Chapter 6

Learning
 Learning
Learning –
A process through
which experience
produces lasting
change in behavior or
mental processes
Habituation –
Learning not to
respond to repeated
presentation of a
stimulus
 Learning – Can be Simple or Complex

Mere exposure effect –

Learned preference for stimuli to which
we have been previously exposed
Behavioral learning –
Forms of learning that can be described
in terms of stimuli and responses
(e.g. classical and operant conditioning)
 What Sort of Learning Does
Classical Conditioning Explain?

Classical conditioning is a
basic form of learning in which
a stimulus that produces an
innate reflex becomes
associated with a previously
neutral stimulus, which then
acquires the power to elicit
essentially the same response
 The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning

Neutral stimulus –
Any stimulus that produces
no conditioned response
prior to learning
Acquisition –
Initial learning stage in
classical conditioning;
conditioned response
becomes elicited by the
conditioned stimulus
Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Prior to conditioning
Neutral stimulus (Orientation to sound
(bell) but no response)

Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response

(meat) (salivation)

During Conditioning
Neutral stimulus
(bell)
Unconditioned response
+
(salivation)
Unconditioned stimulus
(meat)

After conditioning
Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response
(bell) (salivation)
 Think of it as a formula!

Before Conditioning:
(UCS) meat = (UCR) salivation
During Conditioning:
(NS) bell + (UCS) meat = (UCR) salivation
After Conditioning:
(CS) bell = (CR) salivation
 Classical Conditioning

Extinction –
Weakening of a conditioned association
in the absence of an unconditioned
stimulus or reinforcer
Spontaneous recovery –
Reappearance of an extinguished
conditioned response after a time delay
 Classical Conditioning:
Generalization and Discrimination

Stimulus generalization
involves giving a conditioned
response to stimuli that are
similar to the CS
Stimulus discrimination
involves responding to one
stimulus but
not to stimuli that are similar
Applications of Classical Conditioning

Taste-aversion learning –
Biological tendency in which an organism
learns to avoid food with a certain taste
after a single experience, if eating it is
followed by illness
 How Do We Learn
New Behaviors by
Operant Conditioning?

In operant conditioning, the

consequences of behavior,
such as rewards and
punishments, influence the
chance that our behavior will
occur again
 How Do We Learn
New Behaviors by
Operant Conditioning?
Trial-and-error learning –
Learner gradually discovers the correct
response by attempting many behaviors
and noting which ones produce the
desired consequences
 Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism

B.F. Skinner believed that the most

powerful influences on behavior are its
consequences
 Consequences are Powerful!

Reinforcement
• Strengthens
• Increases
• Encourages
the likelihood that a behavior will
happen again.
 The Power of Reinforcement

Positive (added) Reinforcement –

An appetitive (liked) stimulus is added after a
response/behavior which increases the
probability of that response/behavior happening
again.
Negative (removed) Reinforcement –
A response/behavior occurs in order to remove
an aversive (disliked) stimulus, which increases
the probability of that response/behavior
happening again.
 Consequences are Powerful!

Punishment
• Weakens
• Decreases
• Discourages
the likelihood that a behavior will
happen again.
 The Power of Punishment
Positive punishment –
The application of an aversive
(disliked) stimulus after a
response/behavior, which
decreases the
response/behavior from
happening again.

Omission training (negative

punishment) –
The removal of an appetitive
(liked) stimulus after a
response/behavior, which
decreases the
response/behavior from
happening again.
 Four Kinds of Consequences

STIMULUS
Appetitive Aversive
(like) (dislike)
Positive Positive Punishment
+ Reinforcement Getting speeding ticket
$ Bonus for working leads to less speeding
Present hard
leads to more hard work
Omission Training Negative
- Having your cell phone Reinforcement
taken away for coming Taking an aspirin to
Remove home late remove headache causes
more aspirin use.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

 So, is it Negative Reinforcement or
Punishment?

