 200 mm thick.

26
(iv) Changing the water content of the soil either by drying or by adding water if it is above or
below the OMC respectively.

(v) Selecting suitable compaction equipment and compacting it. Next layer is placed after
compacting the first layer. Soil is compacted either by rolling or ramming or vibration. The
number of passes required for a compacting equipment to obtain a specific density is worked out
by determining the density of the compacted material after definite number of passes.

Field Compaction Equipment’s: The following types of equipment’s are used in the field
for compacting embankments, sub-grades, road bases etc.:
(a) Rollers

(b) Rammers

(c) Vibrators.

Different types of rollers used in field for compaction are:

(i) Sheep foot rollers

(ii) Tamping foot rollers

(iii) Smooth wheel rollers

(iv) Pneumatic tyred rollers

(v) Vibratory rollers

(i) Sheep foot rollers:

Sheep foot rollers compact soil by pressure and kneading. These rollers can be used on a variety
of soils, but best results are obtained in silts and clays. It consists of a hollow steel drum with
large number of projections like sheep foot on its surface. The drum can be filled with water or
wet-sand to increase the weight of the roller.

27
(ii) Tamping foot rollers:
Tamping foot rollers are very similar to sheep’s foot rollers with a difference that they use large
feet with a correspondingly smaller contact pressure. They can be operated at a faster speed, but
cannot compact soil to a great depth.

(iii) Smooth wheel rollers:

These types of rollers are not well suited for compacting soil because the contact pressure is
much lower than that of sheep’s foot rollers. These rollers are used to compact aggregate base
course and asphalt pavements. Smooth wheel rollers are of two types. The usual type has a single
drum at the front and two rollers of large diameter at the rear. The other type has two identical
drums, one each at the front and back.

(vi) Pneumatic tyred rollers:

28
Pneumatic tyred rollers (also known as rubber tyred rollers) compact soil by pressure and
kneading. These rollers are heavy units resting on several tyres. Each tyre is able to move up and
down independently. The contact pressure is about 600 KPa. These rollers can compact soil
layers with loose thickness of 250-300 mm. These rollers are well suited for compaction both
cohesive and cohesion-less soils.

(v) Vibratory rollers:

Vibratory rollers are similar to smooth wheel rollers with an addition of a vibrating mechanism.
These rollers compact soils by pressure, kneading and vibration. These are suitable for sandy and
gravelly soils. The heaviest of these rollers can compact soil having loose thickness up to 1 m.

Rammers:
Rammers are used for compacting soils in relative small areas and where rollers cannot be
operated such as compacting trenches slopes etc.

Rammers used in field compaction are of two types:

(i) Hand operated rammers

(ii) Mechanical rammers.

Hand operated rammers are used for compacting soils of smaller areas. It consists of an iron
block. About 3 to 4 kg in weight, attached to a wooden handle. Blows are given on the soil to be
compacted by lifting and dropping the rammer. Mechanical rammers can be used for all types of
soils, but it is not cost effective. It is suitable for compacting soils where other methods of
compaction cannot be used. It is much heavier than hand operated rammer, weighing between 30
to 150 kg. Mechanical rammer may be internal combustion type or pneumatic type.

Vibrators:
Vibrators are used for compacting sandy and gravelly soils. These compact the soil by use of
vibration vibratory compaction equipment utilizes eccentric weights or some other device to
induce strong vibrations into the soil. Vibrations produced by vibrators typically have frequency
of 1000-3500 cycles per minute. If a vibrating unit is mounted on a roller, then it is called
vibratory roller. Plate type vibrators are also available in the market.

29
Choice of Compaction Equipment:
The proper selection of compaction equipment and methods depends upon the followings:
(i) Type of soil

(ii) Size of project

(iii) Compaction requirements

(iv) Required production rate

(v) Moisture content of soil

No single equipment is the best choice for all situations.

Table 2.5.1 indicates the suitability of compaction equipment for different types of soils.

30
 2.5.2 FIELD COMPACTION TESTS.
Sand Replacement Method (In-Situ Density)
This is carried out to determine the relative compaction carried out in the field compared to specified
compaction.

Objective

 To determine the maximum dry density of the soil in the field and compare it with that in
the laboratory and know the degree of compaction at each section on the road

Apparatus used

Scoop, Brush, Metal tray with a hole of diameter 100mm, Nails, Club hammer, Chisel, Sand, Polythene
bags, Sand cylinder.

