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A qualitative stu d y o f an educational entrepreneurship program

Kramer, Karen Lee (Van Brunt), Ph.D.

The Ohio State University, 1992

UMI
300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106
 A Qualitative Study
of
An Educational Entrepreneurship Program

Dissertation

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School
of The Ohio State University

By
Karen Lee (Van Brunt) Kramer, B.A., M.S.
****

The Ohio State University

1992

Dissertation Committee Approved by

Dr. N. L. McCaslin
Advisor
Dr. Dewey A. Adams Graduate Program:
Comprehensive Vocational
Dr. Nancy L. Zimpher Education
 To my parents
Viola Yerges Van Brunt
1908-1982
Roy Charles Van Brunt
1903-
Mildred Pleshek Van Brunt
1908-
and my children
Tera Lee (Weitermann) Johnson
1961-
Holden Jon Kramer
19 64-
Stafford James Kramer
1971-

11
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express a great deal of gratitude to my dissertation

committee: Dr. N. L. McCaslin for his personal caring and
guidance through my academic endeavors while providing an
empowering balance between encouragement and challenge; Dr.
Dewey A. Adams, whose dedication to Comprehensive Vocational
Education and leadership provided me with great incentive
and future ideals; and to Dr. Nancy L. Zimpher, for her
qualitative research guidance and role mode1/mentorship
encouragement.
I am further grateful to Dr. M. Catherine Ashmore,
Entrepreneurship Program Chair at the Center on Education
and Training for Employment, The Ohio State University, for
sharing her wealth of entrepreneurship experiences,
materials and knowledge; The Center on Education and
Training for Employment ^s Graduate Research Associate
support; The Center on Education and Training for
Employment's friendly staff; and my two dissertation
computer input specialists Kathy Summerfield and Jeanne
Thomas. Their patience in dealing with editing changes was
beyond the call of duty.

Xll
 Thanks continue to:
o My father and step-mother for their mental support
and prayers for good health.
o My three children and three grandchildren, none of
whom are in Ohio and to which Mother could not
frequently travel to see.
o My three deceased friends; Donn and Kevin (cancer
fighters) and Roland who were so proud and
supportive of my continued quest for knowledge but
didn't live to see the culmination in June of 1992.
o My campus friends; among them a very special lady
Carla who is fighting a cancerous brain tumor while
earning her Ph.D.
o The fraternity that I was a resident director for
and my present townhouse roommates Tony and Tim who
endured the clutter of paper and books.
o My patent lawyer "coach" Alan, who enjoyed campus
life as an over-60 student, as well as continuing to
work on his Magnetic Motor with fellow Ohio State
University scientists.
o The nineteen Ventures in Business Ownership women
students who allowed me to share a slice of their
lives.
This qualitative research study has been an incredible
experience in merging the three worlds of business and
communications, vocational education and teacher development
toward a specific interest in entrepreneurship in education.
As new fields emerge to meet the needs of our society, both
socially and economically, an interdisciplinary approach to
education is absolutely necessary. The unique Comprehensive
Vocational Education Ph.D. program at The Ohio State Univer­
sity has allowed me this unique educational opportunity.

IV
 VITA

1956 ................. o BS— Major: Corrective

Communications
University of Wisconsin-Madison
1956—1961 ............ o Speech Therapist— Milwaukee,
WI Public Schools
1961—1964 ............ o Textiles Representative— Dow
Chemical Co.
Marketed Fibers and Fabrics
o Instructor of Fashion
Merchandising Courses—
Proprietary School
Milwaukee, WI
1965-1975 ............ o Fashion Merchandising—
Instructor
New York City Community
College, Brooklyn, NY
Pratt School of Design,
Brooklyn, NY
The Berkeley School,
White Plain, NY
1976 ............. o MA— Major: Marketing and
Retailing Education
New York University,
New York, NY
1977—1982 ............ o Chair of Fashion Merchandising
Department
Bay Path College
Longmeadow, MA
o Researched and Directed
Cooperative Education
Program for Merchandising
Students
Stone School of Business
New Haven, CT
 o Fashion Merchandising
Instructor and Director—
Proprietary Schools in NY
o Own Small Business;
Design by Karen Lee
Consultant to graphics,
design, and advertising/
marketing industry
o Furniture Sales and Design
1982-1985 o Instructor of Marketing/Fashion
Merchandising
Milwaukee Area Technical
College, Milwaukee, WI
1985—1987 o Residence Director
The Ohio State University
1987-1992 o Instructor at Columbus State
Community College and Capital
University— Marketing and
Management Courses
o Graduate Research Associate
The Ohio State University
Center on Education and
Training for Employment
Area of research— Entrepreneur­
ship/ Small Business/
Marketing/Management

PUBLICATIONS

Mentor: A 16-page brochure for small business owners

and managers who assist high school entrepreneurship
students. Developed for the Ohio State Department of
Vocational/Career Education, Columbus, OH: Center on
Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio State
University.
Report of Small Business Ventures Progreim (1991).
Eighty-one page summation of high school entrepreneurship
program for seniors in the State of Ohio. Audience:
Ohio State Department of Vocational/Career Education.
Columbus, OH: Center on Education and Training for
Employment, The Ohio State University.

VI
 Editor/Contributing writer; EntrepreNews & Views,
Vols. 3 and 4. Columbus, OH: Center on Education and
Training for Employment, The Ohio State University.
Writing of articles for each of the six issues of
EntrepreNews & Views, state of Ohio and four issues for
the Entrepreneurship Consortium. EntrepreNews & Views
expanded coverage and issues beginning in 1992.
Columbus, OH: Center on Education and Training for
Employment, The Ohio State University.
Co-authored National Entrepreneurship Clearinghouse, 1991
edition. Columbus, OH: Center on Education and Training
for Employment, The Ohio State University.
Development and author of a data base on entrepreneurship
encompassing books, articles, curriculum, text books,
reports, film and other videos. Published National
Entrepreneurship clearinghouse, 1988 edition. Columbus,
OH: Center on Education and Training for Employment, The
Ohio State University.

Writing of a major story for the AVA Journal, November,

1989, 8 young entrepreneurs in 7 states called, "Meet
Your Graduates."

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Fields: Comprehensive Vocational

Education
o Business Marketing and
Management Education
o Entrepreneurship and Small
Business Development
o Curriculum and Instruction in
Higher Education
o Professional Development
o Leadership

VI1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DE DIC ATI ON........................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................... Ü i
V I T A ................................................. V

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................... X

LIST OF T A B L E S .......................................xi
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ................................ 1
Research on the Psychological Development
of Men and W o m e n .............................9
Problem Statement ............................ 11
Purpose and Objectives ....................... 12
Limitations................................... 13
Definition of T e r m s ......... 13
Summary and Looking Ahead ..................... 15
II. REVIEW OF L I T E R A T U R E ......................... 18
The Entrepreneur in General.................... 20
Myths About Women in Business.................. 26
The Changing Biases of Society Toward
Female Entrepreneurs ....................... 29
The W o m e n ..................................... 34
The Environment............................... 51
The Process for New Venture C r e a t i o n ........... 62
The O u t c o m e s ................................. 89
Summary....................................... 94
III. METHODOLOGY................................... 99
Introduction ................................ 99
Nature of the S t u d y ........................... 100
Entrepreneurship in Search of a Paradigm . . . 119
Emergent Design with Negotiated Outcomes . . . 123
Data Reporting and Analysis................... 126

Vlll
 IV. RESEARCH F I N D I N G S ............................... 139

Introduction .............................. 139

Individuals: (Women) ....................... 141
Environment: (Akron) ....................... 168
Process...................................... 182
Summary...................................... 220
O u t c o m e s .................................... 221
V. SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS ....................... 242
Introduction .............................. 242
Summary— The Women in the VBO C l a s s ............242
Summary— The Environment of the Tri-County Area 250
Summary— Process for New Venture Creation . . . 254
Summary— Outcomes of the VBO P r o g r a m .......... 259
Implications .............................. 262
Recommendations ............................ 263
APPENDICES
A: Exhibits........................................ 271
1. Invitation to Advisory Committee ........... 272
2. Letter preceding News Release ............. 273
3. News Release................................274
4. Application for Training.................... 275
5. A Professional Teacher I s : ...................280
6. Why Q u e s t i o n s .............................. 281
7. Ideas for Classroom Management............... 282
8. 50 Tips on Motivating Students............... 283
9. Phase I Evaluation.......................... 285
10. Phase II E v a l uat ion ........................ 287
11. Questionnaire # 1 ............................ 288
12. Questionnaire # 2 ............................ 290
13. Calendar of VBO C o u r s e s .....................293
14. Beyond A Dream G o a l s ........................ 297
15. VBO Graduation.............................. 298
B: C h a r t ..........................................301
1. Life Long Learning.......................... 302
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................... 303

IX
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
1. William B. Gartner's "Conceptual Framework
for Describing the Phenomenon of New Venture
Creation" (1985) 19
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE
1. Evaluation of the VBO C o u r s e ..................162

XX
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Women in the 1990'^s are starting small businesses in

record numbers. According to the U.S. Small Business
Administration (1990), 80 percent of the small businesses
opened in 1989 were started by women. However, women still
own a small percent of the total number of small businesses.
A number of factors have been offered to explain this situa­
tion. Gassman (1988) stated, "Because of societal attitudes
regarding what roles are 'appropriate', women in business
may face additional barriers that men in business do not
face" (p. ix). Women may lack formal training, business
experience and contacts. To successfully start and run a
small business is difficult for anyone, male or female. For
a woman who is a wife and perhaps a mother, and raised out­
side of the mainstream of business and finance, the barriers
to business ownership are even greater.
Female single parent homemakers often do not even
consider the possibility of starting a business. These
women, many on welfare assistance, are in particular need of
guidance in finding employment that can be adjusted to their
 2

home responsibilities. If these women do work, they are

often among the lowest paid workers because of their lack of
career experience.
Erhart and Sandler (1987) noted that boys are
encouraged to think big and be active, ambitious, and
aggressive while at the same time acting independent,
competitive, and achievement oriented. They also stated
that girls are punished for aggressiveness while boys are
told to excel and be adventurous. This barrier of small
thinking influences other perceived barriers such as a
limited exposure to math and science, ambivalence about
being competitive and the self perception of not being
profit oriented and a deal maker. Gassman (1988) said, "The
socialization process often steers girls away from math,
science, computer technology related courses, and career
decisions in high school and college. This can lead to
women not envisioning themselves, or preparing to become,
business executives and owners" (p. 47). Being modest and
not talking about achievement leads to a lack of competi­
tiveness. Early messages may induce self-defeating patterns
such as:

Try to make sure everyone feels good. Be nice

all the time. Serve Others. Help others to
become winners. Money grubbing is bad.
Mothering and nurturing are the only roles for
you. Competition brings out the worst in
people. These messages are often the exact
opposite of what successful entrepreneurs must
pursue. Boys are often taught: Win. Succeed
at all costs. Prove yourself through competi­
tion (Gassman, 1988, p. 33).
 3

This ambivalence can lead women to an undervaluation of

themselves and their products or services. Women frequently
work for very little when in their own business. Negoti­
ating and asking for another price may never have been
formally learned. Yet these same women have probably been
using negotiation skills in a variety of situations where
interpersonal ability has been required.
The difficulty of obtaining credit is another barrier
for a woman. Women business owners report that the most
frequent barrier they have encountered in their work has
been the reluctance of the financial community to consider
women good credit risks (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1987).
Frequently women lack a banking relationship or a
credit history and have limited access to fixed assets or
collateral if they do not own their own home or car.
Hopefully, today's women are more concerned with the
development of a positive personal credit history.
Obtaining credit cards, paying bills promptly, and applying
for personal loans to be paid off quickly are ways to
establish good credit, married or not.
Preparation for meeting with bankers, lawyers and
accountants is vital for women. Gassman (1988) stated, "She
should take courses and review the extensive literature on
business feasibility and writing a business plan" (p. 13).
A working knowledge of all aspects of the business plan is
essential. The ability to anticipate possible objections
 4

and to organize can be a strong advantage for a woman who is

putting together a loan package. Networking and advisement
also may be of great assistance in writing a business plan
and obtaining a loan.
The barrier of isolation has been addressed by
"networking". Large or small and formal or informal,
networks have always been a source of valuable advice.
"Formal networks are organizations designed to facilitate
the exchange between entrepreneurs, capitalists, and service
providers. These include business booster clubs (Chambers
of Commerce, Rotary Clubs, Young Presidents Organizations),
Venture Capital clubs, small business/start-up seminars, and
exclusive CEO groups such as So Cal TEN" (Bird, 1990,
p. 294). The family that has been in business together
usually has numerous connections. Mentor and role models
also have become very important sources for networking.
According to Gassman (1988), who summarized these barriers,
women's business networks are currently being formed.
Connections with colleagues having similar concerns are
valuable to both women and men alike. However, women still
need access to male colleagues, since they are or have
friends who are bankers and influential government
officials.

The balancing of home and work roles is a very

important barrier for women entrepreneurs to overcome.
Berch (1982) stated, "Since a majority of self-employed
 5

business women are married, success for them is a

combination of a profitable business, a good marriage and
community work as well" (p. 155). These women are typically
in their mid-forties and earn less than salaried self-
employed men. They have normally been in the workforce for
many years before starting their own business. The ability
to combine family and career may be in part due to their
relative maturity and having worked either inside or outside
the home before setting out in their own business.
On the other hand. Burden andGottlieb (1987)stated,
that the increase in roles of responsibilities of women has
not been followed by corresponding societal provisions for
working families such as maternity and paternity leave,
child care, and family leave. Work-role problems and
stresses are compounded with family care giving. "Countless
women seek help every year, for depression, for marital
conflict, for substance abuse, andhelp with child
management" (Ibid p. 200). It hasbeen reported that women
perform 70 percent of family work compared to 15 percent for
men and 15 percent for children (Hartman, 1981). It is
further estimated that two-thirds of the world's work is
done by women while only 10 percent of the world's income is
received by women (Scott, 1984).
The reported picture is rather troubling. According to
Hoffert and More (1979), "Unequal participation in both the
physical and emotional work of the home, employed wives
 6

taking on more responsibility and doing more work, but

husbands not particularly responsive to wives' increased
loads are unsettling" (p. 122).
Gassman (1988) indicated:
Working at home is often very difficult, if
not impossible. The growing numbers of women
operating home-based businesses can find it
particularly difficult to balance home and
work responsibilities. Imagine the woman who
runs a national mail order company from her
home: customers call and the children answer
the phone or the dog is barking in the back­
ground; colleagues see her more as a homemaker
and as less serious about her business; the
family interrupts her continuously; she
doesn't have a work space to call her own; she
sees the laundry piled up and the dishes in
the sink and she feels responsible. All of
this can lower the woman's self-confidence as
a committed professional. These challenges
require on-going attention (p. 46).
Domestic roles must change to accommodate a woman
business owner in the family. All of the family should be
aware of the important financial contributions that a female
entrepreneur makes to her family. Time management informa­
tion is vital to the entire family. Budgeting time, setting
time priorities, and learning to use every minute effective­
ly are important. The "superwoman" myth must be dispelled
as unrealistic.
Another barrier for women to address is the development
of a management style. A proliferation of management books
geared to men and women have flooded the market. Gassman
(1988) reported:
 Many small business owners, both male and
female, often lack the management skills
needed to successfully sustain a growing
venture. Given their socialization, women, in
particular, may need to develop confidence in
their business management skills (p. 51).
According to Taylor (1980), women are often more
comfortable with technical details of their business than
with the big picture. Because women are encouraged to be
dependent, passive, and supportive these behaviors do not
help women to build confidence in their leadership ability
and assertiveness potential. The balance of firmness,
friendliness, and strength must be developed.
Loden (1985) stated that a woman business owner must
look to her strengths rather than assuming she has little
management ability. Women have, after all, spent years
relating to others and especially to their family and
children. Naisbitt and Aberdene (1985) said, "The tradi­
tional skills of women, such as creativity and flexibility
and crisis management are exactly what's needed in today's
market place." Women have strong facilitating abilities
which are presently being stressed in circular communica­
tions, not top-down authoritative management styles.
Naisbitt and Aberdene (1985) also stated that team building
and communications across and up and down are stressed in
today's management process. Women who have strong
facilitative abilities are playing an important role in this
management revolution.
 8

A range of leadership styles are appropriate in manage­

ment, depending on the task at hand. An adaptive management
style is very powerful and effective. Adaptability is a
trait most women have learned through the years from role
models in their immediate family.
Linking the many biases and problems that women have
faced in starting businesses, barriers were addressed at the
University of Wisconsin-Extension Small Business Development
Center in Madison. Out of these eight barriers learning
materials were created by a curriculum committee
"...consisting of five representatives from the SBDC sub­
centers, faculty, a business woman, and SBDC administrative
staff....Those individuals provided overall guidance and
considerable editorial suggestions to the consultant,
Roberta Gassman" (Wireman, 1988, p. vii).
The barriers addressed were:
- difficulty obtaining credit
- limited exposure to math and science
- societal biases
- not thinking big enough
- ambivalence about being the competitive profit-
oriented deal-maker
- isolation from business networks
- balancing home and work roles
- developing a management style (Gassman, 1988, p. ix)
The committee "...considered how he/she (the
instructor) can ensure that the particular problems faced by
the female business owner are addressed as part of the
normal curriculum" (Wireman, p. v).
 9

These barriers were addressed in this dissertation.

Has the Ventures in Business Ownership program (VBO, 1986)
that has been organized for Single Parent/Displaced
Homemakers in the state of Ohio considered these barriers?
How are the barriers incorporated into the curriculum
consisting of the two segments; Beyond A Dream (1985) and
PACE (1983) Program for Acquiring Competency in Entrepre­
neurship?

Research on the Psychological Development

of Men and Women

Carol Gilligan (1982) noted that most educational

research has been done by males about males. Women have
been missing even as research subjects at the formative
stages of our psychological theories. Belenky et al in
Women^s Wavs of Knowing (1986) stated:
The potential for bias on the part of male
investigators is heightened by the recurring
tendency to select exclusively or predominant­
ly male samples for research. The omission of
women from scientific studies is almost
universally ignored when scientists draw
conclusions from their findings and generalize
what they have learned from the study of men
to lives of women (p. 6).
The authors further stated that if the scientists turn
to the study of women, they look at the patterns in men and
then point out how much women conform or diverge from the
men. We have, therefore, "...learned a great deal about the
development of autonomy and independence, abstract critical
 10

thought, and the unfolding of a morality or rights and

justice in both men and women" (p. 6).
On the other hand, what have we learned about inter­
dependence, intimacy, nurturance, and contextual thought?
We tend to think about humans as either/or and as closed
systems. The focus of study on intellectual capacities has
most often been cultivated by men rather than on identifying
modes of thought and aspects of intelligence in women.
Belenky et al (1985) reported, "But the ethic of achievement
articulated by men was sustained by a moral ecology shaped
by women...the household unit played a vital economic role,
within which men's and women's positions, though unequal in
power and prestige, were largely complementary" (p. 41).
Thus, the study and understanding of women themselves
and ways women know becomes a necessity to the understanding
of the program analyzed in this study; that is, the ways
women learn about becoming entrepreneurs and entering into
small business. Research must, therefore, be done with
women entrepreneurs. It is necessary for family environ­
ments to be studied in terms of the positive and negative
effects it has on the cohabitators, wife, mother, and other
conditions such as the single mother. Masi (1981) reported:
"Two out of every three American mothers will be in the
labor force by the year 1990" (p. 49). More than eleven
million women will enter the labor market in the next ten
 11

years and a large percentage of these women will be single

heads of households.

Problem Statement

At the present time there are only glimpses of the

curriculum content and outcomes of various entrepreneurship
education programs. Furthermore, there does not appear to
be any in-depth study of the outcomes of any one program.
Are there programs where the displaced, single-parent
homemaker (women are the majority) can learn about starting
a business?
Is there a discrepancy between how the entrepreneurship
educational programs were planned for these women and then
carried out? What were and are desired results for women
and how can or should these outcomes be measured? Does it
mean the successful starting of a new business or the
continued running of a new business five years down the
road? Does it mean starting a business and learning through
mistakes to perhaps close the initial business and move on
to a second? Does closing a business mean failure to women
entrepreneurs ?
This study specifically addressed the problems and
barriers that women encounter, whether they are displaced
and/or single parents or not, in starting businesses. What
were the effects of environment on new venture startups for
women? Specifically, this study critically examined an
 12

entrepreneurship training program process and its outcomes

for women-

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this study was to examine an adult

vocational education program in Akron, Ohio, Ventures in
Business Ownership (VBO), to determine how the women
themselves interacted within the program environment and the
affects of the course in assisting women participants in
establishing various satisfactory outcomes. The VBO is a
twenty week course, designed to teach displaced and single
parent homemakers (mainly women) how to start a small
business.
The curriculum from Beyond A Dream (1985) and PACE
(1983) were used for the VBO program. This study examined
how the VBO curriculum addressed the needs of women who
wanted to start a small business. Specifically, the
objectives of the study were:
1. To observe the educational program process for
women involved in the VBO curriculum for
entrepreneurship education.
2. To describe the women participants in terms of
their background, experiences, motivations and
education.
3. To review the social, economic and political
environment in which the program operated.
4. To assess the outcomes resulting from
participating in the program.
 13

5. To evaluate whether or not the eight barriers

typically experienced by women in starting a small
business were addressed.
6. To determine the interactions of Gartner's model
(1985) as it applied to the VBO educational
course. The model is on page 19 of this
dissertation.

Limitations

1. The participant outcomes of this entrepreneurship

educational program are not generalizable to other
entrepreneurship educational programs including
another Ventures in Business Ownership Program.
2. The characteristics of these women-their back­
ground, experiences, motivations and education are
not generalizable to other women in similar
programs.
3. The social, economic and political environment did
not necessarily have a cause and effect inter­
action with the women participants.
4. Statements of intent to start a business did not
mean how soon or if the intention will ever be
followed through on in the future.

Definition of Terms

The definitions below indicate how this researcher has

used the terms in this study. Many of the terms have
various interpretations, but the following usage is assigned
in this study.
Entrepreneur is one who organizes, directs, and
manages, staffs as necessary, directs and controls the
development and start-up of a new business enterprise.
Entrepreneurship is the dynamic process of creating
incremental wealth. The wealth is created by
individuals who assume the major risks in terms of
equity, time and/or career commitment of providing
value for some product or service. The product or
 14

service itself may or may not be new or unique but

value must somehow be infused by the entrepreneur by
securing and allocating the necessary skills and
resources (Ronstadt, 1984).
Entrepreneurship Education is the lifelong process of
preparing oneself to be a successful entrepreneur
(Ashmore, 1983).
Entrepreneurship curriculum includes the following
programs:
1. Bevond A Dream; An Instructor's Guide for Small
Business (1985) is a curriculum package designed
for displaced adults.
2. PACE: Program for Acquiring Competence in
Entrepreneurship (1983) is a curriculum with three
levels of achievement (18 units in each level)
offers assistance for those wanting to learn about
being an entrepreneur and starting a business.
3. Risks and Rewards (1988) is a curriculum designed
for high school students who want to learn about
small business ideas and development. This basic
knowledge allows young adults to make better busi­
ness decisions about entrepreneurial activities
for themselves and for their employers who own a
small business.
4. Ventures in Business Ownership (1986) is a
combination of curricula designed for adults who
want to determine if entrepreneurship is suitable
for them and if so, go on to the 18 PACE modules.
Infuse is to introduce, imbue, or inspire knowledge in
three ways:
Subjective Knowledge is the inner voice. Women
who accept family standards and ambitions but
approach the multiplicity (Belenky, et al, 1986).
Procedural Knowledge is the conscious, deliberate,
systematic analysis beginning to take place.
Procedures, skills and techniques are learned
(Ibid).
Constructed Knowledge is the acceptance of the
responsibility for evaluating and continually
reevaluating assumptions about knowledge. The
self-development of knowledge (Ibid).
 15

Mentors are used as trusted coaches, counselors or

guides.
Moonlighters are wage-and-salary workers with a
business on the side.
New Ventures is a gestalt of variables from four
dimensions: individuals, environments, process and
organization (Gartner, 1985).
New Venture Creation is the organizing of new
organizations. "To organize is to assemble ongoing
interdependent actions into sensible sequences that
generate sensible outcomes" (Weick, 1979, p. 3).
Networking is a system of lines or channels that are
interconnected or interrelated chains, group, or
system.
Paradigm is an accepted model or pattern. "In science
it is an object for further articulation and
specification under new or more stringent conditions"
(Kuhn, 1970, p. 23)
Qualitative Research is essentially inductive and
descriptive. It is intended to discover the nature
of the phenomenon in questions (Paulin, Coffey and
Spaulding, 1982).
Small Business is defined according to its prime
industry type-with the basic variance between one and
five hundred employees. Within this definition of the
U.S. Government it is obvious that the broad framework
of small business makes it not only a critical part of
the American economy, but the most common form of
business in America (Small Business & the Economy of
the 1980's).

Summary and Looking Ahead

Chapter one has addressed the many problems that women

have in starting small businesses. These difficulties have
been grouped into eight barriers for women in their new
venture creations. The problem statement has focused on
the need for an in-depth research study on a particular
 16

entrepreneurship curriculum program for women. The purpose

of this qualitative study is to fulfill the need for
research on the process of an entrepreneurship learning
experience. The objectives are to better the entrepre­
neurship education process for women.
Chapter two will provide the review of literature that
substantiates the complex and multi-dimensional phenomena of
new venture creation. Female participation in the work­
place, with their various backgrounds and involvements with
mentors, networks and ethnicity are analyzed. Women's
experiences and motivations such as a need for control, risk
acceptance and a valued lifestyle plus their education are
reviewed. Environmental influences of the social, economic
and political aspect are addressed as they affect the new
venture process creation.
The life-long learning process for new venture creation
is then addressed and the Ventures in Business Ownership
(1986) process made up of Bevond A Dream (1985) and PACE
(1983) were focused in on in detail for a complete under­
standing of what the program is about and how it is
conducted. From these descriptions of the VBO course, this
curriculum could be replicated in the future by other
educators and researchers.
Finally, various outcomes of entrepreneurship education
are addressed in the literature review. The literature
substantiates that many outcomes are possible. Various
 17

authors also substantiate that entrepreneurial knowledge is

a cornerstone for success in small business.
Chapter three outlines the qualitative steps used in
the methodology for this research. Chapter four presents
the research findings and Chapter five draws conclusions and
makes recommendations for adult entrepreneurship education
for women. Further research directions conclude the
dissertation.
 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The purpose of this review of literature is to present

information related to factors that are involved with educa­
tion for women in small business development programs. The
diagram on page 19 gives a visual outline of the many
factors that affect and influence women in the new venture
creation process. Gartner (1985) said, "Far from being
reductive, this new view of the entrepreneurship literature
should provide valuable insights into the process of new
venture creation by showing it to be a complex and multi­
dimensional phenomenon" (p. 696). These internal and
external environmental elements are divided into four
categories.
Each of the four categories was examined in the
literature concerning women entrepreneurs. Women were
looked at first in context with the importance of background
information, influential experiences, their motivations and
education. What is the cultural language of women and how
does it differ from that of men? Is race and ethnic back­
ground a factor? What are their family and work experi­
ences? Do these women in this small business development
program have role models, mentors and networks? What are

18
 Women

Bftclirrotmd Enpcrkncta Motirathia Erfncalion

N
Environment Outcomes
/ r
Soda: Economic PoNlkal PSjrclHnodal Gain More I
Kujr an
Choice: uoonio
Experience in Growth or Another
Eakling Ilusinea
Similar Remain
Kudnea
lia c k Id ilusincss Small
School jlltisinesa S tartm p a j | S e l l o r a o s e B a d n ^ ^

Process for
New Venture Creation

Competency Creative Business Plan

Basics Application
Awareness ForSlart-up
ADAPTATION OF:
F i gure 1 . William D.Gartner's "Coneeplual Framework/or Describing the
Phenomenon o f NewVenture Cnation" (I9BS).
 20

their motivations for starting a business? What is their

educational level and is it helpful to these aspiring
entrepreneurs?
The social, economic and political environmental issues
affecting women starting businesses were then reviewed in
the literature as well as the process of new venture crea­
tion. The life-long educational model for entrepreneurship
(Appendix A, Figure 1) of this dissertation served as the
focus for this part of the literature review.
Finally, the literature search took a look at the
various outcomes of entrepreneurship education. Starting a
business is not necessarily the focus. Many other positive
outcomes are found in the literature.
This review of literature further bore out the need and
importance of research on small business development
programs. This researcher has chosen to qualitatively look
at one, the Ventures in Business Ownership (VBO) program
that was developed in 1986 at the Center on Education and
Training for Employment, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio.