Negative Response Consequence

Reinforcement
(Aversive
Stimulus)Threat of
Come home Not grounded
being grounded on time

Punishment
No Stimulus Stayed out
Late Grounded

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

 The Use and Abuse of Punishment

Power usually disappears when threat of

punishment is removed
Punishment
• Often triggers aggression
• May inhibit learning new and better
responses
• Is often applied unequally
When does punishment work?
 Other Types of Reinforcement

Primary reinforcers –
Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that
have an innate basis because of their
biological value to an organism
 Other Types of Reinforcement

Secondary reinforcers –
Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that
acquire their reinforcing power by their
learned association with primary
reinforcers
(also called conditioned reinforcers)
 Contingencies of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement –
Reinforcement schedule in which all
correct responses are reinforced
Partial reinforcement –
Reinforcement schedule in which some,
but not all, correct responses are
reinforced
(also called intermittent reinforcement)
 Schedules of
Reinforcement/Punishment
Ratio schedules :
(Ratio = Behavior) (Root Beer)
Provide reinforcement/punishment after a certain
number/repetition of responses/behaviors occur. (Can’t
get the root beer out of the vending machine until you
put 4 quarters into the machine).

Interval schedules :
(Interval = Time) (Iced Tea)
Provide reinforcement/punishment after a certain time
interval lapses following the behavior/response. (It’s not
iced tea until the tea-bag steeps for 5 minutes).
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
 Two Types of Schedules

Fixed:
Reinforcement is given in a set, predictable
pattern.
Variable:
Reinforcement is given in a varied,
unpredictable pattern.
 Ratio Schedules

Fixed Ratio (FR) Reinforcement/punishment

appears after a certain set
number of responses
Variable Ratio
(VR) e.g. Buy 1 get 1 free.
Fixed Interval e.g. 3 strikes and
(FI)
you’re out!
Variable Interval
(VI)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
 Ratio Schedules
Reinforcement/Punishment
Fixed Ratio (FR) appears after a certain
number of responses, but
Variable Ratio that number varies from trial
(VR) to trial

Fixed Interval
e.g. slot machine pay-
(FI) offs

Variable Interval
e.g. Getting your cell
(VI) phone taken away at
school.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
 Interval Schedules
Reinforcement/punishment
Fixed Ratio (FR) appears after a certain
fixed amount of time,
Variable Ratio regardless of number of
(VR) responses

Fixed Interval e.g. weekly or monthly

(FI) paychecks
Variable Interval e.g. report cards
(VI)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
 Interval Schedules

Reinforcement/punishment
Fixed Ratio (FR)
appears after a certain
amount of time, but that
Variable Ratio amount varies from trial to
(VR)
trial
Fixed Interval e.g. fishing
(FI)
e.g. Tardy Sweeps;
Variable Interval Sobriety Check Points
(VI)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
 What is the reinforcement schedule?
1. Speed traps on the highway
2. Selling a product door to door
3. Getting the clothes from the dryer once it buzzes
4. Doing 20 pushups to stay fit
5. Playing Bingo
6. Getting a strike in bowling (if you’re not a pro!)
7. Surfer waiting for the perfect wave to ride in
8. Wife getting a kiss from her husband for every touchdown his
football team gets.
9. Husband getting a kiss from his wife at the beginning of every
commercial break while he watches Dancing with the Stars
with her.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
 How Does
Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?

According to cognitive
psychology, some forms of
learning must be explained
as changes in mental
processes, rather than as
changes in behavior alone
 How Does
Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?
Insight learning –
Problem solving occurs by means of a
sudden reorganization of perceptions
 Observational Learning: Bandura’s
Challenge to Behaviorism

Observational learning –
Form of cognitive learning in which new
responses are acquired after watching
others’ behavior and the consequences
of their behavior
Congratulations (Positive Reinforcement)! You made it to the
end of the chapter (Fixed Ratio). Your hard work will pay off
on the test on Thursday (Fixed Interval). You will receive a
good grade (positive reinforcement), which will shape the future
behavior of studying (operant conditioning), and you will have
fond memories of feeling good every time you hear the word
“study” (classical conditioning). And, if you see other people
succeeding in class, that will prompt you to do your work and
study (observational learning). Now, go get yourself a treat for
working so hard.

End of Chapter 6