Reference

BS 1377: Part 9: 1990

Cone calibration and bulky density factor

Procedure

i. About 20kg of sand (passing 600 micrometer sieve and retained on 300 micrometer sieve)
was weighed.

31
 ii. The density apparatus was placed upright on a firm level surface (glass plate) with the
valve closed and 20kg was poured into the density apparatus.
iii. The valve was then opened fully; the sand was allowed to flow until there is no more sand
flowing.
iv. The valve was then closed sharply, the apparatus was removed and the weight/ mass of the
remaining sand (M2) in the density apparatus was determined.
v. The weight of the sand required to fill the cone and the base plate was calculated by the
difference between the initial weight/ mass of sand (20kg) and the weight/ mass of the sand
remaining in the apparatus.
vi. This was recorded as the cone correction.
vii. Cone correction (M3) = initial weight (20kg) – final weight of sand (M2)

Determination of the bulky density of sand to be used in the field

Procedure

i. The calibration container was positioned on a clean, level, plane surface or tray. The base
plate was then placed on the calibration container.
ii. The density apparatus was placed on the base plate.
iii. About 20kg of sand was poured into the density apparatus with the valve closed.
iv. The valve was opened fully and kept open until the sand stopped flowing.
v. The valve was closed sharply, the apparatus removed and the mass (M2) of the sand
remaining in the apparatus was determined.
vi. The weight of sand required to fill the container, cone and base plate was calculated.

Note

The sand cylinder had a cone at the bottom part of known volume and density and therefore the mass
of the sand was known and then subtracted from the total weight of the sand retained in the cylinder.
The soil sample was oven dried for 24 hours and later compacted and it’s OMC and MDD recorded

The relative compaction was obtained from;

32
 field density
Degree of compaction = lab density
x100%

Determination of the field density

100ρ
dry density =
100 + w

Assume that the MDD is 2.01

Test point 1.

Total weight of the sand (g) 3000

Weight of the sand remained (g) 1054.82
Total weight of the soil (g) 2120.81
Weight tin + sample (g) 584.94
Tin no. MN
Tin + Dried soil sample(g) 1535.04
Moisture content 11.8%
Tin Weight(g) 112.91
Density of sand (Mg/m3) 1.36
Weight of sand in cone (g) 490
Volume of the hole 0.0011
Bulk density (Mg/m3) 1.928
Dry density (Mg/m3) 1.725
Degree of compaction (%) 85.8%

Table 2.5.2: Shows results for field density

2.5.3 Soil Strength Tests

CBR (California Bearing Ratio) Using One-Point Method
This method covers the laboratory determination of the CBR of the soil, which is obtained by measuring
the relationship between force and penetration, when cylindrical plunger of cross-sectional area
1935mm2 made to penetrate the soil at a given rate. At any value of penetration, the ratio of the force
to a standard force is defined as the California Bearing Ratio (CBR).

Objective

33
  Determination of the strength of a sub-grade, sub-base, and base course materials are
expressed in terms of their CBR value.

References

BS 1377: Part 4: 1990

Apparatus used

Test sieves 20mm, Cylindrical metal mould, Metal rammer of 4.5kg, Steel straight edge, Spatula,
Balance, CBR machine, Loading ring, Stopwatch, Surcharge discs, Dial gauge, Rubber mallet.

Procedure

i. The sample was obtained from the field, left to air dry and then sieved through a 20mm
sieve to obtain a representative sample.
ii. A representative soil sample was divided into 2 portions each of 6kg and placed in an
airtight container to prevent moisture loss.
iii. Moulds were then placed on a concrete floor and the first portion compacted for 30 blows
distributively.
iv. The extension collar was removed and the soil trimmed using a straight edge.
v. The mould, soil sample and the base plate were weighed.
vi. The sample was exposed to hash conditions by soaking it for 4 days
vii. The mould with its contents was then placed on the CBR machine for testing with the top
face exposed.
viii. Appropriate annular surcharge disc was placed on top of the sample and also the cylindrical
plunger placed on top of the sample.
ix. A seating force was then applied onto the plunger in accordance to the expected CBR value
that followed
x. The initial reading of the loading ring was recorded as zero and the dial gauge secured in
position
xi. Readings of 0.5mm to 7.5mm were recorded and both ends of the sample were tested in
the same way

