Chapter 12

Magnetic Dipoles

We have seen that the electrostatic field of a localized charge distribution can be expanded
in electric multipoles. Similarly, the magnetic field of a stationary current distribution can
be expanded in magnetic multipoles when the currents are localized. The general expansion
involves vector spherical harmonics, which are left for later. The multipole expansion is valid
in the region external to a sphere that contains the currents.

12.1 Magnetic dipole fields

The leading term, the magnetic dipole, can be obtained directly with the use of certain
differential identities for tensors and of the condition ∇ · J = 0.

12.1.1 Tensor identities for stationary currents

The identities we need all follow from the simple fact that the integral of a perfect differential
is zero and are valid for Cartesian components only, or for vectors and tensors considered
as abstract geometric quantities. We use the convention that a sum over repeated indices is
implied.

The integral of J vanishes

We start from
∂i (Ji xj ) = (∂i Ji ) xj + Ji (∂i xj ) = Jj , (12.1)
which is obtained by using
∂i Ji ≡ ∇ · J = 0, (12.2)
∂xj
∂i x j ≡ = δij . (12.3)
∂xi
Integrating (12.1) we obtain the useful identity
Z
Jj (x) d3 x = 0. (12.4)

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The first moment of J gives the magnetic moment
We want to prove that Z
Ji xj d3 x = −εijk mk (12.5)
where εijk is the totally antisymmetric tensor with εijk = 1 for ijk = 123 and any cyclic
permutation (i.e., 231, 312), εijk = −1 for other permutations (i.e., 213, 132, 321), and
εijk = 0 otherwise. These results hold for a right-handed Cartesian system. The dipole
moment m is
1Z
m= x × J(x) d3 x (12.6)
2
Proceeding as in the derivation of (12.4), we integrate

∂i (Ji xj xk ) = (∂i Ji ) xj xk + Ji (∂i xj )xk + Ji xj (∂i xk ) = Jj xk + Jk xj (12.7)

and obtain Z
(Jj xk + Jk xj ) d3 x = 0 (12.8)
We recognize that the integrand is twice the symmetric part of the first moment tensor Jj xk .
We can then decompose this tensor into symmetric and antisymmetric parts
1 1
Jj xk = (Jj xk + Jk xj ) + (Jj xk − Jk xj ) (12.9)
2 2
and obtain the equation
Z
1Z
Jj xk d3 x = (Jj xk − Jk xj ) d3 x (12.10)
2
This does not look like progress at first, but it reduces the 9 components of Jj xk to just 3,
and these 3 can be identified with the components of J × x according to
1
(J × x)i ≡ εijk Jj xk = εijk (Jj xk − Jk xj ) (12.11)
2
Jj xk − Jk xj = εjkl (J × x)l (12.12)
These equations can easily be verified directly, because it is enough to verify the 12 component
and invoke antisymmetry. Collecting the results (12.10), (12.12) and the definition (12.6):
Z
Jj xk d3 x = −εjkl ml (12.13)

which is the same as (12.5), completing the proof. (The names of tensor indices can be
changed with impunity, and must often be changed when making substitutions).

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12.1.2 The expansion of A and B
Now we have the tools to compute the vector potential

µ0 Z Ji (x0 ) 3 0
Ai (x) = dx (12.14)
4π |x − x0 |

when |x|  |x0 | for all points x0 where J is non-negligible. We expand as usual

1 1 xj x0j
= + + ... (12.15)
|x − x0 | |x| |x|3

and we find
" Z #
µ0 0 3 0 xj Z 0 0 3 0
Ai (x) = |x| Ji (x ) d x + Ji (x )xj d x + . . . . (12.16)
4π c |x|3

Using (12.4) and (12.5) this gives the desired result

µ0 xj
Ai (x) = − εijk mk + . . . (12.17)
4π |x|3
or
µ0 m × x
A(x) = + ... (12.18)
4π |x|3
The magnetic field is B = ∇ × A, or Bi = εijk ∂j Ak with
!
µ0 xp µ0 1
Ak = − εkpq 3 mq = εkpq ∂p mq (12.19)
4π |x| 4π |x|

Thus, using εijk εkpq = δip δjq − δiq δjp ,

! ! !
µ0 1 µ0 1 1
Bi = εijk εkpq ∂j ∂p mq = ∂j ∂i m j − ∇2 mi (12.20)
4π |x| 4π |x| |x|

The second term on the r.h.s. vanishes, except at x = 0 where the expansion breaks down.
The first term gives
! !
µ0 1 µ0 xj m j µ0 3xi xj mj − |x|2 mi
Bi = ∂ i m j ∂j = − ∂i = (12.21)
4π |x| 4π |x|3 4π |x|5
or ! !
µ0 1 µ0 x·m µ0 3x (x · m) − |x|2 m
B= ∇ m·∇ =− ∇ = (12.22)
4π |x| 4π |x|3 4π |x|5
in complete analogy to the E field for an electric dipole p.