The Entrepreneur in General

How can women entrepreneurs be contrasted from women in

general? What are differentiating characteristics if any?
Who becomes entrepreneurs and why? Barbara Bird (1990)
titled the third chapter in her book. Entrepreneurial
 21

Behavior. "Identifying and Developing 'The Right Stuff:

Experience and Background" (p. 57) . What is this 'right
stuff in women that makes them an entrepreneur?
For McClelland (1965) the distinction between entre­
preneurial traits and those which characterize people-in-
general was a simple matter. The psychological character­
istic, an entrepreneur's need for achievement, was the
differentiating factor to the exclusion of all others.
McClelland (1969) stated that twenty years of doing careful
research isolated the one specific thing, the one specific
characteristic of an entrepreneur who starts a business.
The specific characteristic was the individual's need for
achievement.
In the early 1970's other investigators (Hornaday &
Bunker, 1970; Hornaday & Aboud, 1971), while agreeing that
the need for achievement was important also found that other
traits bore a significant relationship to success. In 1977,
the East-West Center Technology and Development Institute
published the nineteen most frequent traits cited in
literature.
1. Self-confidence
2. Perseverance, determination
3. Energy, diligence
4. Resourcefulness
5. Ability to take calculated risks
6. Need to achieve
7. Creativity
8. Initiative
9. Flexibility
10. Positive response to challenges
11. Independence
12. Foresight
 22

13. Dynamism, leadership

14. Versatility, knowledge of product, market,
machinery
15. Ability to get along with people
16. Responsiveness to suggestions and criticism
17. Profit-orientation
18. Perceptiveness
19. Optimism (Kent 1982, p. 28)
The research at Southern Methodist University's Caruth
Institute as reported by Garza (November, 1975) listed
several traits as distinct from the East-West Center list.
This lack of agreement questions whether certain traits
should be included at all. Brockhaus and Nord (1979) and
Brockhaus (1980) questioned whether there was any relation­
ship at all between risk-taking propensity and the success
of the enterprise as was reported in the SMU East-West
profiles. More definitive studies of personality traits
are needed, and these can be best carried out on active
entrepreneurs.
The sociology of the entrepreneur is another cross-cut
ordering of the data by "types" of entrepreneurs. Smith
(1967) referred to the Craftsman-Entrepreneur and the
Opportunistic-Entrepreneur. Hornaday & Bunker (1970)
confirmed the value of the distinction. They said the
craftsman type has a limited cultural background and limited
social involvement while the opportunistic has a broader
educational background, broader social involvement, and a
more aggressive approach to long-range development and
expansion. There are other "types" of individuals also:
the individual who starts from scratch; the individual who
 23

injects energy and change; the innovator; and simply a risk-

taker.
Since the basic concepts in entrepreneurial studies are
fluid and overlapping, any single piece of research must
define the kind of individual with whom it deals. It is
again pointed out that the types of entrepreneurs get into
traits of entrepreneurs.
Gartner (1985) stated that a trait or characteristic
approach to the study of entrepreneurs has been unfruitful.
Who is an entrepreneur? The trait approach explains a
personality type but in many studies the entrepreneur is
never defined. Gartner (1985) continued, "Research on the
entrepreneur should focus on what the entrepreneur does and
not who the entrepreneur is" (p. 21). The entrepreneur has
long seemed to many researchers to be a special person whose
qualities need to be investigated.
Van de Ven (1980) issued a warning to entrepreneurship
researchers not to be tempted into studies of traits and
characteristics :
Researchers wedded to the conception of entrepre­
neurship for studying the creation of organiza­
tions can learn much from the history of research
on leadership. Like the studies of entrepreneur­
ship, this research began by investigating the
traits and personality characteristics of leaders.
However, no empirical evidence was found to
support the expectation that there are a finite
number of characteristics or traits of leaders and
that these traits differentiate successful from
unsuccessful leaders. More recently, research
into leadership (that is, on what they do instead
of what they are) and by determining what
 24

situational factors or conditions moderate the

effects of their behavior and performance (p. 86).
Jenks (1950) and Kilby (1971) have also strongly criti­
cized research that seeks to develop personality profiles of
the entrepreneur; both have encouraged researchers to study
the behaviors and activities of entrepreneurs. In empirical
research Brockhaus, (1980) Brockhaus & Nord (1979) and
Sexton & Kent (1981) have found that when certain psycho­
logical traits are carefully evaluated, it is not possible
to differentiate entrepreneurs from managers or from the
general population based on the entrepreneur's supposed
possession of such traits.
Gartner (1985) said, "How can we know the baseball
player from the game? How can we know the entrepreneur from
starting an organization?" (p. 23) . Gartner agreed with
Vesper that entrepreneurship is the creation of new organi­
zations. Gartner (1985) stated that if we are to understand
the phenomenon of entrepreneurship in order to encourage
growth, we then need to focus on the process by which new
organizations are created (p. 26). To add to this state­
ment, in order to encourage growth of new organizations,
education plays a fundamental role. Therefore, it is
necessary to understand the behaviors and education of these
entrepreneurs that create new organizations.
Dunphy (1988) in his paper "Definitions and Usage of the
Term Entrepreneur" presented at the International Council
for Small Business in June, 1988, stated:
 25

...Perhaps researchers should no longer allow

themselves to be tempted into the study of
entrepreneurial traits and personality charac­
teristics. ..The creative, exciting aspect of
further entrepreneurial theory building will be in
determining the situational factors or conditions
which impact upon entrepreneurial decisions as
well as the effects these decisions have on
performance (p. 84).
In another paper, "Societal Learning Theory as a
Conceptual Framework for Entrepreneurship Research: The
Role of Observational Learning" Scherer, Adams, and Wiebe
(1988) stated that, "The revised agendas (for research)
would look for ways in which environmental influences such
as role models, economic constraints and training avail­
ability affect individual performance, personal development
skill and competency, in addition to behavioral change"
(p. 247). The authors continued that a social learning
theory looks at specific types of behavior related to the
entrepreneurial decision and development. Bird (1989)
continued:
The study of entrepreneurial behavior looks at the
activities, interactions, competencies, feelings,
and relationships of the entrepreneur and the
entrepreneurial team...how the behavior comes
about as an interaction between individuals with
certain characteristics and social contexts that
support or inhibit entrepreneurial behavior...
Entrepreneurial behavior is opportunistic, value-
driven, value-adding, risk-accepting, creative
activity where ideas take the form of organiza­
tional birth growth, or transformation (p. 5-6).
Bird (1990) stated that there are rational and intuitive
origins of entrepreneurial behavior. The relative
rationality versus intuition of the person(s) with
 26

entrepreneurial intentions are at any given moment in

process.
In other words, different learning histories and experi­
ences may be what distinguishes entrepreneurial behavior
from non-entrepreneurial development. This is an area of
research that must be addressed.

Mvths About Women in Business

In addition to the barriers previously described, women

also must deal with the myths associated with women in
business. Gassman (1988) stated: "Since many myths abound
regarding the limitations of women, they often face various
attitudinal biases and barriers. Some of these barriers are
internal (their own feelings) and others are held by the
various individuals with whom women do business" (p. 21).
Three of these myths are particularly appropriate to this
study and will be addressed.

First Myth: The Woman's Place Is In The Home

Taylor (1980) referred to the myth in the following

quote: "Many people think that women are 'dabblers' in
entrepreneurship, hobbyist perhaps, part timers, set-up in
business by their husbands to have fun or have something
with which to 'keep busy'" (p. 4). If this myth is true,
how does one then deal with the fact that more women than
ever are presently in the paid labor force out of necessity
 27

and they are working full-time, year round (Women's Bureau,

1986).
Other relevant facts include the following:
o 73 percent of all working women either completely
support themselves and their families, or the income
earned by their spouses is under $15,000 a year
(Gassman, 1980).
o More women than ever before are now single heads of
families. This rate has grown 84 percent since 1970.
Of all Wisconsin family households, 13.2 percent are
headed by women (Ibid).
o One out of every two marriages is now ending in
divorce, a rate which has increased 249 percent since
1966 (Ibid).
o When a divorce occurs and children are involved,
women become the custodial parent in 90 percent of
the cases (Ibid).
o Child support is very often not awarded and is
collected irregularly, if collected at all. An
estimated 57 percent of all Wisconsin children
eligible for child support receive none either
because no child support is ordered or the orders are
ignored by the non-custodial parent (Wisconsin
Women's Council, 1987) .
o One of the most dramatic labor force participation
growth rates has occurred among mothers of young
children. Fifty-four percent of all women with
preschoolers are now in the paid labor force (Women's
Bureau, 1982).
o The women of today will most likely marry, have two
children and spend 29.3 years working for pay outside
the home. Juggling roles and meeting financial
responsibilities is now a way of life for most
American women (Women's Bureau. 1986).
o In 1984, 61 percent of poor adults were women; more
than three-fourths of all the poor were either adult
women or children under age eighteen (Moynihan,
1987).

o There has been little improvement in women's economic

position. Only 7 percent of employed women in
 28

America work in managerial positions and only

10 percent earn more than $20,000 a year (Hewlett,
1987).
o In 1984, 1 out of every 4 women earned less than
$10,000 a year when working full time (Ibid.).
o The low earning power of women helps explain why 35
percent of single mothers falls below the poverty
line (Ibid).
Berch (1982) reported that women often have the triple
responsibility of housework, childbearing, and wage-earner
outside the home. Berch stated:
While for society, women's labor has three
productive uses, for women themselves this can
be a triple burden: three jobs, and less than
one wage (since women still do not receive
equal pay in the market place). If more women
can realize this triple burden is a problem of
being overworked, rather than a matter of
psycho-social roles, then some long-term relief
may yet be in sight (p. vi).

Second Myth: Women's Motivation

Some people think that women in business are motivated

by completely different factors than men in business.
Gassman (1988) stated that basically, both women and men
start a business for the same reasons: "To earn a living;
to use skills for achievement, and to have independence and
autonomy" (p. 22). "Studies indicate that the major
motivation for all entrepreneurs is "being my own boss"
(U.S. Department of Commerce, 1978).
 29

Third Myth; Expertise

It is perceived that women entrepreneurs may be accepted

into service industries and retail more readily than into
manufacturing and technological fields. Masi (1981) stated:
"The great gap in income which exists between the sexes is
largely a part of the occupational segregation which has
become particularly prevalent within the last eighty years"
(p. 50) . Masi further said that The Equal Pay Act, although
well-intentioned, has done little to change the quality in
the labor force. The kinds of work women customarily do are
not usually considered equal to the kinds of jobs men do.
The pay scale reflects this imbalance of values and has
little to do with the capabilities of women.

The Changing Biases of Societv

Toward Female Entrepreneurs

Increasingly, women who feel their careers are at a

standstill are leaving big businesses. Companies are losing
valued employees to small businesses of their own. Women
are now a third of all sma 11-business owners, and by the
year 2,000 women are expected to own more than half of all
small businesses. The woman's place in the ownership of
businesses is rapidly increasing and expanding in four ways.
 30

Change I; The Growing Numbers of Women Business Owners

The U.S. Small Business Administration (1990) provided

the latest data on women business owners. The report indi­
cates all sole proprietorships, subchapter S corporations
and partnerships with ten or fewer partners or shareholders.
It is indicated that women-owned companies grew 57
percent between 1982 and 1987, and the number of women-owned
firms with paid employees nearly doubled. In this same
period, the total receipt of women business owners nearly
tripled, from 98.3 billion to 278.1 billion. Other
encouraging statistics included:
o Just as more women are now working for pay than ever
before, women are also starting their own business
more frequently. In fact, three out of every five
women entering the U.S. labor force today are start­
ing their own businesses. They are entrepreneurs and
risk-takers who are investing capital, ability and
time in their business efforts (Wisconsin Women's
Council, 1986).
o As more women are choosing business ownership
as a career option, the proportion of all sole
proprietorships operated by women has grown from
under 5 percent in 1972 to 26 percent in 1985 (Ibid).
o Between 1975 and 1985 women in business ownership
increased at a rate three times higher than the rate
for male business ownership. Women are now the
fastest growing segment of the small business popu­
lation (Wisconsin Strategic Development Commission,
1985).
The women owned businesses are not only growing in
numbers, but also in their range, diversity, and earning
power. The Small Business Administration (1990) also
stated, "Nontraditional fields such as construction show a
 31

fourfold increase in receipts. Women owned manufacturing

companies earned six times the amount previously recorded"
(p. 2).

Change II; Changing Traits Associated With the New Woman

Entrepreneur

Gassman (1988) stated that, "The Task Force on Women

Business Owners and a survey by the American Management
Association identified various traits often associated with
women entrepreneurs" (p. 4). She quoted the following
material from the U.S. Department of Commerce (1978).
o they started their businesses in recent years;
o they had been in the workforce for several years
before starting their own business;
o they had created, not inherited, their business;
o they worked without a partner and not with their
spouse;
o they were married to a supportive husband who was a
business owner or professional;
o they were raised in a close, supportive family;
o they had a mother or father who had been a business
owner; most had a mother who had worked outside the
home;
o they are highly educated;
o they are in business for the same reasons as men— to
earn money, be their own boss, use a skill;
o they are likely to be in their mid-forties and
operating a small service or retail business;
o they exhibited strong entrepreneurial drives early in
life, often during the elementary and high school
years;
 32

O they have an inordinate capacity for hard work and

dedication;
o they are well-informed concerning their field;
o they are persistent in their approach to work related
tasks;
o they have the ability to redirect negative situations
and attitudes to their advantage;
o they are able to juggle roles;
o they maintain an active role in their families(p.
4-5).
It is highly important to recognize the strong positive
affects of a support system for a single parent homemaker.
The development of a support and community network is highly
desirable.

Change III; Newly Recognized Strengths Women Can Bring To

Business Ownership

The positive aspects of women's socialization may give

them many crucial strengths for success in business owner­
ship.
Gassman (1988) reported:
o Because of the various roles they often juggle, many
women are used to keeping track of various different
activities at once. They may be; therefore, consci­
entious, hard-working, and have good organizational
ability.
o Intuitive ability may often be a strength for women.
It adds to leadership and problem-solving skills.
o Whether through parenting, various volunteer communi­
ty efforts or other employment related activities,
many women have developed strong people, concilia­
tion, listening, and nurturing skills. This could be
an advantage with customers, suppliers, and employees
on a day-to-day basis and in crisis management
situations as well.
 33

o Women may also be less likely to unrealistically

think "too big", which could help prevent one of the
most prevalent problems in small business, getting in
over one's head and pursuing a business idea which
may not truly be feasible (p. 8-9).
John Nesbitt and Patricia Aberdene (1985) indicated that
a new style of business management is necessary to meet the
needs of a fiercely competitive global economy. The manager
must be a creative, flexible, and intuitive problem- solver
who has excellent communication skills and can juggle many
activities at once. The new business manager and owner must
be a team-builder as well as facilitator. Women at all
levels of family involvement are well-suited for this new
entrepreneurial profile. They have the ability to nourish
not only people but the development of new products,
services, and innovative concepts.

Change IV; The Potential of Women Business Owners to Help

Build The State and National Economv

In The Report of the Committee on Small Business

Development to the House of Representatives, (June 28,
1988), it was stated that (women)..."are starting businesses
at over twice the rate of men and could well own and operate
50 percent of the nation's businesses by the year 2000."
(p. Ill). The report continues by saying that:
No other nation has opened itself to the
tremendous entrepreneurial potential of its women
as has the United States. Women owned businesses
may well provide the cutting edge— the American
advantage— in the world wide economic
competitiveness fast upon us. The loss to the
 34

policymakers not to foster this development to the

fullest extent possible (p. Ill).
Small businesses are instrumental in processes that
develop and reallocate resources. Such small business
activities aid in bringing stability and higher productivity
to the U.S. economy. The Report of the President (1987)
stated:
Small firms are important to the development and
introduction of new goods and services to the
public. Many small firms are important suppliers
of specialized goods and services. They exist to
serve a great variety of particular demands (p.
xxi).
Small businesses are instrumental in processes that
develop and reallocate resources. Such small business
activities aid in bringing stability and higher productivity
to the U.S. economy. Since women's business ownership is
rapidly expanding, the women's role in building the state
and national economy is ever increasing.

The Women

Who are these women entrepreneurs? What makes a good

woman candidate for starting a business? The review of
literature that follows, Gartner's (1985) New Venture
Creation model, had this to say.
 35

Background

From a broad point of view, females as well as males

must be viewed from the perspective of the culture they live
in. Evans and Berman (1987) said,
Culture is a group of people sharing a distinctive
heritage, such as Americans or Japanese. American
culture has placed importance on achievement and
success, activity, efficiency and practicability,
progress, material comfort, individualism,
freedom, external comfort, humanitarianism, and
youthfulness. Slower economic growth, the rising
influence of foreign countries, and maturing U.S.
population, signal changes in some of these values
(p. 139).
Social class is a ranking of people within a culture
and is based on income, occupation, education and type of
shelter. Social classes group people with similar values
and lifestyles together. Their social performance then
becomes how well the person carries out his or her roles as
a worker, family member, citizen and friend. Hall (1959)
stated that these social patterns "Are those implicit
cultural rules by means of which sets are arranged so that
they take on meaning" (p. 143). Reference groups within a
social class influences a person's thoughts and actions.
The reference groups that are face-to-face have the most
influence on a person. The aspirational (group one wishes
to belong to) or dissociative reference group (one to which
the person does not want to belong) obviously have less
influence.
 36

The question then becomes apparent. How does the

culture transmit its knowledge and influence? How does
reasoning and other activities become organizable within the
limits and resources of a culture so they, in turn, become
reasonable, identifiable events and occurrences?
Key (1980) said that language and nonverbal behavior
become organizers of social systems. "Sociolinguistics is a
subdiscipline of linguistics that looks at the varieties of
language" (p. 3). Key proposed, "That verbal and nonverbal
expression of status that reflect the economic system and
male/female differences are the most important feature of
differentiation in the dynamics of human interaction"
(p. 7). She further stated that language is a tool for
establishing relationships and, therefore, very important
for survival.

The cultural language of women. Edward Hall, in his

books The Silent Language (1959) and The Hidden Dimension
(1966) said that the way each culture defines space often
occurs at the level of tacit knowledge. The knowledge is
implied or indicated but not actually expressed. There is
no speech or words. Heap (1984) said, "Ethnomethodology
becomes a way of studying, ...how events are organized such
that they appear to participants and observers as typical,
uniform, repetitive phenomena, having these features of
typicality, uniformity and répétitives independent of who
 37

is the culture predicates, recognizes or produces them"

(p. 169).
How else is culture transmitted to women? In the book
Women^s Wavs of Knowing (Belenky, Clinch, Goldberger, and
Taruler, 1986), the authors stated that truth and reality
and the origins of knowledge shape the way women see the
world and themselves as participants in the world. These
origins affect definitions of themselves, the way they
interact with others, their sense of control over events in
life, their views of teaching and learning and their
concepts of morality.
How in particular do women learn? The extreme sex-role
stereotypes that the silent women accept, reflect the power­
lessness they have experienced. Men are active and get
things done, while women are passive and incompetent. The
view undoubtedly helps the women make sense of their own
dependence and deference to authorities. The culture, need­
less to say, supplies many experiences that maintain and
nourish such notions (Belenky, et al 1986). In other words,
silent women (women who remain isolated from others and have
little dialogue with other individuals) learn through
listening. They are passive and dependent and voice
nothing.
Belenky, et al (1986) said, "Listening is another way of
more actively knowing. Because women at the position of
received knowledge believe that all knowledge originates
 38

outside of the self, they must look to others even for self-
knowledge ...Thus, women of received knowledge listen care­
fully and try hard to live up to the images that others have
held up to them" (p. 49). The silent and passively listen­
ing woman is, no doubt, not a woman who would start a
business or think that they could without a huge dose of
self-esteem.
Subjective knowledge, the inner voice, is another way of
knowing that female subjectivists are those women who accept
family standards and ambitions but approach the multiplicity
of choices with a great deal of caution. Gilligan (1982)
stressed that.
Separation and individualism can leave women
feeling vulnerable and unconnected...Although she
senses that she is free to control her own
destiny, she does not feel in control nor able to
take the risks that experimentation entails (p.
56) ..
Who am I, this woman asks? Procedural knowledge, on the
other hand, can become the voice of reason. Conscious,
deliberate, systematic analysis begins to take place.
Procedures, skills and techniques are learned. Living in an
entrepreneurial family can then become an influence. Role
models are present and an effective transference of knowl­
edge can take place.
This procedural knowledge then becomes activated into
connected knowing. Belenky, et al (1986) continued,
"Connected knowing builds on the subjectivist's conviction
that the most trustworthy knowledge comes from personal
 39

experience r«ther than the pronouncement of authorities"

(p. 112-113). It is very helpful for connected knowers to
meet in groups of two or more people where sharing can take
place. Thus, the classroom as a meeting place for sharing
becomes valuable to the connected woman.
Constructed knowledge becomes the highest order for
women, in terms of the ways of knowing. Belenky, et al
(1986) said, "When women accept the responsibility for
evaluating and continually reevaluating their assumptions
about knowledge, the attention and respect that they might
once have awarded to the expert is transformed" (p. 139).
These women become passionate knowers and develop self-
knowledge. Attentive caring develops. Real talking
develops. Gilligan (1982) said, "The reinterpretation
of women's experience in terms of their own imagery of
relationships thus clarifies that experience and also
provides a nonhierarchical vision of human connection"
(p. 62). Yes, I am encouraged to become an individual, the
woman says to herself.
Jean Baker Miller (1976) in her book, Toward a New
Psvcholoov of Women, stressed that women start from a
different starting point in development. Women tend to stay
with, build on, and develop in a context of attachments,
affiliations, and relationships. A woman's psychological
framework values ongoing attachments and relationships.
 40

Role models. In terms of female entrepreneurs, it was

found that they tended to have a high percentage of self-
employed parents. For example, Hisrich and Brush (1984)
found from a sample of 468 female entrepreneurs that 36
percent had entrepreneurial fathers and 11 percent had
entrepreneurial mothers. Waddell (1983) reported that 63
percent of female entrepreneurs in his study had fathers who
had started their own businesses and 31 percent had self-
employed mothers. In contrast, Ronstadt (1984) found that
people who decided against starting a small business were
less likely to have parents or acquaintances in small
business.
Research on the families of entrepreneurial women is
necessary for a further understanding of the family's role.
As Joanne Wilkens (1987) search of 117 business owners
around the United States revealed.
Three-fourths of the new entrepreneurs had a
parent, grandparent, or other close relative who
was an entrepreneur, independent professional,
farmer, or contractor. Many women mentioned how
important this familial example had been to them
on their own later journeys to entrepreneurship-
even when the parent or grandparent involved was
the distant or absent father. A number of
interviewees strove to establish a relationship
similar to his. In some cases, business ownership
eventually provided a new basis for communication
between father and daughters (p. 41).
The family and the woman entrepreneur are interwoven.
Gitobu (1989) said, "Because of the close relationship
between family responsibilities and entrepreneurial
activities, there is a tendency for family members to serve
 41

as strong role models, especially to the younger generation"

(p. 21). This is an important phenomenum to research and
study.

Mentors. Mentoring seems to have emerged as an accept­

able way to develop careers. As a result the U.S. Small
Business Administration, Office of Women's Business Owner­
ship, has developed a mentoring program for women called
Women's Networking for Entrepreneurial Training (WNET). The
organization's motto is "Linking Women Together for Entre­
preneurial Success." "WNET is designed to match successful
women (mentors) with women business owners whose companies
are ready to grow (protegees). For a period of one year the
mentor serves as a role model and offers technical
assistance" (Small Business Administration, 1988).

Networks. Large or small, formal or informal networks

have always played an important role in the real business
world and have been a source of valuable advice. Gassman
(1988) said, networks can lead to:
New employees, possible investors, new markets,
reliable suppliers and distributors; helpful
consultants and advisors; leads on contacts;
access to credit; information on legislative
developments; appointment to various prestigious
public policy-making bodies; knowledge of
conferences; trade fairs; training and
publications. In short, whether for picking up
friendly advice or developing friendships that
often lead to business deals, networks can be very
helpful to the business owner (p. 39).
 42

Since most women have not been part of an "old boy's

network", women must look a lot harder for access to an
informal information sharing system.
To answer this need, in recent years women's business
networks have been formed. Gassman said, "These networks
can give women a vehicle for connecting to colleagues with
common concerns. Many of these networks have been very
successful in bringing more visibility and stature to women
in the business community" (p. 40).
There has been an astonishing concurrent outcropping of
new women's groups all over the country. Networking became
the feminist phenomenon of the 1980's. Wilson (1989)
stated, so many independent, new networks are forming that
no one has been able to maintain a comprehensive list"
(p. 19).
The 1990's have begun and are continuing with national
networks. International entrepreneurship networks are now
also being encouraged. United States AID (USAID), for
example, has an extensive exchange program for foreign
business people as well as educators to go back and forth
with an exchange of knowledge, ideas, and understandings.

Ethnic background. This also may play a part in

influencing women to start a business. Bird pointed out
that, "Ethnic minorities (and to some extent blacks and
women) may feel more displacement than the white males who
are the subjects of most studies. Displacement refers to
 43

events and circumstances that break old patterns and

inertia-immigration, being fired, etc." (p. 75). High
numbers of entrepreneurs are frequently those that are
displaced. Shapero (1982) said that, "Jews, Lebanese, Ibos
in Nigeria, Kains and Parsis in India, Guieratis in East
Africa, and Chinese located off the mainland" (p. 17) are
frequently found to be entrepreneurs.