34
xii. The moisture content of the sample was determined and calculations taken

PX100
CBR Value =
constant at given penetration

Where P is the plunger force

TEST METHOD: CML TEST 1.10, ref. BS 1377: Part 4 :1990

Penetration of
Dial Gauge Reading Force on Plunger
Plunger (mm)

At Top At Bottom At Top At Bottom

0.5 6 8 0.702 0.936

1 11 15 1.287 1.755
1.5 17 24 1.989 2.808
2 23 34 2.691 3.978
2.5 30 44 3.51 5.148
3 36 53 4.212 6.201
3.5 44 65 5.148 7.605
4 51 76 5.967 8.892
4.5 60 87 7.02 10.179
5 68 98 7.956 11.466
5.5 76 109 8.892 12.753
6 83 118 9.711 13.806
6.5 91 129 10.647 15.093
7 100 139 11.7 16.263
7.5 109 147 12.753 17.199

35
 CBR at

TOP

2.5mm 0.26

5mm 0.40

BOTTOM

2.5mm 0.38

5mm 0.58

CBR %

Top 40.06

Bottom 57.73

Average 49

Table 2.5.3: Shows results for CBR (results were adopted from elsewhere for study purposes
only)

Shear Box Method

The shear box allows the direct shear test made by relating the shear stress at failure to the applied
normal stress.

Objectives

 To determine the effective shear strength parameters of the soil. That is the cohesion (c’),
the angle of internal friction (β) which eventually helps us in the determination of the
bearing capacity of the soil.
 To determine the lateral shear resistance of the soil.

References

BS 1377: Part 7: 1990

36
Apparatus used

Shear box machine (60mm2 and 30mm high), Two porous plates made of corrosion resistant material,
two perforated grid plates of about the same size, a Ring, a glass plate, a Spatula, a Motorized loading
device capable of applying a horizontal shear, Dial gauges for reading both the Vertical displacement
and Vertical deformation during the test, Specimen cutter, Balance, Vanier caliper, Silicon grease.

Materials used

Undisturbed soil sample

Water to saturate the soil sample

Procedure

i. The sample was taken to the extruder machine to be removed from the core and then placed
in an air tight container (polythene).
ii. The dimensions of the square ring to be used were measured and also its weight was
measured and recorded as (R).
iii. Silicon grease was applied onto the inner walls of the ring to enable the soil sample move
freely into the ring.
iv. The ring was then pressed into the undisturbed soil sample and the exceeding sample was
cut off using a cutter. The weight of the ring and the soil sample was measured from the
balance and recorded (R+S).
v. The shear box was assembled in a way that the two halves were clamped together and
placed in position in the carriage.
vi. The perforated plate was placed at the bottom of the ring followed by the porous plate.
vii. The ring was the put-on top of the shear box and extruded into the box. The machine was
adjusted until there was a deflection on the dial gauge. The drive unit was initiated and
reading from dial gauge for both the horizontal and vertical displacements were recorded
for the 35kg applied on the soil sample in the box for an interval of 30 seconds using a stop
clock.
viii. Different loads of 35kg, 45kg and 55kg were also loaded and their displacements recorded.
Note: Area= 3.6𝑚2
Ring Constant = 0.0016106

37
Normal stress and Shear stress were calculated from the formulae below respectively

(Actual load + Weight of hanger) x 9.81

Normal Stress =
Area

(Maximum shear value x Ring constant) x 5

Shear Stress =
Area

Depth was 2.5m

Bulky density Normal stress Shear strength Cohesion (KPa) Angle of internal
(Mg/m3) (KPa) (KPa) friction(degree)
1.74 23.1 18.3 6 33
77.6 60.4
132.1 88.1
Table 2.5.4: Shows results for shear test (results were adopted from elsewhere for
study purposes only)

38
 Shear Strength Vs Normal Stress

100.0

80.0
Shear strength

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Normal Stress

Figure 2.5.3: Shows shear stress against normal stress

DCP (Dynamic Cone Penetrometer)

The DCP is an equipment used as a rapid means of assessing the thickness and insitu strengths of the
underlying sublayers in each test pit. Continuous measurements can be made down to a depth of 800
mm or, when an extension rod is fitted, to a depth of 1200 mm. Where pavement layers have different
strengths, the boundaries can be identified and the thickness of the layers determined.