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12.1.3 Magnetic moments of a plane loop and an orbit
For a current I flowing in a loop Eq. (12.6) becomes

II
m= x × dl (12.23)
2
For a plane loop, m is perpendicular to the plane of the loop and has magnitude

m = IA (12.24)

where A is the area of the loop (see Jackson Fig. 5.7).

For a stream of particles of charge q and mass mq , the current density is
X
J(x) = q vn δ(x − xn ) (12.25)
n

where vn = dxn /dt. If the particles are in a closed orbit, or somehow confined, the magnetic
moment is
qX
m= xn ×vn (12.26)
2 n
On the other hand, the angular momentum is
X
L = mq xn ×vn (12.27)
n

so that
q
m= L (12.28)
2mq
The ratio q/2mq is called the gyromagnetic ratio. In a quantum system, any component of
L is quantized in units of h̄. For electrons in atoms then, the unit of magnetic moment is
the Bohr magneton µB = |e|h̄/2me = 9.27 · 10−24 A m2 .
As already discussed at the beginning of Lecture 11, electrons also have a magnetic
moment µB (actually, 1.00116 µB ) associated with their spin angular momentum 12 h̄. Thus
the gyromagnetic ratio for intrinsic spin is (essentially) twice the orbital value.

12.2 Forces and torques

12.2.1 Force on a dipole
Consider a current distribution J localized near the point x. There is the question: how to
choose x? Sometimes there is a natural choice, for instance the center of the circle for a
circular current loop. But for an elliptical current loop either the center of the ellipse, or
one of the foci could be the “natural” choice for x. Let us leave the question aside for the
moment and write the current at the point x0 in the form J(x0 − x) to stress that J vanishes

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for large values of |x0 − x| . According to Ampère’s force law, this current in a field B is
subject to the force F of components
Z
Fi (x) = εijk Jj (x0 − x)Bk (x0 ) d3 x0 (12.29)

Expanding  
Bk (x0 ) = Bk (x) + x0p − xp ∂p Bk (x) + . . . (12.30)
and using from (12.4) Z Z
0 3 0
Jj (x − x) d x = Jj (x00 ) d3 x00 = 0 (12.31)
we obtain Z  
Fi (x) = εijk (∂p Bk (x)) Jj (x0 − x) x0p − xp d3 x0 + . . . (12.32)
Further, using (12.5) in the form
Z
Jj (x00 )x00p d3 x00 = −εjpq mq (12.33)

and −εijk εjpq = εjik εjpq = δip δkq − δiq δkp , we arrive at

Fi (x) = (δip δkq − δiq δkp ) mq ∂p Bk (x) = mk ∂i Bk (x) − mi ∂k Bk (x) (12.34)

or, noting that ∂k Bk ≡ ∇ · B = 0,

Fi (x) = ∂i (mk Bk (x)) or F(x) = ∇ (m · B(x)) (12.35)

in complete analogy with the electrostatic case. This formula is exact for any current distri-
bution if B varies linearly. In particular, there is no net force on a current loop in a uniform
field, even if the loop is not small. Returning to the question of the choice of x, we note that
m is actually independent of this choice, but ∂i Bk is not.

12.2.2 Torque on a dipole

To compute the leading term of the torque N, it is enough to keep the leading term in the
expansion B(x0 ) = B(x) + · · ·. The torque about x is
Z
N= (x0 − x) × [J(x0 − x) × B(x)] d3 x0 (12.36)
Z
Ni = x00j [Bj (x)Ji (x00 ) − Jj (x00 )Bi (x)] d3 x00 (12.37)
Using again (12.5) and the trace of (12.8) we obtain

Ni = −εijk Bj (x)mk N = −B (x) × m = m × B (x) (12.38)

This formula is exact for a uniform field, and also for a field that is uniform over a current
loop, but varies perpendicularly to it.

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12.2.3 Energy of a permanent dipole
Both the force and the torque can be derived from the potential energy
U (x, θ) = −m · B (x) = −mB(x) cos θ (12.39)
as follows:
F = −∇U (x) (12.40)
and, with the angle θ oriented from B to m,
N = −∂U/∂θ (12.41)
The dipole tends to orient itself parallel to the field and to be attracted to regions of high
flux density. In cyclotron motion, the orbit is a spiral with an effective dipole moment that
is antiparallel to the field. Thus the particles are repelled from regions of high flux density.