Experiences

Bird (1990) said, "Experiences, such as those that might

appear on a resume or in a biography, contribute to the
development of skills, abilities, and competencies important
in entrepreneurship as well as to the values, needs,
incentives, and drives that energize the entrepreneurial
idea" (p. 57). Gitobu (1989) stated that, "Skills in
personal communication would most likely be included in
personnel management and the general handling of customers
in business situations" (p. 18). In other words, many women
have good natural entrepreneurship abilities that they must
recognize within themselves. Self-esteem is fundamental for
women to understand (Ashmore and Fisher, 1985). Bird (1990)
noted, "Experiences that contribute to the entrepreneurial
'right stuff' can come through work, education, maturation,
and social-biological given such as race and gender"
(p. 58.).
 44

Kolb (1984) explained that some individuals learn more

effectively from their experiences than others. The learner
must first recognize the importance of a learning experi­
ence, both successes and failures. The learner must reflect
on the experience to see what really has gone on. Were
their egos, emotions, and assumptions in the way? They must
abstract from the experience and relate it to other experi­
ences and perhaps try something new next time if failure
occurred.
The entrepreneur's track record of thorough and proven
operating knowledge of the business they intend to launch is
considered very important (Timmons, 1976). Timmons went on
to say that there are three types of experience considered
to be important. First is the industrial (technical or
market) expertise. This experience, provides the entre­
preneur with certain key competencies and inside information
needed to recognize opportunities and evaluate and manage
risk...Those lacking industrial experience (e.g., high-
school and college graduates), may compensate for the
unproven and possibly undeveloped skills with technical
training and extraordinary zeal and energy.
The second experience Timmons (1976) considered
important is management experience. Since an organization
is initiated, some form of management is necessary.
Ronstadt (1984) stated that for most entrepreneurs,
"Managerial know-how may be the least important form of
 45

experience" (p. 105). Since many new ventures stay small,

Ronstadt reasoned that self-management is more important
than organizational management. On the other hand,
organizations may stay small because they lack a knowledge
of appropriate management systems.
The third experience Timmons (1976) discussed is
entrepreneurial experience. Bird (1990) said, "Previous
experience with entrepreneurship is an important factor in
looking at current or future performance of specific entre­
preneurs" (p. 62). Hands on experience makes new venture
creation easier (Ronstadt, 1984). Typically, one out of
five entrepreneurs has had direct venture experience prior
to their current enterprise (Hornaday & Aboud, 1971).
Ronstadt (1984) called this the "corridor principle.” One
or more of the corridors leads ultimately to the venture
success sought by the entrepreneur that may not have been
found in the original venture.
Bird (1990) said, "Prior work experiences can provide
advantages to the entrepreneur and his or her venture
contingent on how well and what he or she learns from those
experiences. Thus students, homemakers, and others lacking
experience must work extra hard and learn quickly and
vicariously to compensate" (p. 64).
 46

Motivation

Actual performance in starting a business involves

motivation, which consists of the needs, drives, and values
added to the energy that is necessary to direct one's
abilities. McClelland (1965) stated that those who have
high achievement motivation have a greater need for
performance feedback. That feedback comes with completion
or progress points and through symbolic scoring systems such
as money. Money is probably not the incentive, said
McClelland (1985), but the financial security can be a means
to an end.

Need for control. The need for control is a high

entrepreneurial motivation. "The expectancy of being able
to make something happen is a defining behavior competency
of entrepreneurs" (Bird, 1990, p. 81). This expectancy of
being able to make things happen, this "can-do" belief, is
both internal and external control. Rotter (1966) stated.
When a reinforcement is perceived by the subject
as following some action of his own but not being
entirely contingent upon his action, then in our
culture, it is typically perceived as the result
of luck, chance, fate, as under the control of
powerful others, or as unpredictable because of
the great complexity of the forces surrounding
him. When the event is interpreted in this way by
an individual, we have labeled this a belief in
external control. If the person perceives that
the event is contingent upon his own behavior or
his own relatively permanent characteristics, we
have termed this a belief internal control (p. 1).
 47

However, there is another side to need for control

findings. Brockhaus (1980) stated.
An internal locus-of-control belief may...be
associated with a more active effort to affect the
outcome of events. This internal belief and the
associated greater effort would seem to hold true
for both successful entrepreneurs and successful
managers. Therefore, it fails to uniquely
distinguish entrepreneurs, but holds promise for
distinguishing successful entrepreneurs from the
unsuccessful (p. 45).

Risk acceptance. According to Bird (1989) "Risk

involves a psychological assessment of the probabilities of
success or failure for any given action or action plan"
(p. 84). Various types of risk are always present in
entrepreneurial ventures.
Financial risks means "putting everything on the line;"
investing one's savings and pensions; mortgaging one's house
and the future education of children; and even the down-
scaling of the family's life style. "For many observers
financial risk taking is the core competency of entrepre­
neurs" (Bird p. 65).
Social and family risks are also present. The new
venture takes time away from traditional life style
activities and from the maintenance and development of
personal relationships. Emotional and social support can
erode, leaving the entrepreneur lonely and stressed. Health
and well-being, career or future employability and organi­
zational growth of the business are all at risk.
 48

Bird (1990) said, "Despite the swashbuckling image of

entrepreneurs, most are not risk seekers...Most entrepre­
neurs are risk acceptors seeing situations differently than
nonentrepreneurs and accepting and managing the risk
inherent in a given opportunity” (p. 88).
Most entrepreneurs manage the risk of their ventures by
taking control, being involved in the nitty-gritty of the
business. Brockhaus (1980) defined this as:
...the perceived probability of receiving the
rewards associated with success of a proposed
situation which is required by an individual
before he will subject himself to the consequences
associated with failure, the alternative situation
providing less reward as well as less severe
consequences than the proposed situation (p. 513) .
Tolerance of ambiguity is another way of looking at
risk. The research of Timmons (1976), Sexton & Bowman,
(1986), Begley & Boyd (1985) and Scherer et al (1982),
showed prospective entrepreneurs how to be more tolerant of
ambiguity.

A valued life style. The most frequently cited reason

for becoming an entrepreneur is the desire to be independent
and one's own boss-to be responsible for ones own outcomes.
(Bird, 1990, p. 95). Freedom, independence and autonomy are
looked at as favorable. Job satisfaction and mobility as
important to entrepreneurs.
"Values inform and underlie much of what the entrepre­
neur intends" (Bird, 1990, p. 107). Most entrepreneurs
called successful are opportunistic about how their goals
 49

are achieved. Bird said that most entrepreneurs values

inform and underlie much of what the entrepreneur intends.
"These values help the entrepreneur tie the present to the
future and are fundamental to the processes of alignment and
attunement that define intentional action" (Ibid).

Education

Are successful entrepreneurs born or made? There seems

to be widespread acceptance of the notion that most small
businesses fail because of poor management, which can
include deficiencies in planning, controlling, and account­
ing methods along with inability to analyze financial
statements and locate expert advice when needed. Learned
skills can provide some solutions to all of these problems.
Albert Shapero, a former professor of private enterprise at
The Ohio State University, said that a professor's role is
to ignite the entrepreneurial spirit (Gumpert & Timmons,
1982).
There is a growing sense and consensus that entrepre­
neurship education plays a key role in our future economy.
Delegates to the White House Conference on Small Business
(August, 1986) voted it their sixth priority for national
action. The Congressional report. Making America Work Again
(1987), cited entrepreneurship education as a top priority
in preparing the population of this country for the global
economy of the near future.
 50

Some of McClelland's early work (1965) addressed the

entrepreneurship education point directly. He actually
developed entrepreneurship education courses that were given
in short frames of time. A theoretical structure was
suggested by Argyris (1970), and the course structure that
McClelland formatted created in individuals a powerful
belief in their ability to change through their own efforts.
The argument is most fully presented by McClelland (1965),
but Schollhammer & Kuriloff (1979) also gave a brief, clear
summary of the training process. Kent, Sexton & Vesper
(1982) stressed the need for more systematic, qualitative
studies to determine:
1. The effectiveness of specific functions in the
curriculum. For example: The best way to teach
students to write a business plan.
2. The effectiveness of individual courses and series of
courses.
3. The true effects of training and education upon the
probability of success (p. 29).
Definitive studies of effectiveness of courses are very
difficult to design. At Babson College using data available
from six cooperating schools who have taught entrepreneur­
ship courses for eight or more years, an attempt was made to
determine the effect of entrepreneurial courses on the
subsequent careers of these students. Every student who
took one or more courses in entrepreneurship was matched
with a comparable student who did not take that course. The
sample was large enough to support statistical analysis
 51

within each school. Even in a carefully designed study as

this one, a problem resulted from the fact that entrepre­
neurial courses were electives and therefore the differences
found between experimental and control groups may have been
the result of self-selection, rather than course content
(Kent, et al, 1982).

The Environment

The environment, conditions by which one is surrounded

is important to the potential entrepreneur and small busi­
ness owner. Bird (1990) stated,
...Entrepreneurs face environments with many
dimensions. Each dimension can be more or less
complex, with greater or lesser differentiation
and integration (e.g., well segmented markets
versus mass markets; low versus high technology,
etc.). In addition, each dimension can be
changing more or less rapidly (p. 253).
Kuern & Johnson (1986), reported that small-business
owners-managers spend more time than large-business managers
scanning the environment for information about the market
place for its growth potential. Talking and listening are
important.
Bird (1990) elaborated on Gartner's (1985) theoretical
framework for understanding new venture creation and
discussed the environment as a context of entrepreneurship,
a larger framework of events and circumstances within which
the entrepreneurial event occurs. She stated, "These
societal context variables usually do not change quickly and
 52

are the subject of most policy interventions by governments

and social activities such as Chambers of Commerce and
small-business lobbying groups. Along with other market
variables, these determine the relative support and
nurturance available to new ventures (and thus the survival
and growth of some" (p. 138).
Organizations are frequently born out of turbulence and
chaos in the environment. "They continue to fluctuate in
size and 'health'. As a result of debt/equity problems that
occur with rapid growth, cash flow problems, people
problems, market changes, new competition, and internal
debate over the strategic uses of resources" (Bird, p. 149).
The entrepreneurial environment is constantly
changing, and at an accelerating rate, and in all
directions at once. And what counts is your
ability to sense.what's going on in the confusion,
make sense out of it, and turn it into some form
of corporate activity that is profitable. It's
very difficult-like walking a multidimensional
tightrope every minute of the day (Birch, 1985, p.
32) .
Valentine (1985) said that confusion and volatility of
the environment can create an opportunity for entrepreneur­
ship.
One of our theories is to seek out opportunities
where there is major change going on, a major
dislocation in the way things are done. Wherever
there's turmoil, there's indecision, and wherever
there's indecision, there's opportunity. When it
becomes obvious to anybody who reads Time
Magazine...it's already too late in the cycle to
invest...So we look for the confusion phase, when
the big companies are confused, when other venture
groups are confused. That's the time to start
companies. The opportunities are there, if you're
early and have 457 good ideas (pp. 30-32).
 53

The aggregate view of new ventures looks at the ecology

of entrepreneurship models which examines "Populations of
organizations and is concerned with the aggregate birth and
death rates of firms in given economic regions" (Bird,
p. 139). Foundings due to funding, failures and survivals
due to persistence and transformation are considered. The
author further said that one of the ecology models is
analogous to natural selection in biology. "In this model,
the environment (markets, financial conditions, political
conditions, etc.) selects certain organizations for survival
and potential growth and selects others (which dissolve
through bankruptcy, acquisition or merger)" (Ibid).
The other ecology model is strategic. "...Rather than
being selected by ecological and environmental forces
outside the control of individual entrepreneurs (or their
teams), successful ventures are thought to act intelligently
and proactively" (Bird, 1990, p. 140). The strategic
model's reality of venture entry, survival or death, and
growth involved dealing with the new ventures at the firm or
organization level. Strategies are actively organized to
help particular organizations gain a competitive advantage.

Social Environment

Social forces have produced a record number of two

income households and working women. The economic impact of
these trends includes "record amounts of savings," which
 54

make new ventures more feasible because of available start­

up capital and the opportunity for one's spouse to quit work
and start a new venture (Farrell, 1985).
The Naisbitt Group (1986) stated, "As women continue to
exercise personal options, choices for men will increase as
well... The traditional nuclear family (which has always
depended on the wife subordinating too many of her
individual interests to those of her husband and children)
seems unlikely to return any time soon" (p. 264).
Drucker (1987) stated, "What we need is an entrepre­
neurial society in which innovation and entrepreneurship are
normal, steady and continuous. ...innovation and entrepre­
neurship have to become an integral life-sustaining activity
in our organizations, our economy, our society" (p. 254-
255) . He went on to state that here are two areas in which
an entrepreneurial society requires substantial innovation.
The first is to retrain redundant or former "smokestack"
workers. As an economy becomes entrepreneurial, new jobs
are created for which organized efforts are needed to train
and replace old workers in new jobs.
The other social innovation necessary is "to organize
the systematic abandonment of out-worn social policies and
obsolete public-service institutions" (Drucker, p. 259).
These institutions, policies and agencies are human rather
than as Drucker said "devine". "We need to encourage
flexibility, of continuous learning, and of the acceptance
 55

of change as normal and as opportunity-for institutions as

well as for individuals” (Ibid, p. 260).
Social displacement of those involved with a detracking
force that pushes or pulls often contribute to an individ­
ual's perceptions of the desirability and feasibility of
starting a new business. Changes in life paths can give
fresh thoughts to future considerations. Shapero (1982,
p. 15), fully diagramed the entrepreneurial event formation
process. Negative life path changes such as being fired,
insulted, bored, divorced or widowed, becoming a refugee or
even going through middle-age crisis or being between things
such as getting out of the army, school or jail and then
having positive pulls such as a mentor, investor, partner
and customers can lead to the perceptions of desirability
and feasibility of starting one's own business,
Hannan & Freeman (1989) stated, "The social environment
of individual organizations consist mainly of other organi­
zations" (p. 91) . Therefore, a change in the environment of
one organizational population tend to change the composition
and/or activities of other organizational populations.
The social environment tends to assess legitimacy.
"Organizational legitimacy refers to perceptions of
outsiders and insiders that this venture can and will
perform well overtime" (Bird, 1990, p. 143). Singh, Tucker
and House (1986) noted that organizations which demonstrate
high reliability and accountability along with a low
 56

variance in performance are favored by selection processes

in organization populations.
Nichemanship is also useful in a positive social envir­
onment. Hannan and Freeman (1977) referred to a niche as a
combination of resources in the environment that are neces­
sary to survive and grow. The niche can be an industrial
classification, a geographic position, the labor supply,
financial resources, governmental policies, technology, and
the market place structure.
Being in a niche that is too small for larger and older
firms is also useful. Cooper, Willard and Woo (1986)
stated:
The extant literature generally advises small
firms not to meet larger competitors head-on.
They should concentrate on specialized products,
localize products which require a high degree of
craftsmanship... (They should provide) customer
service, product customization, and other factors
which are inimical to large-scale production (p.
248).
New ventures that find a niche by tailoring products and
focusing on small market segments that larger and old
industry leaders perceive to be as a liability, are enhanc­
ing their chances for survival and growth (Bird, 1990,
p. 146).

Economic Environment

The Women's Business Ownership Act of 1988 reported,

"The exponential increase in the number of businesses owned
and managed by women has been the most significant economic
 57

development of recent years. This important development,

however, has not been given the attention it deserves"
(p. 4).
As a result, the Committee on Small Business held six
hearings in April and May of 1988 to explore the rapidly
increasing role of women entrepreneurs and what this new
economic environment means to society. The women entre­
preneurs wanted it known that their concerns were not social
or special but integral to the health of the American
economy. Further the report stated:
At a time when America is suffering from huge
budget and trade deficits-and from a chronic
failure to significantly increase productivity— it
is vital for public policy makers to seek means to
catalyze the tremendous pool of talent and energy
these women represent. These women are part of
the most educated generation of women that has
ever existed. They are a gold mine of human
capital. No other nation, Japan included, is
anywhere close to the Unites States in maximizing
the economic and creative potential of the over 50
percent of the population who are women. It is
vitally important for our future competitiveness
that public policy, in partnership with the
private sector, affirm and assist this economic
revolution. As part of this effort, it is
essential that remaining barriers to women
entrepreneurship be eliminated (p. 5).
Receipts from women owned sole proprietorships were
approximately $100 billion in 1982, according to the U.S.
Bureau of Census. The economic impact far exceeded this
level if the multiplier effect of 2.5 times in the local
economy is used. Women owned businesses have then
contributed $250 billion to the economy in 1982 (Women's
Business Ownership Act, 1988).
 58

On October 4, 1990 new statistics were released by the

United States Small Business Administration, Lindsey L.
Johnson, Director of the Office of Women^s Business
Ownership.
The number of women owned businesses in the United
States grew from 2.6 million in 1982 to 4.1
million in 1987, a 57 percent increase, according
to a survey by the Commerce Department's Census
Bureau. The 1987 Survey of Women-Owned Businesses
showed that the rate of growth in the number of
firms owned by women was more than four times
greater than the rate for all businesses, which
increased by 14 percent during the five-year
period. About 30 percent of the nation's
businesses were women-owned, with receipts
totaling nearly $280 billion, about 14 percent of
the U.S. total. While only 15 percent of women-
owned firms had paid employees, such firms
provided 81 percent of the receipts of women-owned
businesses. Women-owned employer firms increased
by 98 percent from 1982 to 1987, and receipts for
these businesses grew by 243 percent. Women-owned
firms with no paid employees showed more modest
increases of 52 percent in number of firms and 64
percent in receipts (p. 1-2).
While the 1990 report is favorable, it must be noted
that the 1988 Women's Business Ownership Act does, however,
report that women-owned businesses are not experiencing
equal profitability "...business size is obviously the most
important factor for this discrepancy...women predominate in
many low-paying industries and trades" (p. 6).
The new statistics released by the Census Bureau in 1990
also pointed out:
Traditionally, women-owned businesses have been
concentrated in the retail trade and services industry.
While the percent of all women-owned businesses located
in these industries rose between 1982 and 1987, the
share of women-owned business receipts accounted for by
these industries experienced a notable decline between
 59

1982 and 1987. In 1982, women-owned firms in the

retail trade and services industries accounted for just
over 63 percent of the total receipts of women-owned
businesses. As of 1987, women-owned businesses in
these two industries accounted for just under 53
percent of the total receipts of women-owned
businesses. One reason for this decline is the strong
growth of the total receipts of women-owned businesses
in industries where these businesses have traditionally
been more sparsely represented-viz, the construction,
manufacturing, and wholesale trade industries (Census
Bureau, 1990, p. l).
The underlying costs of small-business ownership, as
reported by the Naisbitt Group (1986) are:
often are responsibilities for the first-time
small-business owner's most pressing problems.
Among these costs are liability insurance. Social
Security tax, and unemployment insurance. Less
obvious but of growing concern are telephone
access charges, which can easily be under­
estimated. The most staggering expense is the
toll the current liability insurance is exacting
on small business (p. 8).
The authors go on to say that there is a tremendous
expense, too, that liability insurance is extracting from
small business. Closing due to high liability insurance
rates, minimal coverage or going without liability insurance
are options that are chosen.
Other costs of small-business ownership (Naisbitt Group,
1986) are "worker's compensation, utility price structures,
health insurance, social security, and paperwork time. This
calls for control of the underlying costs of doing business
will grow more strident" (p. 11) .
Capital. The Naisbitt Group (1986) pointed out that,
"Aspiring small-business owners always have had to reach
into their own pockets-and often those of friends and
 60

relatives for start-up capital. Once in business, they

overwhelmingly have turned to commercial banks for loans'*
(p. 11).
Gassman (1988) pointed out that women frequently do not
have a business track record. "They may lack a banking
relationship and a credit history; and, they may have
limited access to fixed assets or collateral since they are
less likely to own their own home or car" (p. 11). The
American Women's Economic Development Corporation (1979)
reported that since women are often seeking less than
$25,000 in financing, commercial banks perceive these loans
as unprofitable because of the large amount of paperwork
involved. In a Report by the American Management Associ­
ation's study of women business owners cited in the U.S.
Department of Commerce Report (1978), women cited discrimi­
nation in financing as their biggest obstacle. Once
accompanied by their husband or a male friend the barrier
many times dissolved.
The Women's Business Ownership Act of 1988
reports, women face additional barriers when she
approached a lending institution. If she is a new
entrant to the commercial world, her lack of
business experience may be all too apparent.
Lenders may be concerned about inadequate business
plans, inexperience with capital markets, lack of
technical business education and training, and the
comparatively small size of the applicant's
business. These criticisms are real and justified
in many instances and underscores the need for
specialized management and training assistance (p.
13-14).
 61

Because most women businesses are services, their assets

are considered "soft" and banks find them difficult to use
as collateral. The Women Business Ownership Act of 1988
further stated:
Many lenders do not find creditworthiness if the
firm is rich in cash flow but lacking in "hard"
assets. Many modern service industries, however,
fit this profile. Witness Martin Mayer stated in
the Committee that, if women's entrepreneurship
could be the vehicle by which American financial
institutions began to lend on a cash flow rather
than as asset basis, "it would be perhaps the
greatest imaginable contribution" (p. 14).
Unemployment. Another economic condition that directly
correlates positively with the birth of new local ventures
is high unemployment. Vesper (1980) described four
unemployment contexts. The first is intentional resignation
when an individual quits a job because of dissatisfaction,
health problems or perhaps political disfavor within the
organization. The second context is a layoff due to
changing economic and perhaps technological factors. Some
times the person is fired instead, or retires and then
starts a business.
The understanding that self-employment is an option to
unemployment is a realistic view. Many times, however, the
unemployed never think of starting a small business venture.
Why not? It may seem too complicated. The knowledge and
know-how necessary to start the business may be too remote.
Education for entrepreneurship is necessary.
 62

Political Environment

Ronald Reagan of the 1 9 8 0 carried much of the free-

market and rugged-individual ideology within him into the
White House. Restraints on individual creativity and
initiatives were removed. Deregulation opened new markets
to new competitors. The capital gains taxes were reduced in
1978 and 1981. This made venture capital more readily
available and economically rational.
Political change can generally cause turmoil. Bird
(1990) said..."political turmoil may actually release
resources to be used to build new organizations" (p. 154) .
She further pointed out, however, that severe and extended
political unrest may inhibit the long term survival and
growth of new ventures.

The Process for New Venture Creation

Entrepreneurial behavior is intentional. Bird (1990)

stated, "Intentionality is a conscious state of mind that
directs attention (and therefore experience and action)
toward a specific object (goals) or pathway to achieve it
(means). Entrepreneurial intentions aim toward the creation
of a new venture or new values in existing ventures" (p. 8).
Bird (1990) continued that goal oriented intentional
direction includes, "Actions, statements, relationships and
experiences that change the context and ultimately combine
to form a new organization" (p. 10).
 63

Collins and Moore (1964) stated that..."the entrepreneur

continually trades away his present for his anticipation of
the future" (p. 162). This is especially true, said Quinn
(1985), when an invention to actually market the product
ranges from 3 to 25 years, with an average of 19.2 years
(p. 74). Collins and Moore (1964) went on to say, "The
structuring of the present to bring about desired future
states is the nature of most work and a central and defining
aspect of entrepreneurial work. The entrepreneur begins to
set in motion a series of events he intends will lead to a
future state of affairs" (p. 151).
The process of entrepreneurship for starting a business
is the culmination of a lifelong learning process. This
process suggests that one does not learn everything about
entrepreneurship at any one time in life or in any one
course. Bird (1990) said, "Successful entrepreneurs operate
within a zone of future time perspective...This future time
span allows the entrepreneur the advantage of spending time
in decision making and action. Failure to properly frame
new venture projects will result in missing the mark, poor
timing, and missed opportunities" (p. 20).
In Appendix A, Figure 1 - Ashmore (1987) gives a
visualization of the life-long learning process as it
applies to entrepreneurship. Five stages of entrepreneurial
learning are described.
 64

Stage One: Basics

The learning of basics or stage one in the model

identifies competencies to provide all citizens with a basic
understanding of the market economy and the individual's
role in it. At this stage, students in a variety of primary
and secondary grades hopefully begin to gain prerequisite
basic skills, identify career options, and understand the
free enterprise system.
Rushing (1990) stated, "The child must be exposed to
economics concepts that form a cognitive domain in which
entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship can be developed. It is
in the economic environment in which the entrepreneur has
relevance and, some would argue, critical importance"
(p. 157). During the formative years, from birth through
grades seven, the child' personality is flexible and
receptive to new ideas. According to Rushing (1980), this
is an ideal time for the development of entrepreneurial
attributes.
During the whole period the child could be exposed
to economic and entrepreneurial concepts. Toward
the end of the period and in the first years of
high school (the middle school years, 6, 7, 8),
the student could study the role of entrepreneurs
in the economy and learn entrepreneurial
opportunities that exist within the economic and
social structures (p. 158).
Banaszak (1990) stated "Economics and entrepreneurship
are subjects well-suited for study in grades 6 through 9.
They allow students to examine their personal development.
 65

study role models, and explore the large society they are
entering" (p. 166). He went on to say that learning about
entrepreneurs who have seized control of situations they are
in can help adolescents to take charge of their own lives.
Davis (1989) identified six subgoals for economic
education:
1- Develop a commitment to the basic values of the
American economic system.
2. Recognize the basic features to the U.S. economy
that distinguishes it from other economic systems.
3. Become aware of the strengths and problems in our
mixed market economy.
4. Actively construct new meanings about the nature of
their own economic behavior (what students choose
to do) and the economic behavior of the people in
the world.
5. Apply an economic reasoning framework and thinking
skills to fundamental human issues, dilemmas, and
moral questions.
6. Develop a healthy skepticism toward such matters as
issues stated too simply, issue options defined too
narrowly, solutions that imply little or no cost,
or solutions that are devoid of humane considera­
tions (e.g., people's feelings, values, and
preferences) (p. 60).
Additional goals stated by Davis (1989) for young
adolescent's entrepreneurship education include:
o Know the role and functions of entrepreneurs in our
market driven economy and
o Understand and practice entrepreneurial character­
istics such as high self-esteem, willingness to take
risks, innovativeness, accepting responsibility for
personal actions, and persistence (p. 60).
 66

Stage Two; Awareness of Competencies

Awareness or stage two is called competency-awareness.

This stage of lifelong learning is particularly useful in
the secondary curriculum. Kent (1990) said, "In teaching
the next generation of entrepreneurs it is important to note
that entrepreneurship education has at least two broad
dimensions. The first dimension is awareness and the second
is skills" (p. 187).
Awareness that starting one's own business as a future
career alternative is important. Price (1984) stated, "What
is often neglected in the curriculum content of vocational
programs, but yet possesses tremendous opportunity for
economic development, in the state? Naturally it's
entrepreneurship" (p. 12). "The first prerequisite for
entrepreneurship education is to make sure that students
have the vocational skills necessary to compete in the
market place. The second skills component covers certain
managerial skills that entrepreneurs need to learn" (Kent,
1990, p. 188-189). Besides financial management skills,
Kent (1990) went on to say, "Entrepreneurs also need to
understand that to be successful they must work with other
people. Human relations does not seem to be a strong suit
for most entrepreneurs, who often fail to understand the
needs and wants of those with whom they work" (p. 189) .
 67

Kent (1990) also stated

Where should entrepreneurship be introduced and
taught in the high school curriculum? As could be
suspected, there are several courses and levels at
which entrepreneurship can be integrated. While a
full unit on entrepreneurship could be taught as a
self-standing, independent course of study, this
is not the only approach, nor necessarily the most
effective. Even if a freestanding entrepreneur­
ship course is provided in the curriculum its
effectiveness will be enhanced if entrepreneurial
insights are provided throughout the curriculum.
If entrepreneurship education is isolated in a
single course, it will be missed by many students
who could profit from exposure (p. 189).