Correlations have been established between measurements with DCP and California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
so that results can be interpreted and compared with CBR specifications for pavement design

Apparatus

The DCP uses an 8kg weight dropping through a height of 575 mm and a 60" cone having a diameter of
20mm.

The apparatus has the following parts;

39
Handle, Top Rod, Hammer (8kg), Anvil, Hand guard Cursor, Bottom Rod, 1 Meter rule, 60o Cone,
Spanners and Tommy bar are used to ensure that the screwed joints are kept tight at all times.

Objective
 To determine the bearing capacity of the sub-grade and sub grade using the dynamic cone
penetrometer.
Procedure
i. Assemble parts and make sure the connections are tight and secured. Loose connections
could result in equipment damage with pointed end down.
ii. Place the penetrometer gently on testing area.
iii. Mark the initial reading in mm
iv. Lift the hammer carefully to the top of the small cylinder and release, making sure not to
slam the hammer against the top thus making a free fall.
v. Mark the amount of penetration on each drop by taking a reading from the rule
vi. Repeat procedure iv and v until the instrument penetrates approximately 1m

Initial reading=45mm

40
Table 2.5.5: Shows results for DCP (results were adopted from elsewhere for study purposes
only)

2.6 DEGREE OF COMPACTION

2.6.1 The degree of compaction achievable on site depends mainly on:
Compactive effort: type of plant + Number of passes
Water content: can be increased if dry.
Type of soil: higher densities with well-graded soils; fine soils have higher water contents
Retrieved from
http://environment.uwe.ac.uk/geocal/SoilMech/compaction/compaction.htm#PACTSPEC
2.6.2 The degree of compaction achieved in the field is expressed in terms of relative
compaction, CR:
CR =Yd/ (Yd) max x 100%
where Yd = dry density achieved in the field

(Yd)max = Laboratory maximum dry density

Table2.6.1 represents typical requirement of compaction:

Typical compaction requirements specified by the IRC are given in the table 2.6.2

41
The soil is compacted in layers, loose thickness not exceeding 250 mm. Sheep-foot rollers can
compact lifts with loose thickness of about 200 mm. Due allowance for evaporation losses at the
time of compaction should be made in the range of 1 % above and 2% below OMC for water
content of each layer for road works.
Table 2.6.3 The purpose of compaction in the different parts of the road structure may
be itemized as follows
Part of Road Structure Purpose of Densification
Embankments To prevent detrimental settlement
To aid in providing stable slopes
Subgrade Materials To provide bearing capacity
To control volume change
To provide uniformity
Bases and Subbases To provide uniform high bearing capacity

Thickness Control:
The control of compacted thickness or lift thickness plays an important role in compaction of
fills. The dry density of a compacted layer decreases with depth as the thickness of compacted
layer is increased. So, soil is compacted in thin layer and each layer is compacted before placing
the next layer. If the layer is thin, then the entrapped air can be driven out from the soil pores
with small compactive effort.

If the lift thickness is not controlled, then there is chance of loose layer trapped near the interface
between compacted layers as shown in figure 2.6.1. For dams, the lift thickness is limited to 220
mm where heavy Pneumatic rollers are used. For embankment, the lift thickness is limited to 150
mm. Lift thickness is limited to 300 mm for coarse grained soil.

Fig. 2.6.1

42
2.6.3 An approximate procedure, suggested by D’ Appolonia et al, 1969, to determine the
lift thickness is as follows:
(i) The number of passes per layer is first fixed.

(ii) Obtain the relative density vs depth curve, as shown in figure 2.6.2 (a), for the fixed number
of passes. Then from the curve find the depth at which maximum compaction is achieved i.e.,
dmax is determined.
(iii) The actual placement lift thickness ’d’ should be small enough so that a loose layer is not
trapped near the interface between lifts. This problem can be avoided by choosing d not much
higher than dmax. Figure 2.6.2 (b) shows the relative density vs depth curve for the placement lift
thickness d equal to dmax.

Fig. 2.6.2
(iv) If the placement lift thickness, d is significantly less than dmax , then much of the compactive
effort is wasted.
2.6.4 Moisture condition value

 Apparatus and sizes

 Test procedure and plot
 Example plot and determination of MCV
 Significance of MCV in earthworks

This is a procedure developed by the Road Research Laboratory using only one sample, thus
making laboratory compaction testing quicker and simpler. The minimum compactive effort to

43
produce near-full compaction is determined. Soil placed in a mould is compacted by blows from
a rammer dropping 250 mm; the penetration after each blow is measured.