12.3 Magnetic potential of a loop

We have seen that an infinitesimal loop of area dA has the magnetic scalar potential of a
dipole dm = I dA. A large loop can be built up from many small loops and has the magnetic
potential of a dipole layer bounded by the loop. The shape of the dipole layer is arbitrary.
For instance, for a circular loop, we can choose the fictitious dipole layer in the form of
any spherical cap bounded by the loop, or the flat circle inside the loop. We know from
electrostatics that ΦM = (µ0 /4π)IΩ, where Ω is the solid angle subtended by the loop. In
general, to compute Ω is easier said than done. We turn to an example.

12.4 Circular current loop

The magnetic field of a circular loop of radius a carrying a current I can be computed in
several ways. One can compute the vector potential, which has only the component Aφ , or
one can compute the magnetic potential ΦM , which is just the solid angle subtended by the
loop. One can work directly with elliptic integrals, or use cylindrical coordinates and work
with Bessel functions, or use spherical polar coordinates and spherical harmonics. Because of
cylindrical symmetry, computations can be restricted to the xz plane (φ = 0). The geometry
is defined by
x = r (sin θ, 0, cos θ) = (ρ, 0, z) field point (12.42)
x0 = a (cos φ0 , sin φ0 , 0) source point (12.43)
0 2 2 2 0
|x − x | = r + a − 2ra sin θ cos φ (12.44)
0 0 0 0
dl = a (− sin φ , cos φ , 0)dφ wire element (12.45)
Starting formulas are
µ0 I I dl0
A(x) = (12.46)
4π |x − x0 |

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 µ0 I Z 2π a cos φ0 dφ0
Aφ (ρ, z) = √ 2 (12.47)
4π 0 r + a2 − 2aρ cos φ0
µ0 I I (x − x0 ) × dl0
B(x) = − (12.48)
4π |x − x0 |3

12.4.1 Elementary results

Directly from Eq. (12.48) on the z axis (ρ = 0) Bρ = 0 and

µ0 I a3
Bz = (12.49)
2a (a2 + z 2 )3/2

From Eq. (12.47) in the limit where r2 + a2 >> 2aρ

!
µ0 I Z 2π a cos φ0 aρ cos φ0 0 µ0 I πa2 ρ
Aφ (ρ, z) ' √ 1 + dφ = (12.50)
4π 0 r 2 + a2 r 2 + a2 4π (r2 + a2 )3/2

∂Aφ µ0 Ia2 3ρz

Bρ = − ' (12.51)
∂z 4 (r2 + a2 )5/2
1 ∂ (ρAφ ) µ0 Ia2 2 (r2 + a2 ) − 3ρ2
Bz = ' (12.52)
ρ ∂ρ 4π (r2 + a2 )5/2
In particular along the z axis (ρ = 0) we recover (12.49).
Far from the loop (r >> a) we recover the dipole field:

µ0 Ia2 sin θ
Aφ (r, θ) ' (12.53)
4π r2
1 ∂ (rAφ ) µ0 Ia2 sin θ
Bθ = − = (12.54)
r ∂r 4π r3
1 ∂ (sin θ Aφ ) µ0 Ia2 2 cos θ
Br = = (12.55)
r sin θ ∂θ 4π r3

12.4.2 By elliptic integrals

For the circular current loop we have, recalling Eq. (12.47),

µ0 I Z 2π a cos φ0 dφ0
Aφ (ρ, z) = √ 2 (12.56)
4π 0 r + a2 − 2aρ cos φ0
Changing variables to ϕ = θ/2, we have
Z π/2
µ0 I 4a 2 sin2 ϕ − 1
Aφ (ρ, z) = √ 2 q dϕ (12.57)
4π r + a2 + 2aρ 0 1 − k 2 sin2 ϕ

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where we have defined for convenience
4aρ 4aρ
k2 = = (12.58)
a2 2
+ r + 2aρ (a + ρ)2 + z 2

Writing  
1 − 1 − k 2 sin2 ϕ
sin2 ϕ = (12.59)
k2
the integral becomes
Z  
π/2 2 sin2 ϕ − 1 2 2
q dϕ = 2
− 1 K(k 2 ) − 2 E(k 2 ), (12.60)
0 1 − k 2 sin2 ϕ k k

where the complete elliptic integral of the first kind is

Z π/2 dϕ
K(k) = q , (12.61)
0 1 − k 2 sin2 ϕ

and the complete elliptic integral of the second kind is

Z π/2 q
E(k) = 1 − k 2 sin2 ϕ dϕ. (12.62)
0

The final result for the vector potential is

" #
µ0 I 4a (2 − k 2 )K(k 2 ) − 2E(k 2 )
Aφ (ρ, z) = q . (12.63)
4π (a + ρ)2 + z 2 k2

The elementary results can be recovered from this.

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