Stage Three; Creative Application.

Creative application or stage three is where students

learn entrepreneurship competencies, apply specific
occupational training, and learn how to create new
businesses. Ashmore (1990) said that these course are
taught, "In advanced high school vocational programs, some
special course for any high school student, some two-year
colleges where there are special courses and/or degrees for
small business and entrepreneurship, and some colleges and
universities" (p. 215).
Ashmore (1990) went on to say that because a student
majors in business in college, it should not be assumed that
the student will learn how to start a new business. "The
major outcome at this stage is greater creativity, in
finding business opportunities and close-to-real experience
through putting a plan together to really start a business
long before students are ready to really become entrepre­
 68

neurs" (p. 215-216). Ronstadt (1984) agreed and stated that

educational programs can and do have a beneficial impact on
entrepreneurial development and success. He has, therefore,
developed a comprehensive entrepreneurship text book with
case studies included.
The Center for Education and Training for Employment in
cooperation with the Ohio Department of Education, has
developed curriculums for the teaching of entrepreneurship.
The first. Program for Acquiring Competency in Entrepreneur­
ship (PACE) (1983), has been developed at three skill
levels. The first level is for students who have little
business background but wish to learn about what it takes to
start and run a small business. The second level is for
students who desire in-depth knowledge about creating a new
business and opportunities to dream about entrepreneurship
as a future career option. Level three is for students and
adults who have business knowledge and are ready to start
their own business— or improve an existing business. The
program has flexibility of use and can be used as a complete
curriculum or in combination with other activities or
resources. There are 18 modules in each of the 3 levels to
teach identified necessary competencies. There are,
therefore, 54 modules all together.
 69

1. Understanding the Nature 8. Financing the Business

of Small Business 9. Dealing with Legal Issues
2. Determining Your Poten- 10. Complying with Government
tial as an Entrepreneur 11. Managing the Business
3. Developing the Business 12. Managing Human Resources
Plan 13. Promoting the Business
4. Obtaining Technical 14. Managing Sales Efforts
Assistance 15. Keeping the Business Record
5. Choosing the Type of 16. Managing the Finances
Business 17. Managing Customer Credit
6. Planning the Marketing and Collections
Strategy 18. Protecting the Business
7. Locating the Business

Each level of PACE features a "Going Into Business"

project designed for the development level of students.
Level one is a group fund raising project "entrepreneurship
style." Level two's project is a chance to dream about a
business in your future and an opportunity to create the
business. Level three has a real planning program for the
entrepreneur or person about to start a business. A
checklist is presented for the plans you should have made
before opening the doors of your business.
A second curriculum, Bevond A Dream (1985), is a program
that was originally designed to provide comprehensive and
individualized entrepreneurship assessment and instruction
program to selected dislocated workers as a means of
increasing their success in self-employed activity.
This training package evolved from the need for
instructional materials targeted specifically for displaced
adults. Albert Shapero (1982) defined displaced adults as
those persons who are experiencing major changes in their
lives (life path changes). These changes are the result of
 70

such displacing events as getting fired, encountering a

family business argument, entering a middle-age crisis, or
being divorced or widowed. Others may find themselves
between situations due to graduation, military discharge,
retirement, or being laid off. Shapero adds that going into
business for one's self is often a response made by adults
experiencing these types of crisis.
According to Shapero (1982), negative displacements are
the leading reasons for starting a business, although
positive pulls such as financial support or partnership are
also strong influences. The ultimate decision to start a
business, however, is contingent upon the person's desire,
or determination to succeed and the feasibility, or like­
liness of an experience being successful.
Clearly, the life path change process, as depicted by
Shapero (1982) pointed to displaced adults as the primary
audience to consider entrepreneurship as an alternative to
unemployment. However, records indicate that these persons
were becoming self-employed with little or no business
knowledge or skills. As a result, three-fourths of all
small business fail within 2-5 years (United States Small
Business Administration, March 1984, p. 36). Therefore,
instructors need to work closely with adults to help them
determine if, in fact, self-employment is for them.
As stated earlier, the purpose of Bevond A D ream is to
help participants accomplish two goals: (1) to determine
 71

their self employment potential and (2) to develop a person­

al plan of action for small business startup. Specifically,
this training package provides participants with the oppor­
tunity to-
o Evaluate themselves via a self-assessment activity.
o Discover what skills they have acquired through life
experiences and education and identify those areas
where they might need further technical assistance.
o Start a community support system to compensate for
needed technical assistance and expertise.
o Analyze their financial basis for starting a
business.
o Test their business idea with the consumer and
competitive market.
o Develop a business plan.
o Learn about resources available for small business
owners.
o Decide their next steps for their business.

Organizational format. The Bevond A Dream (1985)

training package is made up of the following 10 units.
o Unit 1:
o Unit 2:
o Unit 3:
o Unit 4:
o Unit 5:
o Unit 6:
o Unit 7:
o Unit 8: Planning Your Operations
o Unit 9: Legal Issues/Ownership Types
 72

O Unit 10: Developing a Personal Plan of Action

Units 1-4 relate specifically to the accomplishment of
goal 1, which is to determine potential for self-employment,
and units 5-9 relate specifically to the accomplishment of
goal 2, which is to develop a personal plan of action for
small business start-up. Following the completion of units
1-4, some participants in the course may have already deter­
mined that they do not want to be self-employed. If so, they
are given the option of exiting the course or continuing.
One of the following four outcomes is possible for those
participants who complete all 10 units.
o Work for someone else to gain experience before
starting their own business.
o Start their own business as a sole proprietorship,
partnership, franchise, or corporation.
o Continue entrepreneurship education or training and
then start their own business.
o Decide not to start their own business.
Instructional format. Each of the 10 units begins with
an introduction that includes the following items:
o Topic-title or focus of the unit.
o Purpose-overall goal to be obtained in this unit.
o Objectives-chains of individual attainments leading
to achievement of unit goal.
o Material(s)-handout ad transparencies needed for the
unit.
o Product(s)-tangible result(s) produced by
participants.
o Assignment-out-of-class activity in support of
in-class activity.
 73

o Notes to instructor-additional comments about

techniques and methods to use in the unit.
o Estimate approximate time to spend on unit
activities.
The introduction is followed by a well defined course of
action, depicted by the "T" format. Content is to the left
of the "T" and process to the right of the "T". The left-
hand column (content) provides a summary of the materials to
be covered in each unit. Questions about what to teach are
answered here. The material is presented in an inductive
way, progressing from general to specific. The right-hand
column (process) suggests techniques and methods to be used.
These are appropriate for adult learning styles and incorpo­
rate a variety of print, audiovisual, group, and individual
activities.
Instructional methodoloav for Bevond A Dream. Recog­
nizing that adults bring varying amounts of experiences and
expertise to each learning activity, the instructional
strategies suggested in the guide incorporate as much
practicality as possible. For example, the technical
subject matter is presented in a group discussion-lecture
style that employs buzz sessions, question and answer
periods, and spontaneous participant reaction activities
(for example, brainstorming). These activities encourage
participants to build on previous experiences. Whenever
possible, presentations by outside speakers and surveys and
interviews with the small business sector are planned. The
 74

most important outcome of the class is to get the group

comfortable with sharing ideas and helping each other.
The learning activities in this training package have
been designed to capitalize upon the creativity of the
participant in a realistic content. Consequently, there are
no right or wrong answers to the questions asked. The
important objective to focus on is the procedure and the
thought process that the participants are required to
utilize as they experience each learning process. Activi­
ties are based on a group of 15 participants and timing
estimated on this basis. Any larger group would need more
time for interaction. The ideal class size is 10-15. The
women's group in Akron, Spring Semester of 1990, numbered 19
that finished the course with the addition of two men
completers.
It is important to note that the content used in each
class must be flexible so that it helps students meet their
needs. In some cases the instructor may choose to skip
content provided in order to hold important application
discussions in the class time. This is the choice of each
instructor. The most critical need of this class is to help
the students apply the information to their individual
businesses, help each other, and find solutions to their
problems.
The pilot study in 1986-87, assisted 25 displaced
workers in determining the desirability and feasibility of
 75

starting a new business. Fifteen of these displaced workers

with the competencies to run a business and to create a
business plan necessary for venture start-up were then
chosen for the program. These client entrepreneurs were
linked with community resources that were available for
long-term assistance throughout the venture start-up
program.
By the end of the course, Bevond A Dream (1985) partic­
ipants completed a battery of entrepreneurship aptitudes,
personality and skills profiles. Thirty hours of course
work followed which included development of a preliminary
business plan. If the students were actually interested and
motivated, 60 hours of individualized, competency based
entrepreneurship instruction followed and led to the comple­
tion of an individualized business plan. Instruction was
based on the Center's Program for Accniirina Competence in
Entrepreneurship (PACE) (1983).
Program Planning. The curriculum for this program has
been used for training entrepreneurs with very positive
results. The Program for Acguiring Competence in
Entrepreneurship (PACE) provides information that builds
on management, knowledge and works towards an effective
successful business. While organizing the program the
following recommendations were considered:
o PACE provides an intensive approach focusing on
specific topic areas. It is anticipated that
participants have either a) completed Bevond A nrp.am
 76

or b) decided on a business idea and need more

individual assistance to get it started.
o A program outline is designed to give students an
overview of the program.
o Guest speakers are an important part of the first
part of the program. Seminars are scheduled
periodically to meet the students' needs-
o Participants learn how to work individually using the
PACE materials, available consultants, and the
instructor. It is useful to set careful timeliness
and to avoid last minute work.
o Materials are given out for use at home. Since
everyone is using the same PACE materials, the class
should have enough modules for each participant to
use and preferably to keep for later reference. In
this case those students who scored higher on the pre
entrance reading test received Level 2 and those with
lesser reading abilities received Level 1.
o Participants benefit from meetings where they share
their ideas and their frustrations. These support
group meeting are for specific purposes or merely
social after the classwork is completed.
o The weekly program plan for the PACE instructors can
be modified to fit schedules. However, some activi­
ties need to be completed at certain times such as
turning in part of the individual business plan.
o Where possible the instructor will want to help get
the actual business started.
The most important part of phase 2 (PACE) is completion
of a viable business plan. Participants may fight actually
writing this down. The instructor may wish to provide
typing assistance. It is useful to have an advisory
committee prepared to review these plans. It provides
motivation to get them done. The business plan forces
important decisions to be made.
 77

Instructional Aids. The instructional aids to be used

in each unit are included in the training package. Instruc­
tor preparation materials, handouts, and transparencies are
labeled and placed at the end of each unit. Handouts are
labeled "HO" followed by the unit number and handout number
(HO 3-2 is interpreted as handout number 2 in unit 3).
Transparencies are labeled in a similar fashion (TP 3-1 is
transparency number 1 in unit 3) .
Instructors may add to the content in this training
package or suggest additional material for individuals who
need further instruction. The Program for Acquiring
Competence in Entrepreneurship (PACE) (1985) is an example
of such material. Instructors will want to pass out
handouts to the class as each is used. The instructor may
choose not to use some of the handouts provided. Those that
are optional have an asterisk following the number.

Purpose of PACE for Entrepreneurship Education

Student;
o Evaluate themselves via a self-assessment activity.
o Discover what skills they had acquired through life
experiences and education and identify those areas
where they might need further technical assistance.
o Start a community support system to compensate for
needed technical assistance and expertise for the
program participants.
o Analyze the program participants financial basis for
starting a business.
o Test their business ideas with the consumer and
competitive market.
 78

o Development of a business plan.

A third curriculum. Ventures in Business Ownership (VBO)
(1986), is a project designed to determine the effectiveness
of helping single parents and homemakers consider the possi­
bility of starting a business. This audience is particular­
ly in need of assistance in finding employment that can be
adjusted to their home responsibilities, and they are often
among the lowest paid workers because of their lack of
career experience. This pilot program seeks to discover
whether a reasonable number of single parents and homemakers
can become more independent and financially secure by
starting a business. And further, it is assumed that others
who do not start a business may learn more about the economy
of the community and their employment options. This program
is sponsored by the Ohio Division of Vocational and Career
Education in cooperation with six vocational school-based
Adult Career Centers.

This project was designed by a committee of state

leaders in Ohio on a Program Advisory Committee who were
particularly interested in the potential of such a program.
They met a number of times to create the parameters of the
program and have continued to advise the local sites and the
Center on Education and Training for Employment as the
program was implemented.
Through a contract with The Ohio State University, the
entrepreneurship program staff at the National Center for
 79

Research in Vocational Education, now the Center on

Education and Training for Employment, had been asked to
assist the local sites in design of the program, use of
their materials, and technical assistance throughout the
year until the fall of 1990. CETE had designed and
organized this workshop to enable the six sites to get off
to a strong start. They were available to assist local
sites throughout the year and coordinated a final meeting to
showcase the results.
The primary goals of the Ventures in Business Ownership
program are as follows:
Institutional Goal: Help the Adult Vocational Centers
increase their capacity for small business development.
Objectives:
o To strengthen linkages between school and community.
o To enhance the Center's capacity to serve small
business.
o To focus Center concerns on provision of special
opportunities for single parents and displaced
homemakers.
Educational Goal: Help participants and faculty develop
confidence and competence in their abilities to create small
businesses.
Objectives:
o To broaden the educational opportunities available.
o To focus on the particular needs of the very small
business startups.
o To enhance the understanding of business among groups
with minimal background in business.
 80

Economic Goal; Help create good new local jobs via

untapped opportunities in the local economy.
Objectives:
o To stimulate positive attitudes about the local
economy.
o To encourage creative leveraging of resources.
o To provide "jobs" that are compatible with home
responsibilities.
Individual Goal: Help foster a sense of empowerment and
an improved capacity to be a successful, productive
community member whether or not participant actually starts
a small business.
Objectives:
o To develop positive attitudes toward oneself,
community, and the economy.
o To develop long-term goals for those who decide not
to start a new business.
o To enable those with little or no work experience to
better understand potential employers.

The Need for Advisors and Consultants. The success of

entrepreneurship education/training/development effort is
greatly dependent upon the level and degree of input,
direction, support and assistance proved by the local
business community to both the program itself and to the
participants it serves. A broadly representative advisory
committee will help the program instructor lever influence,
credibility, and support in accomplishing program
objectives. A broadly based group of volunteer consultants
 81

can help program participants increase the success of their

start-up activities. Advisors and consultants are used in
the following way to:
o Promote program
o Recruit instructor(s)
o Recruit participants
o Screen/select participants
o Suggest new members as advisors and consultants
o Arrange counseling opportunities
o Schedule seminar speakers/field trips
o Review business plans
o Obtain external resource materials
o Provide visibility for the program via the media
o Give alternatives for problem solutions
As an advisory committee and consultant group is
developed the following approaches are used:
o A letter of invitation to the potential member is
written (Appendix A, Exhibit 1).
o The meetings are organized keeping in mind a flexible
schedule to allow for the time frames of the members
(make sure the meeting has a purpose).
o Agendas and minutes are sent well in advance to allow
for changes and additions.
Potential sources of advisory committee members include:
o Adult supervisor/director of field site
o Representative from an area education institution/
university
o Representative from small business assistance groups
or local economic development office
o Member of the local chamber of commerce
o Banking community
o International trade groups
o Foreign films
o Economic Societies
o Rotary Clubs
o Lion Clubs
o Representative of unemployment office
o Successful entrepreneurs
 82

Potential sources for consultant group members include:

o Legal firms
o Accounting firms
o Business consulting firms
o Banks/financial institutions
o University departments/programs
o Local program operators
o Entrepreneurs
o Corporate leaders
o Business/professional associations
o Suppliers
o Other educational systems
Additionally, the instructor may want to offer volunteer
consultants the opportunity to provide individual, private
services for the class participants at a reasonable cost.
It is important to note that volunteer consultants received
added benefits of visibility and potential clients.

Recruitment. The Recruitment process necessitates time

and energy and usually serves two purposes. The first is
the registration of class participants. The second is the
promotion (visibility) for the program.
As this function of program planning is time consuming,
the instructor may want to choose an assistant (paid/
volunteer) student from the university as a practicum
experience) to act as the recruiter.
Recruitment is a difficult program task, because the
person who would most likely participate are not easily
captured through any one communication channel, in any one
area (of interest, locations, occupations or background), or
by any one message. Selling the program has to be done
 83

aggressively and in as broad a manner as is possible. The

following approaches are useful.
o Start early.
o Develop an "eye-catching” brochure.
o Create a one-page fact sheet.
o Use students to help recruit others.
o Build in time for personal follow-up calls to the
various media.
o Deal directly with editors of the print media and the
public service directors of the electronic media.
Verify contact information
o Provide pictures of instructor, advisory committee or
special features to encourage media coverage.
o Make personal presentations to as many neighborhood
groups as possible.
o Use as much influence from "opinion leaders” on the
advisory committee as possible.
o Have a business person teach some of the classes to
lend credibility to the program and help sell it.
o Use support group functions and organizations to give
visibility.
Other recruitment/promotion ideas that may be practical;
o News release in local newspapers (Appendix A,
Exhibits 2 and 3).
o Paid ads.
o Radio public service announcements.
o Letters to organizations or potential students.
o TV announcements, interviews, news, public service
listings.
o Signs.
o Brochures.
 84

o Speeches at community meetings,

o "Open House" on class day.
o Trade fair booths.

Participant selection criteria for the Ventures in

Business Ownership Program. A successful program depends
greatly on the participant selection process (Appendix A,
Exhibit 4) . Prior to beginning Bevond a Dream and PACE it
is important to allow adequate time to interview potential
participants to determine their skill level, educational
background, possible business ideas and financial situation.
Each program director along with assistance from the
advisory committee develops specific selection criteria,
using models of local similar programs. Some activities
considered during the selection process include:
o Determine possible business idea(s).
o Identify education and work experience,
o Identify personal problems/issues,
o Use personality/skills assessment instruments to
evaluate strengths and weaknesses,
o Determine needs/qualifications for child care and
transportation support,
o Decide whether class times will be in conflict with
other priorities,
o Arrange appropriate fees and possible tuition,
scholarships for those who cannot pay.
o Answer questions about the program,
o Be prepared to offer options and resources.
Care is taken by each interviewer to stress that
participant information is confidential. Each program
prepares a participant information sheet. After the initial
interview and before the first class, if time permits, an
introductory meeting is scheduled to discuss program goals.
 85

content, time frame, and other specifics. As the selection

process is finalized, it is important to consider added
factors such as what procedure or assistance will be given
that will assist in a self-elimination or pre-screening to
avoid attracting persons who are least likely to succeed?
Marketing the program. Educators and trainers can
identify potential clients for this program by contacting
various agencies that provide support services for displaced
adults such as:
o Adult education and high school continuation
programs.
o Local employment services offices.
o Public libraries.
o Civic, government, business, and industrial
organizations.
After potential participants have been identified, the
following strategies can be used to recruit them into the
program:
1. Disseminate information brochures, fliers, or letters
to clients to explain the program.
2. Visit responsive agencies and give seminars,
workshops, or informal talks about the programs.
3. Contact radio and TV stations to make public service
announcements about the self-assessment
entrepreneurial program.
Also, former students can be asked to serve as advocates
once the program is under-way. Word of mouth communication
through networks for displaced adults will also attract
potential participants.
 86

Teaching methods. Suggestions are given the instructors

of the VBO program. Such handouts as A Professional Teacher
is... (Appendix A, Exhibit 5), Why Questions? (Exhibit 6),
Ideas for Classroom Management (Exhibit 7), and 50 Tips on
Motivating Students (Exhibit 8) are included in the training
package.

Additional support svstems. Participants who have

completed Ventures in Business Ownership (Bevond A Dream
and PACE) will feel connected and appreciated if they are
offered an opportunity to come together from time to time
with the purpose of receiving peer encouragement, sharing
business progress, and attaining options for solving problem
solutions.
As a support system for the graduates is organized, it
is recommended that the instructor consider the following
factors. Try to;
o Establish a meeting time and place that is
convenient,
o Combine classes to build local networks,
o Provide refreshments.
o Allow time for sharing new ideas/problems,
o Involve advisory committee members,
o Let group organize if they wish.
o Let group choose their own leader(s) facilitator(s).
o Use additional support systems as an opportunity to
connect for counseling, resources, and consultants,
o Encourage role playing activities,
o Announce related meeting and seminars in the area,
o Organize joint seminars with cooperative groups.
Topics may include:
Accounting strategies
Business plan idea
Promotion
Financing ideas
 87

Licenses and Permits

Sales demonstrations
Customer interactions
Field trips
Payroll/taxes
Writing seminars
Video presentations of business plan
Technical assistance opportunities
Computer knowledge
Improving your image
Dressing for success
How to submit bids
Time management
Video presentations of successful entrepreneurs

Evaluation. On-going program evaluation is vital to the

program continuance and duplication. Before accepting an
evaluation format, time should be taken with the advisory
committee to discuss how the results will be used and the
specific purpose of the evaluation. Also discuss how often
it is important to gather information. Types of evaluation
forms can be:
o Participant Course Evaluation for Bevond A Dream (See
Appendix A, Exhibit 9) and PACE (See Appendix A,
Exhibit 10) which provides information regarding
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the course.
o Certificate of Acceptable Business Plan - which
allows outside volunteer reviewers such as advisory
committee members, consultants, entrepreneurs,
business faculty and students to acknowledge the
acceptability of the participants' business plan.
o Program Summary - Which presents analysis of
participant completion, progress and provided
services.
o Business Summary - Which offers a brief description
of the participants business ideas.

Stage Four and Five: Business Start-up and Business

Growth. Referring to the life-long learning model in
 88

Appendix A, Figure 1, business start-up (stage four) and

business growth (stage five) are presently taught once an
individual has gone into or is actually starting a business.
Age or grade is not the key factor. The individual and
their readiness is.
Education at all these levels is administered separately
and does not respond easily to dictates from a central
authority. Local school boards determine school programs.
State education agencies provide leadership for new program
options. The federal agency publishes policies for change
and provides funding for innovative programs. An effective
policy that encourages entrepreneurship education could
focus on any one of these levels of leadership.
Bird (1990) said, "Entry into entrepreneurial roles can
occur relatively slowly or quickly, with vague or clear
boundaries between previous work and entrepreneurial work"
(p. 26). Vesper (1980) stated that the slow process, which
is probably related to risk aversion, favor incrementalism
and usually involves a period of moonlighting-working for
someone else while starting a business in one's spare time.
Ronstadt (1984) stated that there is some evidence that slow
starters do not finish first or last as long in business as
those on a direct and swift path. Fast start-ups are
usually made by those with a total commitment to the
venture, although the planning stages may have been
extensive.
 89

Bird (1990) concluded:

Entrepreneurs with clear vision, perceptual
flexibility and vigilance will be better equipped
to launch a new venture. These qualities
contribute to success in terms of survival,
making break even, and taking off on a growth
path. Clear vision paired with commitment to
either a goal or a method of doing business indi­
cates that the entrepreneur has chosen a
particular path for his or her venture. Specific
and articulate venture goals allow others to join
the venture process, thereby making success more
likely (p. 20).

The Outcomes

Entrepreneurship educational outcomes differ widely.

"There are many benefits to be gained from entrepreneurship
education in addition to the hopes that new entrepreneurs
will be spawned. Some entrepreneurship spirit is better
than none" (Rabbior, 1990, p. 54). Rabbior went on to say
that entrepreneurship programs can enhance self-confidence
and self-esteem. McCaslin (1990) spoke of such results as
psychosocial outcomes that relate primarily to the personal
development of individual students. He grouped student
aspirations, attitudes and values, self-esteem, citizenship
and leadership as psychosocial.
Going back to school for more knowledge as well as
gaining more experience by working in a similar business are
perfectly acceptable outcomes of entrepreneurship education.
The VBO program can wet the appetite for more explicit
knowledge abut areas of business. Accounting for management
and marketing are areas frequently pursued. Working for
 90

someone else in the same business line can provide invalu­

able work experience. The VBO graduate will sometimes
increase the effectiveness of their already started
business, buy an existing business or start their business
dream.
Bird (1990) stated, "The entrepreneur creates an
organization with a particular set of beliefs, assumptions,
values, and expectations-or more generally a culture"
(p. 165). She went on to say that as the entrepreneurial
culture develops a momentum of its own it then becomes the
context for subsequent venture process as well as for
individual work, and that of other entrepreneurs.
Hodgson, Levinson, and Zaleznik (1965) said the chief
role of the entrepreneur is to effectively link himself or
herself (ideas, resources and skills) with the new venture
and with external sources such as bankers and customers.
They went on to say in their book The Executive Role
Constellation (1965) that the entrepreneur must consider
five variables.
1. The organization, as it exists and where it is going,
its size, profits, market, etc: Is it growth-
oriented or intended to produce income? Will the
entrepreneur maintain private control or bring in
partners, investors, and shareholders?
2. His/her concept of his role and other organizational
roles: What does he expect to do? not do? What role
model does he hold? What are employees and managers
to do, and how? What roles are outside investors
expected to play?
3. His/her self-concept including beliefs about his
or her abilities: Is he or she a generalist or a
 91

specialist such as "an idea person: or a

"salesperson"? Does he or she know how to perform
certain key functions or how to learn these
functions? Is he or she a doer, a dreamer, a
manager, or a leader?
4. His/her commitment to the organization and its
commitment to him/her. How long does he or she plan
to stay with the organization? With how many new
ventures is he or she involved concurrently? Do
other organizational stakeholders value his or her
contributions? Has the firm outgrown him or her?
5. The work itself: Does he or she enjoy fire-fighting,
daily decision making, long hours, negotiating,
promoting, planning, etc? Does the work energize or
deplete him/her?
Role dilemmas of ambiguity and conflict can and
sometimes do result. Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970)
described four types of role conflict. Inter-sender
conflict occurs when different role sets such as the banker
and employees or partner and spouse have different expecta­
tions. Inter-role conflict can occur when the person
occupies two different positions in one organization, which
is the case for many small business startups. Intra-spender
conflict occurs when the individual's abilities and
resources are not adequate to the situation and role
overload results. Person-role conflict occurs when the
entrepreneur's values and standards are perceived to be
incompatible with those of the role set.
There seems to be four phases of the entrepreneurial
career. Phase one is the decision (individual or team) that
is brought to a business. The entry can be premeditated or
serendipitous, by bad luck (displacement) or good luck
 92

(opportunity) from unexpected sources. Liles (1974) said,

"In terms of his decision to initiate a company and to try
to run it successfully a person's own assessment of how
ready he is probably is a good approximation of how ready he
really is" (p. 8). Vesper (1980) noted that there are five
typical departure points into entrepreneurship. School to
venture, job to venture, unemployment to venture, home to
venture, and venture to venture.
Phase two is that of working hard - career. The first
set of influences are personal qualities such as
"persistence, tenacity, creativity and willpower in the face
of uncertainty" (p. 52). The second set of influences are
environmental and include continued displacement, a
depressed labor market, an attitude that it is difficult to
have been a lead dancer and now been asked to step back into
the chorus line. The third set of influences come from the
venture itself and include satisfaction, a sense of accom­
plishment, excitement, challenge and the momentum success
brings. The opportunities that emerge from the entrepre­
neurial 'corridor' are also a factor. The many benefits and
costs are considered by the individual.
Phase three looked at the question of growth versus non­
growth, another outcome of entrepreneurship education. Bird
(1990) pointed out that "Growth requires a leader who is
willing to delegate, create structure, formally manage
information and resources and represent the organization to
 93

the public” (p. 193). Welsh and White (1983) pointed out
that for an organization to grow a desire to expand growth
opportunities, and strategic use of one's business expertise
must be present.
Bird (1990) stated that three significant career
challenges must be faced during the growth period. They
include:
(1) the diffusion of control whereby the
organization takes on a direction of its own, no
longer dominated by the intentions and will of
the funding entrepreneur or team; (2) choosing to
manage or to lead rather than implement (research
suggests that only 5 percent of entrepreneurs
successfully become managerial entrepreneurs;
Pinchot, (1985); and (3) stamina to sustain rapid
growth or persistence to pursue slower growth.
Lacking ability to meet these challenges or
lacking the desire to live with the changes that
come with growth can result in the entrepreneur's
exit from the venture (p. 195).
A definite desire to remain small is another conscious
decision that can be made by the entrepreneur. Not all
entrepreneurs want to expand and grow their businesses.
Veach (1987) pointed out that "Women are less likely than
men to operate a business fulltime. This may be because
part-time work gives women flexibility to combine work and
family responsibilities" (p. 29) .
Phase four is getting out by selling or closing the
business. Bird (1990) said "Leaving the venture is not to
be confused with venture failure, because the organization
may continue long after the entrepreneur's departure"
 94

(p. 196). Leaving does not necessarily mean the end of a

career, for frequently entrepreneurs go on to start other
ventures. Ronstadt (1985) further reported that half of the
existing entrepreneurs saw their ventures survive them.
Bird (1990) pointed out that "Families and friends of
entrepreneurs can use the career stages as a reality check
on the interpersonal dynamics that can occur in venturing.
Knowing what is 'normal' for entrepreneurs helps make sense
of experiences outside the venture" (p. 203).
Phase four to other businesses may be continued growth
with maturity and sometimes decline. Bird (1990) said, "If
the organization is to grow, the entrepreneur's competency
in creating and learning new roles, especially the role of
the leader, will be essential if he or she is to remain
involved" (p. 374).