Apparatus and sizes

Cylindrical mould, with permeable base plate:

internal diameter = 100 mm, internal height at least 200 mm

Rammer, with a flat face:

face diam = 97 mm, mass = 7.5 kg, free-fall height = 250 mm

Soil:

1.5 kg passing a 20 mm mesh sieve

Test procedure and plot

 Firstly, the rammer is lowered on to the soil surface and allowed to penetrate under its
own weight
 The rammer is then set to a height of 250 mm and dropped on to the soil
 The penetration is measured to 0.1 mm
 The rammer height is reset to 250 mm and the drop repeated until no further penetration
occurs, or until 256 drops have occurred
 The change in penetration (Dp) is recorded between that for a given number of blows (n)
and that for 4n blows
 A graph is plotted of Dp / n and a line drawn through the steepest part
 The moisture condition value (MCV) is given by the intercept of this line and a special
scale

44
Example plot and determination of MCV

After plotting Dp against the number of blows n, a line is drawn through the steepest part.

The intercept of this line and the 5 mm penetration line give the MCV

The defining equation is: MCV = 10 log B

(where B = number of blows corresponding to 5 mm penetration)

On the example plot here an MCV of 13 is indicated.

Significance of MCV in earthworks

The MCV test is rapid and gives reproducible results which correlate well with engineering
properties. The relationship between MCV and water content for a soil is near to a straight line,
except for heavily over consolidated clays. A desired value of undrained strength or
compressibility can be related to limiting water content, and so the MCV can be used as a control
value after calibrating MCV vs w for the soil. An approximate correlation between MCV and
undrained shear strength has been suggested by Parsons (1981).

Log su = 0.75 + 0.11(MCV)

45
Job of an Embankment Supervisor:
The job of a supervisor is to supervise the construction operation in the field and to mobilize the
manpower and equipment’s required for the construction operation. A good supervisor should
have technique and confidence to solve any problem arising during construction and in any case
should not allow the construction work to stop.

The job of an embankment supervisor is listed below:

(i) To have knowledge of different types of soil and its engineering properties.

(ii) To select a suitable compaction plant or equipment.

(iii) To control the water content in soil layers.

(iv) To control the lift thickness to achieve proper compaction.

(v) To avoid over compaction. Over compaction sometimes results slicken sides as shear failure
surface developed adjacent to the contact between soil and roller foot. This problem is a mainly
observed in sheep’s foot roller.

(vi) To have knowledge of proper admixtures.

(vii) To have in depth knowledge of optimum moisture control.

2.7 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL COMPACTION

2.7.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOIL COMPACTION.
Dr. Z. Khan. (2013). Compaction of Soil – Process, Necessity and Theory of Compaction.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, 36 (3):1-8
The various factors which affect the compacted density are as follows:
(i) Moisture content

(ii) Compactive effort

46
(iii) Type of soil

(iv) Method of compaction

(v) Addition of admixture.

(i) Moisture content:

Moisture content of the soil has the most important effect in the compacted density, out of all the
factors affecting compaction. As the moisture content is increased, the dry density goes on
increasing till; a maximum value is achieved as shown in figure 2.7.1 After further increase in
moisture content reduces the dry density of soil. It is explained as follows: at low moisture
content shearing resistance is large; soil tends Line of to be stiff and is difficult to compact. At
increased moisture content, water lubricates the soil particles and making it more workable.

This results in lower void ratio and higher dry density. After achieving the maximum dry density
at particular moisture content, if moisture content is increased further the water tends to keep the
soil particles apart without causing appreciable decrease in the air voids. This results in low dry
density.

Fig 2.7.1
(ii) Compactive effort (amount of compaction):

47
The amount of compaction greatly affects the maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content (OMC). Increasing compactive effort tends to increase the maximum dry density, but
decreases the OMC as shown in the figure 2.7.2 It is clear from the graph that maximum dry
density for a soil is only a maximum for specific compactive efforts.

Fig 2.7.2
The line drawn through the peaks of different compaction curves for different compactive efforts
for the same soil is known as “line of optimums”.

(iii) Types of soil:

For a specific compactive effort different soils achieve different maximum dry density at
different OMC. Higher densities at lower optimum moisture contents are achieved in well graded
coarse grained soils. Fine grained soils have much higher optimum moisture content and lower
maximum dry densities as these require more water for lubrication because of greater specific
surface. Figure 8.6 shows the general shape of water content and dry density curve for cohesive
and cohesion-less soil.

(iv) Method of compaction:

The method of compaction used not only influences the ease with which a particular soil is
compacted but also influences soil properties of the compacted material through its influence on

48
the structure of the compacted soil. For a specific compactive effort, the dry density of a soil will
be different if the method of compaction used is different.

(v) Addition of admixtures:

Different admixtures like cement fly ash, lime, Kankar etc. are added to improve the compaction
properties of soil. The maximum dry density achieved depends upon the amount and type of
admixture added to the soil. The admixture of electrolytes increases the maximum dry density by
5 to 10% and decreases the OMC. Calcium chloride which is used to improve gravel roads in dry
weather increases the dry density by as much as 12%.

2.7.2 STRUCTURE AND ENGINEERING BEHAVIOUR OF COMPACTED SOIL.

 Structure
1. At a given compaction effort, the wet of optimum gives a dispersed structure of the soil.
2. At a given moisture content, the dry of optimum gives more increase in the dry unit
weight of the soil if the compaction effort is increased.

Fig 2.7.3

 Permeability

When the water content increases then the permeability decreases, this is true up to the optimum
moisture content. The least permeability occurs slightly above the optimum moisture content and

49
after the optimum moisture content the permeability starts increasing because the particles are
displaced and the water starts moving between them.

Fig 2.7.4

 Compressibility (refer to fig. 2.7.5 (b) below)

1. For low stresses, on the dry side of the optimum the soil is less compressible since the
inter particle forces are still holding the particles and more compressible on the wet side
of the optimum.
2. For high stresses, the flocculated structure of the soil on the dry side of the optimum will
be broken and it will be more compressible while it will be less compressible at the wet
side of the optimum.

50
 Fig 2.7.5

 Swelling (refer to fig. 2.7.5 (a) above)

At the dry side of optimum water can easily enter in the pores of the soils hence more swelling
while on the wet side of the optimum moisture content the pores are already filled hence less
swelling will occur.

 Shrinkage (refer to fig.2.7.5 (a) above)

On the dry side of the optimum moisture content the inter particle forces will hold the particles in
place hence less shrinkage while on the wet side of the optimum moisture content the particles
are well aligned which means shrinkage will most likely occur.

 Stress- strain relationship

1. On the dry side of the optimum moisture content the stress will increase more rapidly
compared to the strain but at higher stresses this structure will break completely. It has a
pick.
2. On the wet side of the optimum moisture content the stress will increase together with the
strain, it does not show a pick.

51
 Fig 2.7.6

 Pore water pressure

On the wet side of the optimum moisture content, when a load is placed on the soil the pore
water pressure will be doubled and with time it will settle more. This is the reason as to why it is
advisable to compact at a lower moisture content than the optimum moisture content.

2.8 COMPACTION QUESTIONS

 Define water content and compaction?
 Discuss the effect of compaction on various engineering properties of soil?
 Differentiate standard proctor from modified proctor test?
 What is the purpose of soil compaction?
 What is the meaning of 98% of compaction?

52
APPENDICES

Tests for moisture content sieving the soil sample

Weighing of soil sample taking sieve results

53
The compaction test

2.9 REFERENCES
BS 1377: Part 4: 1990, compaction of soils.

BS 1377: Part 4: 1990 and TMH 1: 1986: A8, one point CBR test.

Whitlow, R., 1990. Basic soil mechanics.

Kézdi, Á., 1980. Handbook of Soil Mechanics. Vol. 2. Soil Testing. Elsevier Scientific Publishing
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Mitchell, J.K., Carrier III, W.D., Houston, W.N., Scott, R.F., Bromwell, L.G., Durgunoglu, H.T., Hovland,
H.J., Treadwell, D.D. and Costes, N.C., 1972. Soil mechanics.

Das, B.M., 1979. Introduction to soil mechanics. Iowa State University Press..

Ishibashi, I. and Hazarika, H., 2010. Soil mechanics fundamentals. CRC Press.

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