Summary

The participation of women in the entrepreneurial event

has received little research focus. Gitobu (1989) said,
"The information on participation of women as entrepreneurs
is limited and fairly recent...not much information is
available on the active role of the female entrepreneur"
(p. 44).
How can women learn about the employment option and
involvement necessary for starting one's own business?
Gitobu (1989) stated, "Involvement in entrepreneurship has
 95

enabled many women to find a way out of traditionally low

paying jobs” (p. 44). This involvement can come about
through entrepreneurship education. Training programs and
educational efforts will result in the number of female-
owned businesses flowing steadily in the future (U.S. News
and World Report, 1977). Is entrepreneurship education the
only answer for women entrepreneurs? This researcher
suggests that the social, economic, and political environ­
ment becomes a major factor.
Ramdas (1991) stated, "During the past five years, self-
employment programs for low income people have grown in the
United States, attracting considerable attention and some
controversy” (p. 20). She goes on to say that the social
and economic contexts of different countries affect the
definition of success and that there are both economic and
non-economic results from various programs.
Ramdas continued.
In a developed country like the U.S., self-
employment must be viewed within the context of
the other options available to low-income women.
For example, at the level of subsistence the U.S.
welfare system offers an alternative to being
self-employed. In addition, women on welfare
have access to health insurance, something that
many minimum wage jobs cannot provide. Self-
employment in this country, therefore, must
provide women with at least the level of
subsistence security which welfare provides and
preferably more.
Like people in the developing world poor people
here do not have easy access to fair credit. But
here merely providing market-rate credit to run a
business does not draw large numbers of people.
 96

Starting a business can result in the loss of

health and other benefits for welfare recipients.
Second, because of the much smaller informal
economy in the U.S. low income women rarely have
the entrepreneurial experience of say, a woman
from the clan of hawkers in India (p. 21).
Research indicated that U.S. women are learning from the
Third World. The Coalition for Women's Economic Development
has a method proved successful during the last twenty years
in the third world. This grass-roots women's micro-loan
system has helped women in Bangladesh, Africa and Latin
America (Suomisto, 1991). "Micro-business obtain loans that
traditional banks see as too small and unprofitable to
bother with" (Ibid, p. 1).
The system works through "Solidarity Circles" of five
women business owners who like and trust each other. The
women usually possess similar levels of business experience
and have a basic understanding of each other's business.
"After studying one another's businesses and undergoing
other preparation, circle members become eligible to obtain
loans. Two women at a time obtain year long loans up to
$2,000 payable in 26 installments. If a woman defaults, the
others must repay the debt or fold the circle, losing their
chance to borrow" (Suomisto, 1991, p. 2). If each woman in
a circle repays her $2,000 loan, the group members become
eligible for $5,000 loans.
A tremendous amount of problem solving goes on in the
circles. Each circle creates an emergency fund that can be
 97

used at the discretion of the members. The money for the

California group was funded with a $4,000,000 three-year
grant from the Irvine Corporation and capital funded from
the Bank of America and the Mott Foundation.
Ronstadt (1990) said, "The interplay between research,
course development, and teaching is a close one for
entrepreneurship. As new concepts emerge from systematic
research, case studies or other in-depth clinical studies,
the need to reformulate teaching approaches will become
increasingly vital to maintain currency with knowledge about
the entrepreneurial process" (p. 84).
This researcher agreed with Ronstadt's (1990) concept
that stated..."entrepreneurial knowledge is a cornerstone
for success" (p. 84). Gartner (1985) pointed out the need
to look at new venture creation as a complex and multi­
dimensional phenomenon. This qualitative research study has
done just that and will shed some light on the entrepre­
neurial knowledge process as experienced in the Ventures in
Business Ownership program in Akron, Ohio, 1991.
As a result of this review of literature, this
researcher has found no other qualitative or quantitative
research on an entrepreneurship educational program for
women. Nowhere has the process of new venture creation been
looked at in terms of its many complexities, especially for
women. This qualitative research using Gartner's 1985 model
for New Venture Creation will open up new understanding for
 98

entrepreneurship education and further questions to be

researched. This qualitative dissertation research study
will shed some light, as well, on an educational process
that has not been scrutinized before.
 CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Chapter three will describe the qualitative research

process used in this dissertation. "...dependence on
qualitative methods for studying various educational issues
is growing" (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982, p. ix). The authors
continued to say that in qualitative research the study of
human beings takes center stage. "We as human beings are
more than simply the sum total of psychological measures,
survey instrument responses, and bits of data on a labora­
tory checklist. That our experiences, fears, anxieties,
emotions, beliefs, reactions, hopes, behaviors and irration­
alities are not well captured or explained by the rush to
quantification is one reason that qualitative research is
experiencing the renaissance it is" (Ibid, p. x).
Since there has been a lack of consistent and previously
developed entrepreneurship research, knowledge, theory, or
method, it was difficult to construct specific hypotheses or
to anticipate subject responses prior to data gathering in
the field of entrepreneurship education. Therefore, this
exploratory research concerning women and entrepreneurship

99
 100

education was qualitative in nature. This method was used

for initial theory building because of the focus on dis­
covering what and how real phenomena occur. "In emerging
fields like entrepreneurship, exploratory research often
makes fundamental contributions" (Paulin, Coffey and
Spaulding, 1982, p. 355).
Bogdan and Biklen (1982) pointed out that qualitative
research does have an internal order and logic to it. What
is witnessed through employing observations, interviews,
document analysis, historic research, and constant reframing
of the key areas of study are like variations on a theme in
music. "The description of social reality is the descrip­
tion of a mosaic. Any method that would seek to do this
must itself reflect and be open to the world as it is, not
as we might wish it to be" (p. x). The authors continued,
"Qualitative researchers tend to analyze their data induc­
tively. They do not search out data or evidence to prove or
disprove hypotheses they hold before entering the study;
rather, the abstractions are built as the particulars that
have been gathered are grouped together" (p. 29).

Nature of the Studv

The purpose of the study as stated in Chapter One was to

examine an entrepreneurship education program for displaced
and single parent homemakers. Nineteen women were studied
as well as the program's social, economic, and political
 101

background in the environment of Akron, Ohio. The educa­

tional process was also carefully monitored to determine if
the personal goals of individuals in the program were being
met. The outcomes of the process for New Venture Creation
(Gartner, 1985) were then examined.

Entrepreneurship Education Process For Ventures in Business

Ownership fVBO)

Spradley (1980) stated, "All participant observation

takes place in a social situation" (p. 39). The situation
for this study was The Akron Public Schools Adult Vocational
Center, and the 19 women participants who completed the
Ventures in Business Ownership (VBO) program.
Accessibility to the classroom had been arranged with
the instructor, who agreed to participate in this research
study. The instructor had taught similar classes for three
years at this same Akron Adult Vocational Center. The
instructor further gained permission for the study from
F.P., the Director of the Adult Vocational School. This was
done in the director's office through a verbal exchange of
ideas concerning the mutual advantages of the proposed
research.
Teaching methods in the Ventures in Business Ownership
course consisted of lectures with handout materials by the
instructor, as well as many other guest lecturers and
speakers who also used handouts as well as some audio visual
materials. Questioning methods and some written exercises
 102

were used by all those giving information— the instructor,

guest speakers and other resource persons— as well as
writing assignments and research projects for the business
plan development that were also required by the instructor.
Spradley (1980) stressed that, "Ethnographers do not
merely make observations, they also participate. Partici­
pation allows you to experience activities directly, to get
the feel of what events are like and so record your own
perceptions" (p. 51). Five criteria for selecting a social
situation to observe were also given by Spradley (1980) and
included: "(1) simplicity, (2) accessibility, (3) unobtru­
siveness, (4) permissibleness, and (5) frequently recurring
activities" (p. 52). These criteria were established and
followed for this study.
The simplicity of accessibility to this researcher's VBO
classroom observational situation was already mentioned.
Both the instructor and the director were in favor of the
proposed research, which made the project very permissible.
This researcher was made unobtrusive in the classroom by
acting as a participant and teaching aid in some instances.
The instructor sometimes asked about this researcher's
teaching experiences and this researcher sometimes gave
the class examples of personal work in small business
development. Since the classroom work lasted for twenty
consecutive weeks, with the exception of spring vacation,
the VBO activities occurred frequently, thus allowing for
 103

the attainment of the accessibility criterion for this

qualitative research study.
This researcher was interested in observing the VBO
student's behavior and the entrepreneurship educational
process to better understand the process of new venture
organization and creation. The goal of these observational
perceptions was useful in answering qualitatively what the
following questions asked: Was the educational process
satisfactory in light of the women themselves; their back­
grounds, experiences, motivations, and education? What was
the social, economic and political environment in Akron at
that time? Was this environment influential in the process
of new business startups? Did the educational process work
well. What were the outcomes of the VBO program?
Field notes were taken by this researcher in addition to
tape recording most of the sessions completely. A journal
was also kept to record private observations, feelings,
conversations and discussions. Copies of all handouts were
kept as well as specimens of work from these nineteen women.
This researcher's ability for studying and critiquing an
entrepreneurship curriculum was gained over the past four
years in the capacity as an Entrepreneurship Research
Associate at the Center on Education and Training for
Employment at The Ohio State University. Quantitative
research concerning 40,000 small business owners in the
state of Ohio, with a qualitative analysis of 293 of these
 104

small business people had indicated areas of study and

research analysis needed. Qualitative analysis of an entre­
preneurship curriculum was clearly recommended in order to
focus on what a comprehensive entrepreneurship program
should or might include for teaching a small business
venture startup. The study of this program was not funded,
which enabled the researcher to report findings in an
unbiased way.

Observation As Incmirv and a Method

Observation is a multifaceted phenomenon. It can be

tacit or more deliberate and systematic, as required in more
formal situations such as classrooms. Blumer (1969) pointed
out that in daily life systematic observations are under­
taken, not to answer specific questions but to establish,
maintain, check, suspend, and participate in everyday
events.
Observation as a research and decision-making process is
closely tied to the question of why one is researching and
for what purpose the observation is to serve. Everts on and
Green (1987) pointed out that, "The observer often augments
the observation process by using a tool or instrument to
focus or guide observation (e.g., a sign system, a specimen
record, category system and fieldnotes)" (p. 164). The
perceptual system of the observer is the first tool and is
influenced by the observer's own goals, biases, frame of
 105

reference and abilities. This system gives the observer an

individual and unique "lens" for observation.
Observation was a means of representing reality with
selectivity of elements in this study. The setting,
questions for study, observations as slices of reality in
the VBO classroom, tools to record and study, the time
frame, procedures, subject matter, appropriate analysis
procedures and method of reporting the data from the
observation record were all important steps in these
observations.
The setting, questions to be asked for research
purposes, tools for recording and study, time frame and
subjects have already been addressed. The method of
analysis was qualitative in order to preserve the richness
of the educational opportunity. A frequent reporting method
was the use of quotations by the individuals for accuracy
without critiquing the content.
Fassnacht (1982) stated, reality cannot be directly
apprehended. There are far too many representational
mechanisms with selective elements that are mediated by the
tools as well as by a representational process. Truth
really can never fully be known. The researcher rather
ensures that the description is as accurate as possible.
Erickson (1986) used the term interpretive to refer to
the whole family of approaches to participant observation
research— ethnographic, qualitative, participant
 106

observation, case study, symbolic interactionist,

phenomenological, constructivist, or interpretative. Use of
a single term, Erickson believed, avoided the connotation of
defining these approaches as essentially nonquantitative,
and it pointed to the family resemblance among the various
approaches.
Erickson (1986) pointed out that he was taking a differ­
ent approach from Evertson and Green (1987) who emphasized
certain commonalities across various approaches to direct
observation. Erickson felt that there were two major types
of approaches to classroom observation and research;
positivist/behaviorist and interpretive. The interpretive,
Erickson felt, was concerned with content rather than issues
of procedure. "Interpretive field work research involves
being unusually thorough and reflective in noticing and
describing everyday events in the field setting, and in
attempting to identify the significance of actions in the
events from the various points of view of the actors
themselves" (p. 212). He said that issues of effectiveness
were crucial in interpretive research. The object of
interpretive social research is the action that results, the
behavior, and not what caused the action. Erickson
continued, "The task of research, then, is to discover the
specific ways in which local and nonlocal forms of social
organization and culture relate to the activities of
 107

specific persons in making choices and conducting social

action together" (p. 129).
This researcher utilized the interpret ive approach as
characterized by Erickson (1986). The researcher was
concerned with the content of the curriculum procedures as
well as with the content of the actions of the students, the
actors in this drama. The significance of the students'
verbal comments and outward actions in this social situation
were reflected upon by this researcher.
This researcher felt, however, that both approaches,
commonalities and interpretive, were not at odds. Fassnacht
(1982) stated that everything is interpreted and that
interpretation is influenced by the fact that:
...reality cannot be directly apprehended; it is
mediated by a representational mechanism...If one
always needs a representational mechanism to
mediate reality, it follows that the represen­
tation is at least partly dependent on the
representational mechanism. Perception, which of
course plays a decisive role in the observation of
behavior, is one such mediation process (p. 25) .
Perception of behavior is subject to interpretation by
the person doing the observation. This researcher used
observation during every class period, recognizing that
interpretation was part of the process.

Rationale and Substantiation for a Single Location Case

Studv

It is important at this point to discuss why a single

site case study was important and adequate in terms of this
 108

research design. Donmoyer (1988) strongly argued that

thinking of generalizability in terms of sampling and
statistical significance is no longer functional or
defensible. He stated that we must talk and think about a
phenomenon in new and expanded terms, and suggested that
single case studies may be far more useful than has usually
been thought. He further stated that the traditional
restricted conception of generalizability is out of step
with the contemporary study of the nature and grounds of
knowledge. This restricted conception is a problem in
applied fields such as education, counseling and social
work. Therefore, Donmoyer indicated a need to expand the
ways and thinking about a phenomenon in these fields.
The entrepreneur is indeed a new phenomena of increasing
numbers. The name itself is newly applied to persons
starting their own small business. Previously it was
assumed that entrepreneurs were born. It had not even been
speculated that entrepreneurship could be taught in voca­
tional education until the implementation of entrepreneur­
ship education for all was encouraged in the writing of the
Carl D. Perkins Act of 1984.
The early eighties was a time of massive unemployment
and the need to create viable alternatives became obvious.
Since the small business sector was emerging as the major
supplier of new jobs, the vital role of small business in
recent economic recovery became evident. The new entre-
 109

preneurial economy became the primary catalyst for the

creation, expansion, and retention of job opportunities.
Policymakers and program planners at all levels of gover­
nance and across all areas of public interest supported
and were supporting entrepreneurial development as a new
national goal. With new goals and a new way of looking at
the economy, new ways of studying the phenomena were also
necessary. The old ways of lawful regularities between
cause and effect were no longer applicable.
Lincoln and Guba (1985) stated that the intuitive,
empirical generalization, based on direct and vicarious
experience as described by Robert Stake (1978), was a power­
ful means for building generalizations. If a researcher
wants people to understand better than they might otherwise,
personal involvement should become a key. However, Lincoln
and Guba (1985) do not agree with Stake (1978), who talked
about the case study method in social inquiry that makes
generalization possible. Lincoln and Guba stated that
there was no such thing as generalization as they assert
differences in context from situation to situation and how
situations differ over time. Lincoln and Guba preferred the
terms transferability and fittingness. They stated that the
degree of transferability was a direct function of the simi­
larity between the two contexts. Fittingness was defined
as the degree of congruence between the sending and
receiving contexts. The person making the judgement of
 110

transferability needed information about both contexts to

make that judgement well. Donmoyer (1988) disagreed with
this notion because he felt it was not necessarily true that
the generalizability from setting to setting— even if very
similar— was necessarily the case.
Teachers, it would seem, should be and hopefully are
interested in individual students as are counselors and
social workers. As a researcher interested in one group of
women there is no certainty that generalizability, transfer­
ability, and fittingness are essential or even useful to an
understanding of other women in different environments and
going through different processes. As Donmoyer (1988)
pointed out, even statistically significant findings from
studies with huge randomly selected samples cannot be
applied directly to particular individuals in particular
situations.
This researcher agreed with Donmoyer when he asserted
that the role of research primarily is not to find out what
the correct interpretation is. Rather it is to expand the
range of interpretations available to the research consumer.
Donmoyer (1988) said, "Elsewhere I have argued that
Piagetian psychology— in particular the Piagetian notions of
assimilation, accommodation, integration, and differenti­
ations— provides a language with which to talk about gener­
alization in a way which can reveal the benefits of studying
single cases indepth" (p. 100).
 Ill

Seeing through the researcher's eyes allows us to see

things that we might otherwise not have seen. When the
brief descriptions of young entrepreneurs presented by
Ashmore and Fischer (1988) are read, an insight is gained
into what makes them "tick." By viewing a situation
vicariously, Donmoyer (1988) pointed out that it is likely
that a richer repertoire of schema will develop. Depth and
dimension to theoretical thought can be added.
How can the quality of a case study be assessed?
Donmoyer (1988) stated that he agreed with Miles and Huber-
man's (1984) definition of quality work. The bottom line is
the richness of the data presented. Obviously, what is
presented is not raw data but what Donmoyer stated was
medium-rare, low inference description of behavior and
excerpts from transcribed interviews. Hopefully, the
novelty to the particular case will enrich the understanding
of various ideal types. Howey & Zimpher (1989) pointed out,
"Our attention was to generate rich descriptions of the
lived experience...through intensive site visitations"
(p. 11).
This researcher has used descriptions of observed behav­
ior as well as quotations from tape recordings of classroom
sessions and private interviews. Quotations were frequently
drawn from two open-ended questionnaires as well. Intensive
site visitations did generate rich descriptive wording as
well as authentic quotations and remarks made by women
 112

participants in this invigorating and 'lived experience',

and by the instructor and this researcher.
This researcher felt that a single location case study
on a small group of women in a Ventures in Business Owner­
ship class would provide rich and indepth data about
potential entrepreneurs that is so necessary for judgements
of transferability. With time constraints that deem a life­
long study of entrepreneurs for purposes of a dissertation
impossible, research with the thick description available
concerning a single location case study was perceived to be
more valuable. A thorough description of the transactions
of processes observed in a context that are relevant to the
problem, evaluation, and a policy option was important to
the study. A discussion of the saliencies that were identi­
fied at the site and the outcomes of the inquiry were
carefully noted as "working hypotheses" that relate to the
understanding of the site and not as a generalization.

Interviewing the Participants

A phenomenological approach, the study of the develop­

ment of human consciousness and self-awareness, was used to
help understand how the growing paths of knowing lead these
entrepreneurship students to an understanding of their
intellectual potential and interest in the development of a
small business.
 113

Haug (1987) stated,

In our research, by contrast we were concerned
precisely with the ways in which individuals
construct their identity, the things that become
subjectively significant to them. We were
interested in the how and the why of the individ­
ual's relationship to the givens of her everyday
life in the way in which she grows into the
structure of society (p. 39).
This is similar to what Belenky, et al (1986) discussed
earlier. How do women know? How do women develop a voice?
"...that quest for self and voice plays a central role in
transformations in women's ways of knowing" (p. 133) . For a
woman at the position of procedural knowledge is an acquisi­
tion of the power of reason and objective thought with a
sense of control and competitive potential. For some women,
however, real life opportunities may be hard to find.
Before asking these students to participate in the study
and be interviewed, the researcher told them why she was
interested in their experiences and in other women's experi­
ences. Often these experiences have been excluded as an
understanding to human development as it is presently
sought. This researcher stressed the need to hear what is
important about life and learning from their point of view.
The researcher let the student choose where the interview
took place— at their home, office, or at their school or
wherever it was convenient and comfortable.
As Patton (1990) observed, however:
Interviews are a limited source of data because
participants and staff can only report their per­
ceptions of and perspectives on what has happened.
 114

Those perspectives and perceptions are subject to

distortions due to personal bias, anger, anxiety,
politics, and simple lack of awareness. Interview
data can be greatly affected by the emotional
state of the interviewee at the time the interview
takes place. Interview data are also subject to
recall error, reactivity of the interviewee to the
interviewer, and self-serving responses (p. 2-5).
Patton (1990) described three variations of qualitative
interviewing. The informal conversational interview is
the first type and "relies entirely on the spontaneous
generation of questions in the natural flow of an inter­
action, typically an interview that occurs as part of
participant observation field work" (p. 280).
The second type is the general interview guide approach.
This, Patton (1990) said, "Involves outlining a set of
issues, that are to be explored with each respondent before
interviewing begins" (p. 280). This type of interviewing
provides a general checklist so all relevant topics are
covered.
The standardized open-ended interview, Patton (1990)
said, "Consists of a set of questions carefully worded and
arranged with the intention of taking each respondent
through the same sequence and asking each respondent the
same questions with essentially the same words" (p. 280).
This method is useful so as to standardize the questions.
Each interview this researcher conducted began with an
open-ended question from a general interview guide approach.
The questions proceeded gradually at the student's own pace
from looking back at experiences and motivations, and what
 115

stands out for them over the past few years; family back­
grounds, relationships of importance, educational learning,
real-life decision making and moral dilemmas, accounts of
personal changes and growth, perceived reasons for change,
and visions of the future. These questions gave the
researcher an understanding of the women themselves, the
individuals as indicated on Gartner's (1985) framework. As
Belenky, et al (1986) pointed out, "We tried to pose
questions that were broad but understandable on many levels,
hoping that all— even the less articulate and reflective
women— would respond in their own terms without feeling
inadequate to the task" (p. 11).
The interview of the potential female entrepreneurs was
general in form but varied in structure depending on the
interview climate of the situation and the mood of the
person. Flexibility was the interviewer's key. The
interview was informal conversation that was open and
leisurely in order to establish rapport with low pre­
suppositions and frames of reference. This allowed for the
interview to emerge. A general interview guide approach was
developed over time but still conducted in a leisurely and
comfortable setting. As Bogdan and Biklen (1982) advised,
..."long interviews are difficult to recapture fully"
(p. 93). Therefore, a tape recorder was used to record the
interview and provide transcripts.
 116

Making an Ethnographic Record

Spradley (1980) noted that "An ethnographic record con­

sists of fieldnotes, tape recordings, pictures, artifacts,
and anything else that documents the social situation under
study" (p. 63) . A description of the 'culture' known as an
ethnography was then produced from the ethnographic record
which recorded what was happening with the students in this
case over a given period of time. From that ethnographic
record this researcher wrote the study.
Lincoln and Guba (1985) pointed out, "The use of field
notes permits the investigator to record his or her own
thoughts, whether as insight that has occurred that should
be followed up or simply a comment on the disfunction
between the respondents' verbal and nonverbal behavior"
(p. 241).
Patton (1990) said:
It is impossible to provide universal
prescriptions about the mechanics of and
procedures for taking field notes because
different settings lend themselves to different
ways of proceeding, and the precise organization
of field work is very much a matter of personal
style and individual work habits. What is not
optional is the taking of field notes (p. 239) .
Field notes were the descriptions of what this research­
er observed happening in the classroom. To trust to future
recall would be a mistake. The notes were descriptive,
concrete and detailed with direct quotations. Patton (1990)
continued, "These quotations are essential for capturing
 117

what anthropologists call the 'emic perspective'— the

insiders perspective on reality" (p. 241). Fretterman
(1989) stated, "The insider's perspective on reality...is at
the heart of most ethnographic research" (p. 30).
Patton (1980) pointed out again that:
Evaluator-observers must be strategic about taking
field notes, timing their writing, and recording
in such a way that they are able to get their work
done without unduly affecting either their
participation or their observations. Given those
constraints, the basic rule of thumb is to write
promptly, to complete field notes as soon and as
often as physically and programmatically possible.
The writing of field notes is rigorous and
demanding work (p. 243-244).
Field notes were taken and consisted of two kinds of
materials. Bogdan and Biklen (1982) pointed out, "The first
is descriptive, in which the concern is to capture a word-
picture of the setting, people, actions, and conversations
as observed. The other is reflective— the part that
captures more of the observer's frame of mind, ideas and
concerns" (p. 84). The authors stressed that abstract words
are not specific enough. "Generally, replace words like
disciplining, playing, tutoring, practicing, nice person,
good student, doing nothing with detailed renderings of
exactly what people are doing, saying, and what they look
like" (p. 85).
The reflective part of the fieldnotes was subjective.
Bogdan and Biklen (1982) stated, "The emphasis is on specu­
lation, feelings, problems, ideas, hunches, impressions,
prejudices" (p. 86). This researcher speculated as to what
 118

individuals were thinking, learning, might be doing next,

and suggesting outcomes or results. The purpose of reflec­
tions was to improve the field notes. Often reflective
notes were kept in a field diary, which this researcher did.
Fieldwork is not a single technique or method. Patton
(1990) said, "Multiple sources of information are sought and
used because no single source of information can be trusted
to provide a comprehensive perspective on the program. By
using a combination of observations, interviews, and docu­
ment analysis, the field worker is able to use different
data sources to validate and cross check findings" (p. 244).
Marshall and Rossman (1989) pointed out that by using a
combination of data types validity is increased. The
strengths of one approach can compensate for the weaknesses
of other approaches.
Patton (1990) said, "Observations provide a check on
what is reported in interviews; interviews, on the other
hand, permit the observer to go beyond external behavior to
explore the internal states of persons who have been
observed" (p. 245). Patton further pointed out that by
using many kinds of sources and resources the evaluator-
observer can build on the strengths of each data collection
type while minimizing the weaknesses of any single method.
A triangulation or multimethod approach increases the
validity and reliability of the evaluation data.
 119

Field notes constituted the bulk of the information this

researcher collected. Descriptive observations were also
included. The verbalization for each entry was identified
as to the speaker. A verbatim record of what people said in
class sessions was made, as well as tape recordings of the
educational process. Concrete and descriptive language was
used. In addition to the field notes of the observations
and interviews, a journal or field diary was kept that
recorded experiences, ideas, fears, mistakes, confusions,
breakthroughs, problems, and other situations. Reflective
thoughts were written in the diary. Each series of field
notes and journal diary entries were dated to make future
reference much easier.

Entrepreneurship in Search of a Paradigm

Kuhn (1970) indicated that it remains an open question

what parts of social science have acquired a paradigm.
History tells us, "That the road to a firm research consen­
sus is extraordinarily arduous" (p. 15). Kuhn further
stated that in the absence of a paradigm, all available
facts seem equally relevant and early fact-gathering is a
nearly random activity. Kuhn continued, "To be accepted as
a paradigm, a theory must seem better than its competitors,
but it need not, and in fact never does explain all of the
facts with which it can be confronted," (p. 18).
 120

Carsruth, 01m and Eddy (1985) stated, "This lack of a

generally agreed upon definition (of entrepreneurship) is a
shortcoming that misdirects research efforts and leads to a
lack of an adherent body of research literature" (p. 367).
The authors continued by saying that lacking any operational
definitions research cannot be replicated with precision.
Subsequent research cannot build upon previous work.
Carsruth, et al (1985) went on to give recommendations
concerning this research. First, entrepreneurial research
needs to become an interdisciplinary research area. The
organizational structure of the entrepreneurial venture,
such as cross-utilization of employees, job sharing, job-
task redesign and levels of complexity of management that
may interact with personal variables also influence the
success of the business venture.
Environmental factors that are social, economic and
political and variables such as venture capital, govern­
mental policies, and demographic changes have been
discussed, but there is a lack of research on individual
entrepreneurs and strong environmental factors. Environ­
mental factors that may or may not influence individual
women have been addressed by this researcher. The bottom
line, however, is that a paradigm for entrepreneurship
really doesn't exist.
 121

This Researcher^s Paradigm

"Qualitative methods are notably suited for grasping the

complexity of the phenomena we investigate" (Peshkin, 1988,
p. 416). New venture creation is multidimensional in
nature. "First it emphasizes that individuals with exper­
tise are a key element of the new venture" (Gartner, 1985,
p. 698) . However, the new venture evolves over a period of
time in context with its environment. A new venture process
then begins to take place with organizational outcomes.
This process is time consuming and complex. That is why
this researcher has chosen Gartner's model of 1985 as
presented on page 19.
Entrepreneurship is an activity or function. Its four
dimensional conceptual framework is like a kaleidoscope
through which the enormous varying patterns of new venture
creation take place. Researchers in qualitative inquiry
tend to look again and again at the varying moods and times
of both researcher and researched (Peshkin, 1988). These
frequent "looks" aid in understanding the complexity of
business startups.

Grounded Theory and Entrepreneurship Research

Glaser and Strauss (1967) stated that the discovery of

theory from data systematically obtained from social
research is called grounded theory. It would appear that
this "discovery" is the stage where entrepreneurial research
 122

is today. This is the point from which this researcher

started.
Methods for generating grounded theory were discussed
and enlarged upon in Glaser's second book (1978). He
stated, "By its very nature, grounded theory produces ever
opening and evolving theory on a subject as more data are
obtained and new ideas discovered" (p. ix). Glaser further
stated, "The first step in gaining theoretical sensitivity
is to enter the research setting with as few predetermined
ideas as possible— especially logically deducted, a prior
hypotheses" (pp. 2-3). Since no developed hypotheses exist
for women in entrepreneurial activities, grounded theory
must be established first. This method is uniquely suited
to fieldwork and qualitative data. Glaser stated that if
the researcher comes to the situation with preconceived
theories, the relevance of observation may be totally
missed. Glaser continued, "Generating grounded theory takes
time. It is above all a delayed action phenomenon" (Ibid).
Generating grounded theory concerning the ways American
women learn about entrepreneurship and then start or do not
start a business, will be a long process as described by
Spradley (1980). Spradley said, "There has come a profound
realization that people everywhere have a way of life, a
culture of their own, and if we want to understand human­
kind, we must take these cultures seriously. Qualitative
 123

research— called ethnography by anthropologists— has come of

age" (p. v).
Spradley (1980) continued by saying that culture cannot
be observed directly. "If we want to find out what people
know, we must get inside their heads" (p. 10). We must find
out how they became an entrepreneur and started a small
business. Problems that the women informants suggest,
needed changes, and strategic research for the change will
be examined.
Lincoln and Guba (1985) stated:
Utilization of grounded theory is absolutely
essential to the concept of emergent design...
Grounded theory is both required by and
contributes to the further development of emergent
design... Grounded theory is capable of and
requires continuous expansion and refinement.
When the possibility for such expansion ceases the
possibly for further study also ceases (p. 208).
This research was designed to be a first step toward
establishing some grounded theories in relation to the
entrepreneurship education curriculum for the Ventures in
Business Ownership Program.

Emergent Design with Negotiated Outcomes

Meaning is determined by context to a very great extent.

Therefore, qualitative inquiry becomes emergent and is
dependent on the interaction between the investigator and
the context, as happened in this study. Lincoln and Guba
(1985) pointed out that, "The interaction is also not fully
predictable; and because the nature of mutual shapings
 124

cannot be known until they are witnessed" (p. 208). The

research design, therefore, must be "played by ear", and
allowed to unfold, cascade, roll and emerge, according to
Lincoln and Guba. The outcomes of an emergent design are
frequently negotiated. Lincoln and Guba said:
Both acts and interpretations will ultimately find
their way into the case report and must be
subjected to scrutiny by respondents who earlier
acted as sources for that information, or by other
persons who are like them... Of course, not all
negotiations can end in agreement, and one cannot
expect an inquiry to produce findings that
everyone could or would accept. But everyone does
have the right to provide input on the subject of
what are proper outcomes, and the inquirer has an
obligation to attend to those inputs and to honor
them so far as possible (p. 211) .
The naturalistic inquirer must be concerned about what
their respondents think. Lincoln and Guba (1985) said, "It
is the spirit of emic, as opposed to etic, inquiry to do so.
If we take seriously the proposition that context is all
important in assigning meaning to data, it is useful to
carry that assigned meaning back into the context for
verification" (p. 212).
Heron (1981) talked about the ideas of intentionality.
The truths we assert are a function of our
procedural norms which in turn are a function of
our shared value system. The "truths" researchers
generate are a function of the researchers'
procedural norms and underlying values. And if
these "truths" purport to be about persons other
than the researchers then they have indeterminate
validity, no secure status as truths, until we
know whether those other persons assent to and
regard as their own the norms and values of the
researchers (p. 33).
 125

Heron (1981) also discussed moral and political

influences and why he chooses to work with respondents.
(1) it honors the fulfillment of their need for
autonomously acquired knowledge; (2) it protects
them from becoming the unwitting accessories to
knowledge-claims that may be inappropriately or
harmfully applied to others; (3) it protects them
from being excluded from the formation of knowledge,
that purports to be about them and so from being
managed and manipulated, both in the acquisition and
in the application of the knowledge, in ways that
they do not understand and so cannot assent to or
dissent from (pp. 34-25).
Another reason for negotiated outcomes is trustworthiness.
Credibility-internal validity-is crucial and cannot be
established without recourse to the data sources themselves.
Negotiation of outcomes was a continuous process, both
formal and informal, from the inception through the termi­
nation of the study. Lincoln and Guba (1985) said, "It is
when and only when the study has survived these several
negotiation sessions that the investigation may feel ready
to produce the final version of the case" (p. 213).
The emergent research design used by this researcher is
another way of saying that the design unfolded, cascaded and
was "played by ear". Linear research design construction
was not applicable to this qualitative research. Rather,
the emergent design was cyclical. Every new act of the
investigation could not help but take into account every­
thing that was learned to date. As Spradley (1980) said,
"The ethnographer has much in common with the explorer,
trying to map a wilderness area...like an ethnographer the
 126

explorers are seeking to describe a wilderness area rather

than trying to find something" (p. 26).
The outcomes of this emergent design were negotiated by
this researcher as the study proceeded. Quotations used by
this researcher in the dissertation were also verified by
the respondents through telephone conversations held at the
end of the dissertation writing. These women did feel that
their statements were accurately represented in reference to
the context they were used in.
These negotiated outcomes were used first for verifi­
cation of the reconstruction of the multiple constructions
of the respondents. Secondly, negotiation was used to
accurately and autonomously determine the intentionality of
the students' actual purposes and intentions and to protect
these women from being exploited. Third, the negotiated
outcomes provided the trustworthiness of the study to the
readers and listener and credibility in the eyes of the
women.
Data Reporting and Analvsis

Patton (1990) applicably stated, "The purpose of quali­

tative inquiry is to produce findings. The process of data
collection is not an end in itself. The culminating activi­
ties of qualitative inquiry are analysis, interpretation,
and presentation of findings" (p. 371). In doing this
reporting and analysis this researcher took the following
steps.
 127

1. Field notes were taken at each VBO meeting. The

descriptive aspects of the field notes encompassed
portraits of the subjects, reconstruction of
dialogue, descriptions of the physical settings,
accounts of particular events, depiction of activi­
ties and comments on this researcher's own behavior.
The reflective aspects of the field notes were
entered into a field diary. This researcher noted
her own speculations, feelings, problems, ideas,
hunches, impressions, and biases, if any existed.
2. Transcripts were simultaneously made of the taped
sessions as well as the taped interview of each
program participant.
3. Course evaluations that were administered by the
instructor at the end of Bevond A Dream and PACE were
xeroxed by this researcher for future reference.
4. The two questionnaires that were given the students
by this researcher were collected and coded as they
related to the eight barriers for women wanting to
start a business (see Appendix B, Exhibits 11 and
12).

5. Data analvsis ideally began and continued as the

study progressed. Coding categories began to develop
as the study went along. Codes developed around the
eight barriers for women as well as the organization­
al strategy used in following Gartner's model for
New Venture Creation. The educational process was
focused upon, but class responses fit into the
categories of not only the women themselves, but the
Akron environment as well. These codes were placed
directly onto the pages of field notes, transcrip­
tions, questionnaires and evaluations. Units of data
were put into respective folders that were carefully
and frequently poured over.
6. The dissertation writing format followed Gartner's
model, which simplified the organizational chronology
of the study.
7. Triangulation was used through observations, an
interview and questionnaires. A second triangulation
method was the use of peer debriefing, members checks
and audio tapes of all the classes.
8. Trustworthiness was established for this study
through internal and external validity, reliability
and objectivity.
 128

Data Reporting; Organization of the Process

Reporting analysis of various findings followed the

research flow suggested by Gartner (1985), page 19 in this
dissertation. Women and their background, experiences,
motivation, and education were reported first. This
information came from interviews, observations, field notes
and secondary sources.
Erickson (1986) said that "Analytical narrative is the
foundation of an effective report in fieldwork research.
The narrative vignette is a vivid portrayal of the conduct
of an event of every day life, in which the sights and
sounds of what was being said and done are described in the
natural sequence of their occurrence in real time" (p. 149-
150). Direct quotes were included in this researcher's
narrative to give the readers the points of view of those
who were studied. Quotes came from field notes, tape
recordings, transcriptions, and interviews.
From there a reporting of the social, economic, and
political environment of the Akron area took place. As
Howey & Zimpher (1989) stated, "The antecedent events
provide a rich context for conceptualizing..." (p. 8).
Information gathered from the Regional Development Board,
interviews, written materials and reports were summarized.
The social, economic and political environment for starting
a small business were addressed. Some of the women's own
 129

quotes on the "environment" were used from their interviews.

These comments were noteworthy in analyzing whether or not
these women's comments coincided with those of the Akron
Regional Development Board and others in the community.
The educational process for conceiving, creating,
organizing, promoting and implementing their business ideas
was then addressed. Work samples for classes, an interview
during the VBO educational program, and the follow-up a year
later on the telephone and/or in person added details to the
process of business venture development, startups, and then
the outcomes.
McCutcheon (1981) referred to the interpretations of
classroom observations as, "Interpretations are constructed
through our active mental work; they are not part of the
immediately given environment" (p. 5). She went on to say
that not all qualitative researchers believe that interpre­
tation should take place. This researcher agreed and hoped
to separate description from the interpretation of events.
Possible outcomes for each female student were then
addressed. Where do they hope to go and what do they see
themselves doing? What actually has happened a year later?
Follow-up interviews aided in assessing various outcomes.
This qualitative research study can assist the entre­
preneurship research community, instructors who teach
entrepreneurship and small business development, designers
of curriculum as well as the potential women entrepreneurs
 130

to understand what the New Venture Creation process is

about. This study will aid evaluators of entrepreneurship
education programs for women as well as policy makers who
determine what the future is for entrepreneurship education.

The Issue of Trustworthiness

This issue of trustworthiness must be dealt with in

research studies. Within a conventional paradigm, quanti­
tative in nature, trustworthiness centers around internal
validity, external validity, reliability and objectivity.
Reliability is a precondition for validity and is often
tested through repetition. Lincoln and Guba (1985) stressed
that, "Reliability is threatened by any careless act in the
measurement or assessment process, by instrumental decay, by
assessments that are insufficiently long (or intense), by
ambiguities of various sorts and a host of other factors"
(p. 292). Scriven (1971) stated, "'Subjective' refers to
what concerns or occurs to the individual subject and his
experiences, qualities and dispositions, while 'objective'
refers to what a number of subjects or judges experience—
in short, the phenomena in the public domain" (p. 95).
Lincoln and Guba (1985) discussed that within natural­
istic, qualitative inquiry trustworthiness is achieved in
four ways. The first is credibility, activities that will
increase the probability that credible findings will be
produced. Prolonged engagement in the investigation builds
 131

trust, an element that will help decrease distortions based

on a researcher's own prior values and construction. The
prolonged course structure of the VBO perfectly fit this
requirement. "Persistent observation, Lincoln and Guba
(1985) said, also adds the dimension of salience to what
otherwise might appear to be the more than a mindless immer­
sion" (p. 304). They went on to say that "Triangulation is
the third mode of improving the probability that findings
and interpretations will be found credible" (p. 305) .
Different methods of research, multiple investigators and
different sources of information are triangulation methods.
Peer debriefing is another way of determining credi­
bility, which this researcher also followed. "The process
helps keep the inquirer 'honest', exposing him or her to
searching questions by an experienced protagonist doing his
or her best to play the devil's advocate" (p. 308). Since
naturalistic inquiry tends to be lonely, Lincoln and Guba
(1985) said, "Debriefing sessions provide the inquirer an
opportunity for catharsis, thereby clearing the mind of
emotions and feelings that may be clouding good judgement or
preventing emergence of sensible next steps" (p. 308) .
Negative case analysis, a process of revising hypotheses
with hindsight; referential adequacy through videotape
recordings, other non-high technology devices and member
check analysis are important to credibility of the study.
Lincoln and Guba (1985) said, member checking is:
 132

Both informal and formal, and it occurs

continuously...Member check is a process carried
out with respect to constructions. Member
checking is directed at a judgment of over all
credibility, while triangulation is directed at a
judgment of the accuracy of specific data items
(p. 315-316).
The second way was used to achieve trustworthiness is
through transferability. As noted before, transferability to
generalization for other similar situations is not a factor
in this qualitative research study. Lincoln and Guba (1985)
said, "It is in summary, not the naturalist's task to pro­
vide an index of transferability; it is his or her responsi­
bility to provide the data base that makes transferability
judgments possible on the part of potential appliers"
(p. 316).
Dependability is a way to achieve transferability.
Lincoln and Guba (1985) pointed out, "Since there can be no
validity without reliability and thus no credibility without
dependability, a demonstration of the former is sufficient
to establish the later" (p. 316). This argument is weak,
however, because..."it does not deal with it in principle.
A strong solution must deal with dependability directly"
(p. 317).
Guba (1985) suggested, stepwise replication for trans­
ferability. Two persons, or inquiry teams divide up and
deal with the data sources separately. Inquiries are con­
ducted independently. However, since naturalistic inquiry
is emergent; "it is precisely because the two teams could.
 133

for reasons independent of the instability problem, diverge

on to two quite different lines of inquiry that stepwise
replication is a dubious procedure" (p. 317).
A third technique to achieve trustworthiness that was
proposed by Guba (1981) was the inquiry audit that is prop­
erly managed. First, the qualitative process is examined.
Second, the data, findings, interpretations and recommenda­
tions are looked at. Lincoln and Guba (1985) said, "Thus a
single audit properly managed can be used to determine
dependability and confirmabi1ity simultaneously" (p. 318) .
Confirmability is the fourth way to achieve trustworth­
iness. The audit trail as recommended by Halpern (1983)
suggested that all residue records stemming from the inquiry
should be kept. Raw data, data reduction with analysis
products, data reconstruction with synthesis products,
process notes, materials relating to intentions with deposi­
tion, and instrument development information are important
to save. This researcher has left an audit trail for sub­
stantiation, should the need ever arise.
A journal was helpful to this researcher in all of the
methods of qualitative research and assisted in establishing
trustworthiness through credibility, transferability, the
inquiry audit, and confirmability. It was recommended that
a journal consist of separate parts that include the daily
schedule and logistics of the study and a personal diary for
 134

reflection on what was happening. This researcher followed

all of these recommendations.
In this qualitative research study, triangulation was
used to verify and validate the qualitative process. Hence,
an analysis triangulation to check the consistency of find­
ings generated by different data collection methods was
followed. Observations, interviews, and secondary data from
the Akron Public Schools Vocational Center were cross-
referenced and compared. The consistency of different data
sources within the same method were also used. Observations
continued for 20 weeks, which gave comparisons of an indi­
vidual and also the group with a great deal of consistency.
Analysis and theory/perspective triangulation also emerged
as a method. Some triangulation of qualitative and quanti­
tative sources also appeared.
Credibility of this researcher was also taken into
consideration. Lincoln and Guba (1985) considered that the
researcher is the instrument in qualitative inquiry. A
qualitative report must therefore include information about
the researcher, (see page 134). The authors pointed out
that the experience, training, and perspective of the
researcher in the field— in this case the knowledge of
entrepreneurship education by the researcher— was very
important. Was there a personal connection of the
researcher to the people, program, or topic studied? How
was the study funded, if at all? The authors went on to say
 135

that an important principle is to report any personal and

professional information that may have affected data,
collection, analysis and interpretation— either negatively
or positively— in the minds of the users of the findings.
This researcher wrote a brief report on the background
of self, as it pertained to research, as well as personal
connections to the Ventures in Business Ownership
curriculum. This information was included below for the
benefit of the readers of the study and was provided as an
aid in establishing credibility of the qualitative research
information.
This researcher had spent four and one-half years as a
Graduate Research Associate for the Entrepreneurship Program
at the Center on Education and Training for Employment at
The Ohio State University. Her management responsibilities
included coordination of The Ohio State Department of Educa­
tion Career/Vocational Entrepreneurship projects with the
Center on Education and Training for Employment and confer­
ence coordinator for the 9th annual International Entre­
preneurship Education Forum. Four videotape direction/
production responsibilities were handled as well as writing
and publishing duties. Curriculum development, grant
writing and proposal development were worked on as well as
giving entrepreneurship presentations, doing teacher
training (both pre-service and inservice), working on
entrepreneurship training in Poland, developing formative
 136

and summative evaluation techniques for entrepreneurship and

organizing of the nationwide Young Entrepreneur's Club.
Her prior research and training for her Master's Degree
at New York University were in the fields of marketing and
retailing. College teaching in many marketing areas, prac­
tical retail sales and management experience plus owning her
own small business consulting firm for graphics and areas of
the arts provided a rich background for her new field of
interest— small business venture development and the world
of women. Women's issues have grown and become a focal
point for more research activities by this researcher.
The Ventures in Business Ownership program became a
focal point for this researcher. A half-hour videotape for
the State Department of Vocational/Career Education was
commissioned by them to be done for publicity for the VBO
program. This researcher, having done three other video­
tapes, was assigned to script, direct and produce this video
with the assistance of the Bio-Medical communications
department at The Ohio State University. This increased
activity with three VBO sites in Ohio led this researcher to
concentrate on one site for her dissertation during the
winter of 1990. The study was not funded and every attempt
to eliminate any preconceived favorable biases were care­
fully thought through.
This researcher was also aware that she had a responsi­
bility to think about her own reactive effects. This was
 137

done through journal notations that were made during and

after classes, after interviews, and after class observa­
tions and guest speakers. A second concern was to analyze
any changes in herself during the course evaluations. Third,
any biases this researcher may have held in the findings
were noted if they could affect data analysis and interpre­
tations .
The research findings presented in Chapter 4 are
recorded and presented through the "voices" of the nineteen
women. Direct quotations from audio tapes and writings were
presented without being altered. Rose colored lenses were
not allowed by this researcher. Straight unedited quota­
tions are presented and have been checked by the quoted
women for trustworthiness. Peer debriefing, member checking
and audio tapes have been used for the triangulation method­
ology. What you the reader reads is what was said and
written by those in the study.
This researcher understood that neutrality and impar­
tiality are not easy to achieve. There could be politics
involved in evaluations by the students, but this researcher
did not make judgments of good or bad, right or wrong, and
pros and cons. This researcher was qualitatively presenting
information and not entering the evaluation cycle. The
stance of this researcher was, as Lincoln and Cuba, (1985)
referred to, balanced, fair and conscientious by taking into
account the multiple perspectives, multiple interests, and
 138

multiple realities of the research situation. All view­

points of the study were presented. The test of research
fairness was therefore met.
 CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Introduction

This particular case study used the adapted framework

suggested by Gartner (1985) and adapted by this researcher
to guide the investigation. This "Conceptual Framework for
Describing the Phenomenon of New Venture Creation" (See page
19 of this dissertation) has four major interactive dimen­
sions; the individuals involved, the environment of the
Akron area, the educational process and the outcomes for
starting a business. The interaction of variables from each
dimension were also examined.
The research questions were the guiding focus for this
fieldwork. Did this Ventures in Business Ownership (VBO)
curriculum address the eight barriers that women may face as
they attempt to start a business? The following six of the
eight barriers listed by Gassman (1988) with self-esteem
building reflected on the women themselves. Number two;
Limited exposure to math and science. Number three; Societal
biases and its affect on the women in the class. Number
four; Not thinking big enough. Number five; Ambivalence
about being the competitive, profit-oriented deal-making.
Number seven; Balancing home and work roles, and Number
139
 140

eight; Developing a management style. Barrier one;

Difficulty obtaining credit and Barrier six; Isolation from
business networks related more to the Akron environment that
the women were working and living within. The women them­
selves and the social, economic and political environment of
Akron were looked at as to their interinvolvement.
The social, economic, and political environment of Akron
was studied with the assistance of the Akron Regional
Development Board through printed materials and interviews.
The Women's Economic Growth Organization, the Akron Area
Entrepreneurs and small business owners were sources for
informative information. The Akron incubator also provided
pertinent information.
The outcomes of the VBO program for the women varied:
The range went from psychosocial to going back to school for
further education, gaining more experience by working in a
similar business and in a few cases expanding their present
in-home business that was already started. Others decided
to change their business idea altogether and go on to a new
business idea. Did these women perceive these eight issues
to be barriers?
An ethnographical approach was used to learn from the
nineteen women who completed the entrepreneurship program
Venture in Business Ownership. Preconceptions about the VBO
program were put aside by the researcher. As the
 141

ethnographer, the researcher attempted to view the situation

as a participant.
What these women said, how these women acted, and the
artifacts these women used and left behind were studied.
The researcher became socialized into the culture of these
women in order to gain an understanding of what they
thought, saw and felt. This process of developing under­
standing took place over a period of time— twenty weeks of
attending their classes. A telephone conversation with each
student was done by this researcher one year after their
graduation to determine if their outcomes of the course work
had changed. During the research process an interview was
conducted with each participant. They also completed two
questionnaires, one at the beginning of the course and one
towards the end of the sessions. A copy of each of the
instruments are included in Appendix B, Exhibits 11 and 12.

Individuals; (Women)
The First Dimension of the Framework

Who were the women that sought out this Ventures in

Business Ownership course that was designed for displaced
and single parent homemakers? Were there commonalities
among their many differences? These women were viewed in
terms of their background, experiences, motivations and
education. The results of the individual interview and two
 142

written questionnaires administered to each woman are now

presented.

Background

The women were viewed within the culture of Akron's

Adult Vocational School. Their connected knowing from
personal experiences was building by the realizations that
this type of knowledge was more important than the
pronouncement of various authorities. The Ventures in
Business Ownership program did become very important for
sharing, as Belenky, et. al (1986) pointed out.
After observing, interviewing, administering question­
naires, listening and collecting artifact materials, four
women emerged as catalysts to the other VBO participants.
These four women were the most verbal of the group and
stimulated others to speak up and react to questions and
activities. These women were perceived by this researcher
as empowering others in the class to feel more comfortable
in verbal dialogues. These four individuals also served as
spokeswomen for the class at various times, especially with
guest speakers.
The first was identified as Abby. Her physical abuse as
a child was followed by a verbally abusive husband. Her
knowledge base of small business through her own many
endeavors added a great deal of useful information for her
classmates. The second was called Heidi. Her own intense
 143

drive to succeed in building her business empowered other

class members to become more motivated and say, "I can do it
too.” The third, Victoria, empowered others to speak up and
ask their questions. Her continuous verbal interactions
with the instructor and guest speakers stimulated other
women to be more verbal and questioning. The fourth, Mary,
became the spokeswoman for the other black class members who
were generally quiet and silent.
Cultural background. The cultural origin of the women
varied. One woman was born in Italy and immigrated to the
United States 36 years ago. She was the woman who said, "I
have trained many people in my profession." That profession
was being a cook and working in many restaurants. Five of
the women were Black Americans and the other fourteen women
were Caucasian Americans. One of the fourteen, the youngest
in the class, was the daughter of the Italian woman.
Q1.6 (Meant Questionnaire 1, question 6) on the first
open-ended structured questionnaire asked "How do you feel
about being competitive, profit-oriented, or a deal maker?"
and provided useful insights about these women. This
question directly confronted barrier number five.
Statements such as, "I don't remember taking no for an
answer," (Black American). "I like competitiveness because
I like to be better than others," (Italian immigrant), and
"ExcellentI Just tempt me to sell ice cubes to an Eskimo,”
(Abby) set the tenor for these women. This same woman who
 144

was sexually abused as a child from 4 to 14 went on to say

in terms of being competitive, "I researched most of my
competitors and got to know their services and products
well. It may help me improve mine.” She went on to say in
terms of being profit-oriented that, "I don't get fed and
housed for free! I'm good at my work— so why not get paid!”
In relation to being a deal-maker she wrote, "Move over
Monte Hall. But I won't work for free: Volunteering is for
community projects/service work which I also do.”
Many of these women verbalized the strong need for
internal and external control, the need to make something
happen as described by Bird (1990), Rotter (1966) and
Brockhaus (1982). From the open-ended structured question­
naire towards the end of the course, this same abused woman
said in response to the question, "Give some important
account of personal change and growth:"
The realization that my childhood experiences have
had a stunting effect on follow-through as an
adult. Recognizing these and setting goals to
challenge these drawbacks has brought about
positive changes and reinforcement and a desire to
achieve success. This can only be done through
turning it all over to God.
This woman showed strength, perseverance and self-assurance
throughout the twenty weeks. After having explained her
business to the class one student said, "She certainly has
confidence in herself!"
The oldest woman in the class answered the question,
"How do you feel about being competitive, profit-oriented.
 145

or a deal maker? as, "I think I have been all of those

things through life, first in school and then at work, and
of course at home." The youngest class member left the
question blank. When calling her a year after the class was
over she said, "I^ve learned a lot by going to the Small
Business Management Class, the course offered after the VBO
course. I now know that profit and being competitive is
necessary."
Others answered, "It's fun." "Excited." "I feel good
about it." "I think I can hold my own." "I feel if you
offer a superior product you can command a fair price."
"I do not believe in profit at the expense of people's
welfare." "When you have a business all of these things are
a necessity." "I love competitions." "It makes me strive
to do much better." "It's a way of life. I've always been
competitive and made money for former employers. I have
always tried to be open-minded ", said Victoria. "I would
like to have the chance to be competitive because 1 know my
product is better, and the better deal a person makes on
your product means more sales and more profit."
Others were less sure. "Scared." "Uncomfortable." "I
don't care about being very competitive. If my needs are
met I'm satisfied," said Mary. "As long as that does not
become my sole objective I think it is a sensible way to
approach business ownership." "It's something I have to do
so I've been forcing myself to do things in my life. Simple
 146

things really like talking to a store owner, new store

owners, making calls when I don't know what I want to say to
that person. Talking to everyone about some of my ideas."
The women's answers went from a very strong and positive
assertion to less confidence. Competitiveness, profit-
oriented and making "deals" were not comfortable for some.
Gassman's (1988) account corroborates the uncertainty that
many women exhibit.
Another question, Q1.8, addressed home and work roles.
"How will you balance home and work roles? If your business
is home based, do you expect other problems?" This question
directly addressed barrier number seven, the problem for
women of balancing home and work roles. Barrier number
seven was an issue for some of these women. This question
also shed some light on the cultural background of these
women. The oldest woman said, "I do now reserve more social
time than formerly. My time is my own now that my children
are grown and married." The youngest in the group said, "I
will be working together with family members and taking
turns."
These women were from the lower middle class to the
upper middle class with incomes from just above the poverty
level of $6,500 to the upper middle class with total
household incomes of $75,000. Nine of the women were on
welfare assistance. Six were single parent homemakers and
 147

two were single. The other eleven were married, one of

those disabled.
Others said the balancing would be: "Easy." "I plan to
divide time so that home is taken care of so that work can
get done. I expect phone problems, scheduling problems.
Certain things will have priority over other things." "My
business will not be home based. I would like to have an
office where my children could be with me if I had to be at
the store longer than I thought." "In my business it will
work out just fine. When I get my daughter off to school
it will work even better. I am a morning person. I start
my day off right now at 6 a.m."
Abbv: Home based. Housekeeping is a continual
concern now. Security - not to let my customers
know there is no man around is important. Growth
room and adding typing services may come in to
play, requiring adding on. But there is a vacant
property next to me to buy.
Heidi: I plan to divide time so that home is
taken care of so that work can get done. I expect
phone problems, scheduling problems, maybe some
babysitting problems. Certain things will have
priority over other things.
Victoria: You'll never have a real balance. Your
time goes where it is necessary at that time. You
always work at it. The produce business is
family oriented. My girls are old enough to take
part and help.
Marv: My home comes first. My kids' needs are
upper most. Babysitting for my two year old is my
biggest problem.
The individual cultural background of the women was as
different between each of the nineteen as it was between the
women of the same race. Each class member did start from a
 148

different starting point in development, as Miller (1976)

said. They did develop in a psychological framework of
ongoing attachments and relationships (Ibid).
The barrier of the difficulty in establishing a balance
between home and work roles was thoroughly discussed and
analyzed in the classes. B.W., the instructor, stressed
that going into business for one's self involves degrees of
stress and frustration. Home and work roles must be looked
at and put into the proper perspective. The instructor did
a very positive job addressing barrier number seven.

Role models. Role models for these women also gave a

sense of their background. All but two of the women
mentioned role models from father, friends, uncles,
brothers, to former employers, which concurs with the
findings of Hisrich and Brush (1984), Waddell (1983),
Wilkens (1987) and Gitobu (1989). Only two mentioned their
mother as role models. Not many had mothers or women as
figures to follow.

Mentors and networking. Mentors and networks seemed to

blend into the net-weaving process. WEGO— Women's Entrepre­
neurship Growth Organization, the SBA— Small Business
Administration, SCORE Service Corps of Retired Executives,
Women's Network, AAE— The Akron Area Entrepreneurs formed by
VBO members, workshops, the church and clubs were looked at
and mentioned as networks and sources of information. None
 149

of the women mentioned business organizations such as the

Rotary Club or Chambers of Commerce, although there are many
such organizations in the tri-county area.
Barrier number six, Isolation from Business Networks,
was continually addressed during class. Mentors and net­
working were continually emphasized to these adult women
through professional and business connections. The value of
the findings of Gassman (1988) and Wilson (1989) were
emphasized throughout the twenty week course. The entrepre­
neurial network was not only the number of business connec­
tions but also family and non-business links, which seemed
to appear frequently within these women's experiences. None
of these women were operating alone.
Ethnic Background. Ethnic minorities such as blacks and
women may feel more displacement than the white males who
are the subject of most research studies. The five blacks
with the exception of the singled out minority woman, Mary,
were, on the whole, very quiet in class. They really were
not spontaneous in their comments and class participation.
Several of the women were displaced, meaning that events and
circumstances broke old patterns and inertia took over.
Displacement influences were divorce, job lay-offs and
health problems.
 150

Experiences

Several questionnaire items gave insights into the

experiences of these women. One question (Q2.4) asked,
"What real-life decision making and moral dilemmas have you
experienced?" Their responses revealed the following:
Abbv: Two divorces, ten years of sexual abuse
(4-14 years old), purchasing a home, and starting
a family business...
Heidi: The decision to sell my house and move
closer to my husband's employment while trying to
remain in my target market.
Victoria: Personal— No Comment. (This was
clarified later during the course in a one-to- one
interview. The woman said she didn't want the
instructor to know that her son who had been
living with her first husband for years and was
home on furlough from the service— raped,
strangled and killed two girls with his buddy
after throwing boulders on their car from an
overpass. He is now on death row. Her second
husband, a police officer, died in a dental chair
during a tooth extraction. She received money,
some of which was invested and lost, and now wants
to put the remainder into a produce business with
her third husband.)
Mary: Money for a sitter, support from my husband
and guilt for leaving my children are moral
dilemmas of mine.
Other responses included: "Not wanting to leave my baby
to work." "Three marriages, two divorces, three children,
continuing education, health crises." "Have built my own
home." "Past work experiences from employers." "I can't
really think of any that I've experienced so far. I don't
foresee any moral dilemmas." Half of the class,
interestingly enough, left the question blank even though
 151

the questionnaire was administered toward the end of the

course.
This researcher felt that real life decisions to some of
these women did not stand out or reach their conscious
level. Moral dilemmas may have been regarded as extreme and
not basic as selling a house or money for a sitter. The
leaders, interesting enough, always had a ready answer.
Ql.lO, "What type of management skills do you have?
Have you developed a management style that you are comfort­
able with?" addressed barrier number eight and revealed the
following answers:
Abby: I manage people well through logistics and
base working relationships on the following: You
are with a co-worker more hours a day than your
spouse and children. We must all put an extra
effort forth to find a way to get along on the job
and immediately work things out. Unfortunately,
we are blind to this fact in our family
relationships. But in our work, it must be
successfully applied.
Heidi : Managed a bank branch for three months,
supervised a remote drive-in that had seven tellers,
and supervised 150 temporary employees 24 hours a day
out of my home. To be a manager first and a friend
second.
Victoria: I have had successful jobs at
management. I have a bookkeeping and accounting
knowledge background. Have had to hire and fire
people, collections in credit, etc.
Marv: I am a leader but my skills as a leader
include managing people to do the things that I've
generally created for whatever field I'm in. My
style is still being perfected because I tend to
enable.
Other class members said: "I have built my own home."
"I have trained many people in my profession." "I have done
 152

bookkeeping and accounts receivable for ten years.” "I

managed a branch bank for 6 months." "I have kept records
and books both at home and work for 30 years." "I have been
an assistant warehouse manager for over 11 years." "My
duties included billing of orders, checking purchase orders
and invoices, inventory control and ordering." "I have done
payroll, the ordering of supplies and paying for them." "I
can put things together well and organize people by telling
them what to do in a nice way." "I have management skills
from a job I was employed in for twenty-one years. I have
helped manage a business with my husband for the last 5
years."
These responses were not those expected from displaced
or single parent homemakers. The majority of the women's
remarks reflected proud statements of accomplishment. These
accomplishments that assisted in building their self esteem
were a major focus during the first five weeks of the course
Bevond A Dream (1985). Each woman assessed her own
strengths and weaknesses and was encouraged not to diminish
the work and skills involved in managing a household.
Building self esteem was a major focus during the opening
weeks of the course. The instructor addressed this barrier
in many positive ways.
Other comments were less confident but did address their
household experiences. Weaknesses were addressed and home
management skills were discussed. "I am not well organized
 153

at present and am very casual about things." "My only

management experience has been around the house with a
checkbook and budget." "I have managed my home for a long
time." "I know how to budget my time and money." "I
haven't done much management yet. I haven't thought about
it." "I balance my checkbook." "I had been a homemaker for
20 years before I became a nurse. I now feel I am efficient
and capable of being a good manger yet." "I worry about
bookkeeping." "I have no management skills yet," said the
youngest girl in the class. "I'm not well organized at
present," said the oldest. However, the development of
self-realization of abilities and skills for these women was
definitely beginning. A management style even at home was
addressed.

Motivation

Motivations such as a need for control, risk acceptance,

and a valued life style were addressed through open-ended
structured questions. On the first open ended structured
questionnaire administered during the first five weeks of
school, Ql.l stated "Why are you interested in starting your
own business?" The four self-confident women catalysts in
the class said:
Abbv: I am very good at what I do and I enjoy it.
Personal satisfaction is exciting. The money is
good and I'm tired of putting it into other
people's pockets. It will also allow me to be at
home with my children, which is at a devastating
point.
 154

Heidi ; To be able to have an income while

attending to my small children as needed. I want
to pursue my hobby of sewing to enjoy my work.
Victoria; Cause I want to! Want control of my
future plans, etc.
Marv: I need flexibility in my schedule. I want
to meet my families' needs. The money would just
help me get extras. But the freedom of my home is
what's valuable to me.
Others said in terms of independence, money and being
their own boss:
o I like having money and independence,
o To enjoy being my own boss and make money,
o I need to be able to strengthen my character to
manage my life and have financial security,
o I like to work with little or no supervision,
o I like to act on my own ideas.
o I want to be my own boss and makemy own hours. I
want to make more money,
o Independence.
o I would like to do something on my own that I could
enjoy, meanwhile be with my small children and
family.
In relations to use of their own skills and control,
comments were made such as:
o To be more in control.
o I can stay home with my baby and it will give me
money to live on.
o To be very honest, I am very good at what I do. I am
also creative. People are very careful in choosing
their wardrobe. I am here to save the day for them,
o To make my own working hours.
o The overwhelming need for a quality product/service
versus the ability to provide that service more
effectively.
o I feel there is a crying need for competent, well-
trained nursing personnel to provide care and
companionship to convalescing, handicapped, or
chronically ill persons in their homes. As a nursing
professional with hospital staff experience, I was
dismayed to find that in working with five major
franchised agencies, I perceived their first priority
to be profit, and the very least consideration— and
 155

quality care for their patients. I feel there is an

important need I can fulfill.
These women also expressed family needs such as:
o I am 58. Job hunting with only an artist's
background in the city of Akron is unhappy.
o Personal satisfaction, primarily. I am determined to
enjoy my life, throughout all aspects, in the best
manner that is suitable to my nature. My nature
revolving within the artistic spectrum.
o It would probably be a family thing together.
o I want to establish something for my children's
future.
o Truthfully, I have a fear that my husband will drop
dead because he is a workaholic. Even though we have
insurance, I still want to be self sufficient.
Q2.1 on the second open-ended structure questionnaire
administered in about the fifteenth week of school, also
addressed reasons for starting a business. The question
asked was, "What stands out for you in terms of influences
in starting a business? (Positive or Negative)."
Abbv: Financial independence, family entrepre­
neurs, friend's encouragement. This school has
been very influential.
Heidi : Motivation given to me by this class
structure. Planning in an organizational manner
has kept me from making time-consuming mistakes.
Seeing the other students development as this
class progressed and how they were guided.
Victoria : My family. (Added insight occurred
when a personal open-ended interview took place.
I've always wanted to start a business and make
money for myself instead of the boss. I've lost
money on stock speculations through a broker.
Now I want to take charge.)
Marv: At this point in time I want to work part
time around my schedule of interests (PTA,
Scouts, Church) But, I may quit this altogether
once my two year old is in school.
 156

Others said, "Independence." "Enjoy my work." "Most of

my family has their own business." "Self sufficiency." "I
want to work with my husband and have free time with son."
"My friend has had his own business, and other business
people." The overwhelming need for a quality product/
service versus my ability to provide that service effec­
tively." "It would be positive working for myself." "Self
sufficient, independence, finances, flexibility of time.
The satisfaction of working on something of personal
importance."
One negative concerning money appeared. "Money as a
negative stands out in my mind. I'm still not sure of how
much I will need."
The need for internal control as pointed out by Bird
(1990) and Brockhaus (1982) was corroborated in this study.
The need for the control of finances, one's work schedule,
one's own destiny and the flexibility of time, were all
strongly valued.
Q1.12 when asked, "What specific behaviors and charac­
teristics do you bring to this business effort?", respond­
ents replied a valued life style that fulfilled valued
capabilities that these women had to offer.
Abbv; Encouragement and positive excitement in
my client's job seeking efforts. Bringing out
the best attributes to sell themselves to a
company. What resources to use. I bring
enthusiasm, experience, success and commitment.
 157

Heidi; Motivation, love of my work, a good

outlook, the will to succeed. Design. Wanting
to learn from each experience. A smile.
Victoria: Like people, energetic, responsible,
intelligent, follow though what I start, don't
get discouraged easily. Have common sense.
Marv: I know my leadership capabilities. I am
an extrovert. I've got what it takes, but I need
to overcome some roadblocks.
Other answers were identified by the business type,
which aided in understanding the person and their business
relationship.
o A knowledge of my work. Experience in my work.
Experience dealing with people (custom designed
novelty shop).
o I've been in sales for fifteen years. Starting with
Avon and ending with real estate. I know how I want
to be treated as a customer and I'm going to basi­
cally add some extra services that I would appreciate
at such an establishment (retail lingerie).
o Try and have confidence in myself and to be patient.
Not try to do it all at once, as in trying to make a
quick profit (boutique and mail order).
o I'm a very reliable person full of get up and go
(custard stand).
o Strong motivation, personal determinations, strength
of character (picture framing establishment).
o I have worked a variety of jobs and have learned to
deal with many different types of people (cleaning
service).
o Liking people and money (adult foster care).
o Compassion, competence, integrity, strong medical
background (private duty nursing agency).
o Writing skills, interviewing and reporting skills,
data gathering and competence, common sense, belief
that I can do it if I want to work for it (Personal
Touch Communication).
 158

o Charm, neatness, fashion oriented, able to develop a

color that would look nice on your skin tone (mother
and daughter boutique).
o I really want to start my own business because I am
determined and stubborn and really want to be
financially independent (party store).
o Enthusiasm, and need to so something I enjoy (cake
shop).
o Motivation, excitement without thinking of concerns—
it would be something fun (restaurant or some kind of
food service).
These women were strongly motivated. They wanted to
obtain personal satisfaction, control, and fulfill the needs
of others while enjoying freedom, independence and flexi­
bility. Child-care was an issue with several women who
wanted to work at home with their children there. Abuses in
childcare services had been perceived as a big single-parent
family issue in the late 1980's and early 1990's. For that
reason, some of the nineteen women wanted to work out of
their homes.

Education

Educational backgrounds of these women were varied.

Seven did not go beyond high school. The one who was a high
school dropout (Minority) went back to high school at age 31
to get her diploma. She was proud to say, "I did not go the
GED route, but actually attended high school with teen­
agers." One received an Associate college degree and two
attended a business school. Seven went on to college
courses but had not received a degree. One has a Bachelor's
 159

degree and one never went beyond the third grade (Italian
immigrant) .
Q2.3 asked, "What kinds of educational learning have
influenced you most?" The following responses were given.
Abby: On the job/practical application.
Heidi: Business related seminars (Marketing,
Sales Management). Accounting courses and VBO.
Victoria; Business school. Past job
responsibilities.
Marv; Vocational education such as VBO.
Other answers were, "Mostly VBO." "Art and literature
courses. Primarily art history and poetry interpretation."
"Breaking down the term business from a rather intimidating
mystery into a comprehensive explanation was probably my
greatest lesson from the VBO program." "Business school and
past job responsibilities." "VBO— when I first started
class I really wasn't planning on starting a business right
away. After attending VBO classes my whole way of thinking
changed." "Nursing school, philosophy, psychology and
sociology courses."
Q2.1 asked: "What concerns and/or experiences have you
had with math and science?" This directly confronted
barrier number two. The following replies were given:
Abbv; Accounts receivable— 19 years;
Bookkeeping— 19 years; Manufacturing,
marketing/retail pricing— 12 years; Science— zero
percent.
Heidi; I enjoy accounting/math. It comes easily
to me. Science is too complex when you get into
chemistry, biology, etc.
 160

Victoria: Want up-to-date tax knowledge.

Mary: I am not good at math. I want to learn
more and increase my skills. Science I know
little about, but I'm fascinated. Whenever X get
the notion to know about something I look it up.
Others answered:
o I've been a bookkeeper but had little science in
school.
o Not enough education in either (math or science) that
I would like.
o My math is basic and my science is nil.
o My math experience is well established, in that it
was a very large part of my prior employment. I had
been an assistant warehouse manager for over eleven
years. Duties included billing orders, checking
purchase invoices, inventory control and ordering.
o Little experience and interest in science.
o Experience only around the house. Checkbook and
budget.
o In sewing I deal with some math everyday, but not as
difficult as in accounting. Any experience with
science was when I was in school.
o I am not good with numbers but I have kept my own
financial records and I know how to budget my money
and time.
o Not too good in either. Would like to brush up on
math.
o I haven't had anytrouble with math. Science— only
experience I have had was in school.
o Balancing my check book and the church that I belong
to. Not too much in science.
o Two years of nursing school. Clinical calculation of
weights, measures, and medical dosages. Juggling a
single parent family budget.
o Really none.
 161

Twelve of the women felt pretty good about their math

ability, as long as it was practical math that they used and
not abstract algebra or geometry. The other seven women
felt very uncomfortable with any math. All of the women,
with the exception of the nurse, felt that they knew very
little about science. The nurse, A.W., admitted that she
only knew about science as it related to the field of
medicine.
This limited exposure to especially science certainly
helped explain the lack of businesses directed towards any
technology field. Retailing and service businesses were the
goals of these nineteen women. None of them had delved into
math very much or science at all.
It was further interesting to note the level of educa­
tion of these women and business start-up tenacity did not
seem to relate. The third grade dropout was as motivated as
the college graduate. In fact, the third grade dropout had
gone on to take the Small Business Management course this
past year.
In talking to these women by telephone one year after
the course had ended, further education was presently taking
place. Heidi was taking an advanced decorating course at
Akron University. One of the minority women was taking IBM
training and doing wedding veils infrequently. The woman in
Affordable Framing was continuing her business through word
of mouth and has gone back to Akron University part-time to
 162

finish an art education degree. She would like to teach art

someday. The youngest class member was taking the Small
Business Management course. Two minority ladies were
considering more schooling— one in nursing and the other in
programming for camps. They all seemed to understand the
importance of further education.
The educational process of VBO was looked at in two
evaluations of the Ventures in Business Ownership program.
After the first five weeks— the Bevond A Dream portion— the
following comments were made:
Abbv: I very seldom lost interest in any subject
idea. I learned new marketing techniques,
contacts and avenues.
Heidi: Pricing evaluation has been very
beneficial to me. I feel I can take on my goals
with confidence and assertiveness. I was
skeptical. I am confident that I can become
successful with guidance. I was able to get
direction and am not afraid to start slow and
grow with my business.
Victoria: My previous opinions were
strengthened. My convictions on a good business
prospect and sources were confirmed. I am
definitely going into the produce business. Just
trying to get things in order to get opened.
Mary: My ability to start with confidence has
been boosted. I^d read quite a bit before and
much of it was highlighted in the course. I have
decided to make this a business that will supply
incidentals for my family. I want the
flexibility that it gives me.
Others said,
o I was very interested in this course. My previous
opinions were confirmed and strengthened.
 163

O Yes, I have learned a lot and many new ideas keep

coming up. The instructor has done a very good job
of explaining and making us think.
o This course is the best thing I could have done for
myself. I think that everything was handled as it
should for such a large class.
o Many of my notions and preconceptions about business
ownership were poorly jelled and not well understood.
I have been able to gain direction and information
necessary to obtain a more level and feasible
approach to beginning my own establishment. The
information I received was extremely helpful,
informative and added to my incentive.
o I changed some of my ideas I had in the beginning,
but for the better. She gave me more great ideas
that made sense from a business standpoint.
o I don't know what I expected when I took this course,
but my thoughts have changed quite a bit. Stronger
and more realistic.
o I learneda lot of new ideas. Advantages and
disadvantages. I think I need more confidence
building to get moving (youngest class member).
o I learnedquite a few things I didn't know when I
started. My previous opinions were strengthened, as
I learned how to go about different things. I think
the course is very good as presented.
o The information I received was much more detailed
than previous business classes I have attended. It
raised a lot of questions, some of us needed to hear.
The interest in one another is amazing to me for a
group this size.
o I learned things that I never knew before. My
previous opinions were strengthened.
o I'm really wondering about location and cash.
After the next fifteen weeks of PACE, an overall evalu­
ation of the Ventures in Business Ownership course (Phase 2)
was made by the students. Table 1 presents a categorical
summation of the following points;
 164

Table 1

Evaluation of the VBO Course.

Very Quite Not Very No

Questions : Much A Bit Much Little Answer

o I was interested in this program 18 1

o The instructor helped me find

ways to get my idea into a sound 14 4 1
business plan

o The program is helpful for

single parents and homemakers 13 5 1

o The materials helped me build a

better knowledge of business 15 3 1

o I enjoyed learning in a group

that had similar interests and 15 3 1
problems

o The personnel and resources of

the Center helped me 10 8 1

o The community assistance helped

me start my business 1 11 2 2 3

To qualitatively assess Phase 2 evaluations this

researcher categorized the written comments as positive,
helpful, and negative. These comments are presented below.

Positive Comments:
o I have enjoyed the class very much. I'm glad I
took the course. (Victoria)
o I wish I had taped some of the classes. I'm very
enlightened to many areas I'd like to know more about
(taxes, insurance). I have so many interests in my
 165

life. I have confidence that I'll be able to be

successful in many if not all of these areas. (Mary)
o The classes are great.
o I found the classes very helpful and enjoyed both the
personnel and speakers.
o I truly appreciate the effort and time given to me.
I honestly feel now that I am capable of starting a
business— thanks to the instructors, speakers and
class.
o Although I don't plan to start my business for a year
or two, the VBO program helped me realize and
understand so much more about starting a business.
o I found the program very helpful in the way that it
gave me a clearer direction and definition of my
proposed business. Initially, the concept of owning
a business was extremely vague and quite blurry.
o The instruction in classes was excellent and I felt
the personalized attention was impressive as well as
encouraging. I would recommend this program to
anyone who has ever or is wrestling with the idea to
make a stand and direct the business of their choice.
o I think I've learned a lot from this class that will
help me in starting a business.
o I found the class to be very informative toward the
business aspects of the program. I really enjoyed
learning and working with the other students with
similar interests and other interests also.
o This part of the class was very interesting and
helped me to form my goals. Everyone became involved
and it was exciting to see out plans start coming
together.
o The speakers were interesting and knew their subject
well. VBO is a good program. Would recommend it.
Classes were well planned and I enjoyed many of the
exercises we did out on the "firing line."
o I would like to say, I enjoyed the VBO class very
much. It changed the whole way I think concerning
starting a business and running it. Thanks a lot.
o I enjoyed the phase 2 program very much. I think it
was very informative and the instructor helped a lot
 166

in getting us aggressive to do what we want. Also,

she is good at building the confidence we need to
keep working on our business. This goes for my
mother also.
o I found the program very informative. I now know a
great deal more than when the class started. I
enjoyed the program very much.
o With the class size being smaller it seemed that more
people are able to participate. Some of the speakers
we had in phase 2 were extremely helpful. I think
with the information to date gathered from the
instructors as well as the speakers, I could open my
doors up within a year if all my financing goes well.
o This is an excellent program which renders invaluable
information in a helpful and supportive fashion to
anyone with a true desire to accomplish their goal.
The level of involvement of the community and the
quality of their assistance attest to the respect
they have for the goals and accomplishments of this
program. I feel fortunate for having had this
opportunity.

Helpful Comments;
o I think more research and development needs to be
done for those students who are on public assistance
and whose credit is not applicable. University
students might be helpful in this research. (Abby)
o It has not been necessary for me to utilize community
assistance, although I feel that there has been
plenty of information given that one should be able
to utilize it. (Abby)
o I do wish we had some class time to go over
some of the material handed out in class. I
think a little more time spent and explained in
bookkeeping would have helped some of the class
members. I would like to have had a speaker on
some tax shelters more in-depth. (Victoria)
o This class has helped me to not get discouraged
and to solve problems in an analytical— logical
manner. It is great to get feedback on my
ideas and to obtain new ideas from others who
may perceive things differently than me. I
could not believe all of the resources avail-
 167

able to me. This class made me more aware of

them. CHeidi)
o The only regret I have is with myself because I
failed to keep up with the due date of part of my
business plan and I have learned in this class that I
need to be able and confident if I am to start my own
business.
o Breaking down the term "business" from a rather
intimidating mystery into a comprehensible explana­
tion was probably my greatest lesson from the
program.
o The smaller the class got the more interesting it got
because there was more personal contact. Everyone has
some input and a nice way to learn.
o The information L.B. (accountant) had for the class
made some of us rethink our business.
o More class discussion and participation of handed out
literature.
o I would have liked to go over the reading in class.
o VBO covered a large variety of subjects concerning
business— some of which we forget. When thinking
about starting a business such as some of the day to
day expenses, hiring, marketing, taxes and laws.

Negative Comments;
The only negative comment was, "The time was drawn out
too long." (This comment was made by a minority woman who
showed no enthusiasm during the course. She was very quiet
and never really became involved in an interactive manner
with the other women participants.)
The overall comments indicated a very positive (VBO)
program experience. The public assistance issue became very
important and problematical. Recommendations for follow-up
 168

on this issue are in Chapter 5. It is interesting to note

that three of the four leaders gave very helpful comments.
The need to coordinate program handouts with group
discussion stood out as a thing to do in the future.
Program size that dwindled down to 21 students was deemed
useful to many. The breaking down of the term "business"
into eighteen units was appreciated and useful. In this
process of smaller units of work, creativity, problem
solving and critical thinking were stimulated. The world of
resources was opened up to each participant. Sharing was
high on the benefits list. A self-realization that keeping
up with assignments was necessary showed self-reflection.
"Helpful," "Great," "Excellent," "Encouraging,"
"Informative," "Enjoyed," "Involved," "Exciting,"
"Knowledgeable," "Thanks," "Built Confidence," "Supportive,"
"Quality Assistance," and "Fortunate" were all positive
proclamations made by the students concerning the course.

Environment; Akron
The Second Dimension of the Framework

The environmental setting and historical background of

Akron gave a picture of industrial Akron that was useful to
this researcher in identifying the environmental influences
affecting the nineteen VBO women. It further will give the
reader a glimpse of the environmental changes that have
affected Akron's women citizens.
 169

Objective three of this research study is met in this

section. The social, economic and political environment
looked at was referred to as the climate in which the
program operated. The classroom climate itself also
affected the educational process and the socialization of
the program participants.
Akron was founded in 1825 and "with the opening of the
Ohio Canal in 1827, the region began a long period of
unparalled growth" (ARDB, No. 1, p. 1). The city became a
boom town "attracting cereal mills and manufacturers of farm
machinery, clay products, stoneware and pottery" (Ibid). In
1870, Dr. Benjamin Franklin Goodrich opened the first rubber
factory west of the Allegheny Mountains. Akron was then led
into its golden age of rubber, which propelled the growth of
Akron itself as well as the surrounding communities. The
death knell of the rubber industry in the 1960's and 1970's
was not foreseen at that point in history.
Akron, which is located in Summit County, along with
Medina county to the West and Portage county to the East are
members of what is presently termed the Akron Regional
Development Board. (ARDB) is an association of commerce,
industry, and labor in these three counties. It is a non­
profit corporation dedicated to the promotion of economic
development throughout this tri-county area and provided the
environmental information for this study. The Research and
Business Information Department of ARDB not only supplied a
 170

great deal of printed materials, but allowed for personal

interviews of key members.
As Gartner (1985) pointed out, "The new venture is seen
further within the context of its environment: it is forced
to seek out resources and it competes in the marketplace"
(p. 678). Shapero and Sokol (1982) further talked about the
pushes and pulls from the environment. Gartner (1985)
continued that the environment is an outside set of
conditions to which an organization must adopt. Further,
the environment is a reality that organizations create via
the selectivity of their own perceptions.

The Social Environment

The social environment in the United States that has

given women the go-ahead to go to work also has given women
more personal options. These options include starting one's
own business. The need to retrain "the smokestack" workers
of Akron and allow for social innovation and entrepreneurial
change has fully affected the women in this Akron, Ohio
environment.
Size. Akron has been described as "...a region of
outstanding educational, cultural, and recreational
resources... a region which provides a stimulating blend of
industrial, commercial, research, service and retail
businesses...and a region which offers gracious living at
affordable cost" (ARDB, No. 1, p. 1) .
 171

Akron is the largest city in the three counties with

221,510 people in a tri-county population of 773,700 people.
Akron is "Within a 500 mile radius of forty-two major
cities, 55% of the nation's manufacturing plants, 57% of its
population and 60% of its buying income. Four million
people live within a 50 mile radius ranking greater Akron
among the top ten metro markets in the country" (ARDB,
No. 1, p. 1) .
Akron has approximately thirteen colleges and
universities within a commuting distance. They offer a
variety of undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral programs.
A total of 32 colleges and universities are within a 50 mile
radius" (ARDB, No. 1).
Job training is offered through a consortium of
vocational and technical educational resources in Medina,
Summit and Portage Counties. This Consortium cooperates to
offer vocational and technical education for the business
and industrial community. The objectives of the consortium
are: "1) To provide specific training opportunities for
existing, expanding and new business and industry; 2) to
assist in locating training personnel; 3) to work in a
flexible manner to serve the educational and training needs
of business and industry" (ARDB, No. 6). A list of agency
contacts, adult vocational/technical education directors and
high school vocational directors is also given in this
booklet. This program of the Akron Regional Development
 172

Board in cooperation with the Ohio Department of Development

is detailed in the booklet Job Training (ARDB. No. 6).
Other educational opportunities for small business in
Akron are the Small Business Management Program for those
who have already started a business; SCORE— The Service
Corps of Retired Executives— which helps with business
start-up education as well as dealing with problems once a
company has opened and PIC— the Private Industry Council—
which serves clients from plant closings, lay-offs, the
economically disadvantaged as well as those persons on
general assistance and living off of savings.
Air, rail, bus and waterway services are in abundance.
"Low-cost water transportation to domestic and foreign
markets is available through the Port of Cleveland and the
St. Lawrence Seaway, which opens the Mid-Continent's inland
lakes to ocean traffic" (ARDB, No. 5, p. 2). "There are
frequent sailings from the Port of Cleveland to more than
140 ports in 70 countries. Surprisingly, Cleveland is 300
miles closer to many European ports via the St. Lawrence
Seaway than New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore" (Ibid).
Ohio through the Port of Cleveland has become the third
leading state in the export of manufactured goods.

The Economic Environment

Although unemployment was considerably down in 1990 in

Akron, the area is financially depressed. New business
 173

venture creations are slow to start because of the economic

uncertainty going into the 1990's. Jobs are up but the
economy of Akron is depressed.

Employment. The Akron Regional Development Board in its

bulletin "Directions" (March/April, 1991) gave a 1990
economic review of Akron. It indicates that from the years
1980 through 1990 the Akron area non-agricultural unemploy­
ment rate was the lowest that it had been in the eleven
years represented. The highest rate of 12.3 percent
unemployment was in 1983 with a steady yearly decline to 5.2
percent in 1990.
Employment in 1990 was up in all sectors except manu­
facturing, which had a slight decrease of 0.4 percent. The
service industry has the largest employment increase of 5.5
percent and was followed by construction's increase of 4
percent. "Directions" (March/April 1991) stated, "Akron's
total employment was the third largest increase in the
state" (p. 1).
"Directions" (May, 1989) reported that small business is
big business in the Akron area. In the tri-county area over
99 percent of the total establishments employ less than 250
people; 98 percent of the establishments have fewer than 100
employees; 95 percent have fewer than 50 employees; 87
percent have fewer than 20 employees; 75 percent have fewer
than 10 employees; and 53 percent have fewer than 5
employees (p. 1).
 174

By industry, in all three counties the service industry

has the largest numbers of establishments with one to four
employees, followed by retail trade and then contract
construction. In the 250 to 499 employee category manufac­
turing represented the largest industry, but statistics
showed many small numbers of employees in manufacturing
firms.
Overall, from 1976 to 1986 employee percentages in
manufacturing dropped 14.2 percent with services showing a
45.1 percent increase. The tri-county area employment
change by sector followed that of the entire state of Ohio.
"Directions" (August, 1987) reported that.
The number of business establishments increased
by 3,466 from 1974 to 1984. Of the 3,466 new
business establishments in the tri-county area,
2,844 have 1 to 9 employees (82 percent). The
number of business establishments with 500 or
more employees declined by 15 or 32 percent
(p. 1).

Industries. ARDB (No. 2) reported, "While the

Tri-County Area is the acknowledged center of the rubber
industry, it is also the home of many of the country's most
important manufacturers in such fields as aerospace, nuclear
power, automotive, construction, metals, plastics and
chemicals" (p. i). The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
still is the largest employer in the Tri County Area with
6,100 employees (November). Bridgestone/Firestone, Inc. has
1,850 employees; while the Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company
employs 900. The rubber industry hasn't totally
 175

disappeared, but the make-up of the employees has changed.

The three tire companies with their corporate headquarters
in Akron employ white collar workers instead of blue collar
workers. The workforce has changed with the changing job
qualifications. The same report shows a large increase in
medical employees also with more specific work qualifica­
tions .

Business incentive programs. The city of Akron, Ohio,

is now engaged in a Main Street Business Incentive Program.
It is offering incentives for business and property owners
to invest in vacant store fronts along South Main Street.
These incentives will create job opportunities for area
residents while improving the downtown area.
A $5,000 matching grant is being offered by the city to
the purchaser or tenant who opens a retail business in a
vacant store front on South Main Street. The grant can be
used towards either a down payment or the first year lease
cost. A $10,000 matching grant is offered for building
repairs, improvement and capital equipment made or purchased
during the first year of operation.
The store fronts must have been vacant as of April 1,
1986. Only retail for-profit businesses were eligible. All
approvals for assistance must have been approved by the
Economic Development Coordinating Committee of the City of
Akron. "Land on Main Street...Collect $15,000" was a viable
 176

program offered through the Department of Planning and Urban

Development.
Other assistance by this department was to offer
downtown low interest loans. These loans were made in
conjunction with participating banks and are available to
business and property owners in the Central Business
District bounded by: East Market, South Broadway, East
Cedar, and South Main for building improvement. Matching
grants were also available to business and property owners
in the Central Business District for exterior improvements.

Incubators. The Akron Incubator was made up of a

coalition of the Akron City government, the University of
Akron, the State of Ohio, and the private sector who all
provided funding. The incubator offered services,
assistance and guidance for developing companies. 35,000
square feet was the leasable size of the first incubator
which was filled within the first year. In 1990, the
incubator moved to a new site of 81,000 square feet. Three
companies also moved and eleven more were added.
An incubator can provide for long term diversification
of an area. Since Akron no longer made any passenger
tires— polymers, electronics, machinery and machine tools
became big business. Research and startups of new
businesses involved a great deal of money. Working in an
incubator helped cut some of these costs through central
secretarial and office services, less rent per square foot.
 177

business and financial management advice, as well as close

networking in a mentoring environment.
The incubator does vigorous screening before starting
with a new business. Approximately 1,000 applications were
processed per year. One half of the potential new
businesses were discouraged before they started, which the
incubator board felt was an important part of their
services. Thirteen to fourteen businesses did start in the
old incubator. Most of the businesses that did start were
begun by technicians, craftsmen, engineers, and even
production line workers who knew a lot about the product but
had no knowledge of how to run the business. The managerial
and technical assistance was provided by the incubator.
The dislocated and unemployed workers started a few new
businesses in the incubators as well as they provided a
resource for workers to new business start-ups. The
incubator created 384 new jobs by May, 1991. In addition,
another support job was also created in the community for
each new incubator employer-employee.
Approximately 300,000 square feet was scheduled to be
added to the incubator in Akron. The manager stated, "There
are three factors that are necessary for a profit making
incubator. First is the real estate itself and a sufficient
size of a minimum of 50,000 square feet. Second is the
marketing of centralized services towards the companies as
 178

well, and third, the incubator taking an owners position in

the companies" (May 10, 1991 interview).
To encourage companies to develop and grow a four year
maximum stay was allowed. The first year, a negative cash
flow was expected. The second year was a break even state
with the third year providing for positive operations and
cash flow. In the fourth year the company's transition to
private real estate was planned at least six months in
advance. Two of the incubator's businesses have collapsed.
One was due to illness and the second was due to the timing
of bringing the robotics product to market. Investors were
"weary" of this new technology when it was originally
developed.

Incubators chiefly provided three types of nests. The

first is university affiliated, which is designed to help
researchers turn discoveries into products that are market­
able. The second is the non-profit incubator that is funded
by state or local governments to create jobs. The third is
the for-profit incubator that is sponsored by private
enterprises that hope to make money while they help new
businesses. The Akron incubator is a combination of the
university affiliated and the non-profit type. According to
Dobler (1989) "When a business incubator catches a new
company, the odds for survival are excellent" (p. 86) .

WEGO. The Women's Entrepreneurship Growth Organization

was also located in Akron. As of 1990 it moved into the new
 179

incubator location. The mission of the organization was to

provide for technical and funding assistance to women
currently in business. Many women also went there for help
and were referred to the Ventures in Business Ownership
(VBO) program for entrepreneurship education. WEGO offered
some short-term seminars to help women who were going into
cottage and home based business.
One glimmer of hope is through WEGO. In August of 1990,
after the VBO class ended, the WEGO "Access to Credit
Program" began. The following information is quoted from
WEGO WOMEN (May, 1990) the organization's newsletter.
After much negotiation and several revisions,
WEGO's Access to Credit Programs should be in
full operation by the end of August, 1990.
The Access to Credit Program was developed to
provide access to business capital and credit to
support women in becoming financially self-
sufficient through business ownership. The
program has two tiers: the "Mini" Revolving Loan
Fund; and the Guaranteed Loan Program.
The Min-Loan Fund will provide women with the
opportunity to borrow small sums of money for initial
start-up purposes where no other source of seed
capital can be found. Flexible, very short term
conditions will allow women to establish or reestab­
lish good credit records, learn to budget, and develop
responsible fiscal behavior. Mini Loans from $100 to
$1,000 will be available to eligible women for start­
up equipment and supplies.
The Guaranteed Loan Program is a three-way part­
nership between WEGO, Women's World Banking and
area banks. The participating local lenders are
Bank One, First National Bank, National City
Bank, and Old Phoenix National Bank in Medina.
The program will allow women business owners
access to credit to expand their small businesses
where other sources of capital are not available
to them, and to provide them with the opportunity
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to establish good business credit relations with

an area bank. Loans between $1,000 and $10,000
will be available for on-going businesses.
The Mini-Loans will be administered by the WEGO
Executive Director and Loan Program Staff. The
Guarantee Loans will be administered by the
participating bank with support from WEGO staff.
"Putting the Access to Credit Programs into operation
caps more than six months of negotiation for WEGO," said
Barbara Lange, Executive Director. "Our board and our staff
have worked diligently so that our clients will have access
to the credit they need for their businesses. It is a
milestone for all the women we serve."
To be eligible for either loan program, applicants need
to meet several criteria, including; (1) the business must
be 100% owned, controlled and managed by women; (2) the
business owner(s) must agree to participate in on-going
management assistance with WEGO for the duration of the loan
period.
In April of 1990 B.L. (WEGO's Executive Director) and
G.S. (WEGO's Board President) attended the Tenth Anniversary
Affiliates Meeting of Women's World Banking (WWB). WEGO was
the second U.S. affiliate accepted into the network in March
of 1989. There are only five affiliates in North America
out of a total of 50, making the organization truly inter­
national .
The economic situation in Akron indicated that this area
of the state is a depressed area. Economic conditions for
many in the Akron area environment indicated a slow recovery
 181

from the recession. This economic environmental tightening

of money had made the situation even more difficult for the
women of Akron to start small businesses.

The Political Environment

This researcher interviewed several sources for

political views of the Akron area. The VBO instructor one
year later was running for City Council in Cuyahoga Falls
and had this to say:
It seems to me that traditional Democrats who are
business owners have voted Republican lately. It
seems that large outside franchise investors are
beating small business out. Shops are going out
of business and it seems as though the small
business economy is oversaturated. The small
guys are being hurt by the super stores.
The present mayor of Akron is a Democrat. There
are four Republicans on the council but no one
seems very interested in small business.
Polymers are being researched and produced in the
area. The new worker of the 90's will have to be
better educated.
The Holiday Hotel is now the Cascade Hotel, due
to the man in the cowboy hat. Dave Brennan
Chairman of the Board of the Brenlin Corporation
is influential, but one person can't do it alone.
However, there is only the Inventors Hall of Fame
and the Soapbox Derby in Akron. How in the world
can Akron support another hotel? People are
moving to the suburbs. The white collar workers
have different tastes and go to Cleveland to
shop. Akron and Summit County are not very
visionary.
This researcher then interviewed the development
director for a real-estate developer of the Old Goodrich
building. "We pick corporate America's discards. The
 182

complex involves twenty-seven buildings on thirty-eight

acres.” D.M. went on to say,
We hopefully can keep politics and government
out of the way. In Goodrich's heyday the
company did what they wanted. Building
department officials looked the other way in
terms of code violations, etc. The real
estate rehab business is different. The
inspectors are now concerned if stairways are
1/8" off. We try to keep politics and
government out of the rehab business.

Process
The Third Dimension for the Framework

The process for new venture creation was examined by

this researcher as it related to the nineteen women who
completed the VBO class. Appendix A, Exhibit 13 gives the
dates and subject matter for the various classes. This
exhibit explains the process for business start-up
exploration for the displaced and single parent homemaker
through the Bevond A Dream (1985) portion (Phase I) of the
program. The process of locating a business opportunity and
the accumulation of resources for this new venture through
the PACE (1983) portion (Phase 2) of the Ventures in
Business Ownership program is also explained in the exhibit.

Advisors/Consultants

The success of entrepreneurship education/training/

development effort was greatly dependent upon the level and
degree of input, direction, support and assistance provided
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by both the local business community to both the program

itself and to the participants it served. A broadly
representative advisory committee helped the program
instructor lever influence, credibility, and support in
accomplishing program objectives. A broadly based group of
volunteer consultants helped program participants increase
the success of their start-up activities. Advisors and
consultants were used to promote the program, arrange for
counseling opportunities for students in need of specialized
information, present hour long informational programs of
first hand business experiences and to give alternatives for
problem solutions in some cases.
As an advisory committee and consultant group was
originally developed by the instructor, she very carefully
chose a well-rounded group of male and female advisors.
(Refer to the Advisory Committee names in the Appendix A,
Exhibit 15). The ratio of female and male advisors was
carefully considered. The females included an accountant,
two marketing consultants, a personnel director, a designs
system analyst, and a desk-top publisher. The males
consisted of three bank managers, a marketing corporation
head, the Small Business Management Instructor, the
operations manager of the Private Industry Council, a small
business consultant, and the Executive Director of the Akron
Regional Development Board. The Advisory Committee for the
VBO program in Akron, Ohio, for the 1989-1990 year was
 184

already in place, since this was the third year for the
program. (See Exhibit 15 as referred to above.)
The recruitment process necessitated time and energy.
However, for this VBO class the process of collecting
interested people was not difficult. Women participants had
been put on a waiting list for this class. Through good
on-going publicity and promotion for the prior three classes
the numbers were already there. WEGO women were also
recommended for the course. The participants were
skillfully interviewed by the instructor and her assistant.
The problem they had was to limit the group to 30 partici­
pants .
The instructor and her assistant also further
determined each person's possible business ideas, their
education and work experience, possible problems and issues
and arranged for the proper fees and tuition. Because of a
funding cut from the State of Ohio to the Akron Adult
Vocational School, no child care or transportation costs
were allowable to the students.
Each program participant prepared a confidential
information sheet about themselves. These were on file at
the school. All of the Ventures in Business Ownership
program participants information as well as course materials
and resources were kept in the central vocational office.
 185

Marketing the Program

The Akron program received good publicity from the

Akron Beacon Journal. Past students were featured in
articles such at F.T., a textile designer. Her work had
also been displayed at the Akron Art Museum and featured
through personal commissions by influential women in the
Akron community.
The growth of the Akron Area Entrepreneurs (AAE)
support group further generated publicity. The group
outgrew its original meeting place, a free space donated by
a Greek restaurant owner— himself a small business person.
AAE then moved to the Akron public library.

Teaching Methods

B.W. was an outstanding instructor. Her former teach­

ing experience with high school students in English assisted
her greatly. She had highly developed business skills. Her
first hand small business photography experience was a major
factor that helped her relate to these women struggling to
start a small business. Her empathy was tremendous. Her
teaching methods were superior. Time never lagged. Every
moment of the three hour class was filled with important
curriculum content that was presented by the instructor and
almost always a guest speaker. The class schedule was fully
planned before the course began and expertly carried out.
 186

Weekly calls were made to the next speaker so as to insure

that the class would not be let down.

Additional Support Systems

The VBO class participants were invited to join the

Akron Area Entrepreneurs (AAE) immediately upon starting
the class. This extra push before graduation provided
enthusiasm and continuity for the new students. This tactic
proved to be psychologically very sound. This real-world
connection plus the classroom experiences provided synergy
to the new venture students and program process.
The Small Business Management instructor (C.S.) was
also a dynamic support person. His three additional
financial meetings during PACE were most informative and
provided continuity for these students to join his SBM class
after graduation from VBO. Three of the nineteen students
did so.

Evaluation

Evaluation was an on-going process. The advisory

committee had originally reviewed the process with the
instructor and established its specific time-lines and
purposes. A formal written evaluation was held at the end
of Beyond A Dream (See Appendix A, Exhibit 9) . From there
the instructor evaluated the program and her own teaching
plus the teaching of the guest speakers.
 187

The students' business plans were individually

discussed and evaluated with the instructor and her
assistant. She found that due to a lack of time it was very
difficult to involve others such as advisory committee
members. These added inputs realistically would involve
more time than the committee members had available.
A program summary was done by the instructor at the
completion of each VBO class. These record copies went to
the Entrepreneurship Supervisor in the State of Ohio's
Vocational and Career Education Program, the Vocational
School Director (P.W.) and a copy for the instructor's
records. An analysis of each student's progress, business
ideas, provided services and completion was included.

Phase I; Bevond A Dream

The Instructor's Guide for Small Business Exploration

included a 10-unit training package that combined both adult
education and entrepreneurial principles. These materials
were easily adaptable to the participants' needs and the
setting in Akron.

Purpose. This training package helped participants

accomplish two goals; 1) to determine their self employment
potential and 2) to develop a personal plan of action for
small business startup. Specifically, during this training
participants were provided the opportunity to evaluate
themselves via self-assessment activities, and to discover
 188

what skills they had acquired through life experiences and

education. A community support system for needed technical
assistance and expertise was put into place through the
Akron Area Entrepreneurs and the students learned how to
analyze their financial basis for starting a business. The
students learned how to test their business ideas with the
consumer and competitive market. They learned about
resources available for small business owners and learned
what a business plan is. The students then decided on their
next steps for their business development.

Organizational format. This training package was made

up of 10 units (See Appendix A, Exhibit 14) and followed by
the instructor. Units 1-4 related specifically to the
accomplishment of goal one, which was to determine potential
for self-employment, and units 5-9 related specifically to
the accomplishment of goal two, which was to develop a
personal plan of action for small business start-up. The
students then decided if they wanted to continue the VBO
program. Twenty-five of them did, but nineteen graduated.
One of the following four outcomes was possible for
those participants who completed all 10 units. They could:
(1) work for someone else to gain experience before starting
their own business; (2) start their own business as a sole
proprietorship, partnership, franchise, or corporation;
(3) continue entrepreneurship education or training and then
start their own business; or (4) decide not to start their
 189

own business. These decisions were not made until the end
of the entire VBO curriculum.

Instructional format. The instructor followed the

10-unit format from Bevond A Dream. The calendar of weekly
materials for the entire course is found in Appendix A,
Exhibit 13. She began with an introduction that included
the topic or focus of the unit, the overall goal to be
obtained from the unit, and the objectives for individual
attainments leading to the achievement of unit goals.
Materials such as handouts and transparencies were used
for the various units. Tangible results were produced by
the participants. Assignments for out-of-class activity in
support of in-class activity were assigned by the
instructor.

Instructional methodolocrv. The instructor recognized

that adults bring varying amounts of experience and
expertise to each learning activity and she used instruc­
tional strategies to incorporate as much practicality as
possible. For example, she presented technical subject
matter in a group discussion-lecture style that employed
buzz sessions, question and answer periods, as well as
spontaneous participant reaction activities (for example,
brainstorming). These activities encouraged the partici­
pants to build on their previous experiences. Whenever
possible, the instructor used presentations by outside
 190

speakers- She considered that the most important outcome of

the class was to get the group comfortable with sharing
ideas and helping each other.
Creativity was encouraged- Consequently, there were
no right or wrong answers to the questions asked- The
important objective that was focused on was the procedure
and the thought process that the participants were required
to utilize as they experienced each learning process-
The most critical needs of this class was to help the
students apply the information to their individual
businesses, to help each other, and find solutions to their
problems- Wonderful interactions along with self-esteem and
self-confidence building were developed throughout Bevond A
Dream-

Bevond A Dream in Akron Ohio: Tuesday. February 6. 1990

Through Thursday March 8. 1990

The first few lessons are detailed so the reader can

become fully acquainted with the physical setting for the
program and the students. These details will enable the
reader to better comprehend the educational process used in
VBO.
The first class met in the lunchroom of the Akron Adult
Vocational Center. This was a temporary meeting place
(class was moved next door due to large enrollment) not
conducive to group discussion and verbal exchanges. This
area of a large open space (shaped like an "L") was long
 191

and narrow with long tables and benches one behind the
other.
Students signed in and sat down. The instructor
introduced herself and discussed the words entrepreneur,
entrepreneurial and entrepreneurship. The class in unison
pronounced each word. The instructor pointed out that the
key to these three words was risk— assuming a risk.
The group then stood up and each person was asked to
shake hands with the person on the right and then the left.
The instructor pointed out the importance of a strong, firm
handshake as well as good eye-contact. Interaction between
class participants started to take place. There was much
chattering and simultaneous activity.
Each student then one-by-one stood up, introduced
herself, told about her business idea— if she had one— and
a little about herself if she chose to do so. Comments such
as; "My mom is out of work and I have two small kids at
home. I'm afraid of day-care, so the two of us want to
start a catering business." (Youngest class member who is
the daughter of the Italian immigrant) . "I have a small
child at home that I don't want to leave. That's why I'm
baking wedding cakes at home." "I'm presently unemployed."
"I left my full-time job because of my two children four and
six." These statements indicated that life path changes
were influential in the career decision of these women.
 192

These potential entrepreneurs appeared to be looking at

options for their lives.
The instructor then ignited excitement in the class
with statements such as; "The first step to facilitate
change or make it possible is flexibility. You must learn
to take criticism." "Customers can sometimes rattle your
cage to pieces. All people aren't nice or sane." "You must
learn to make decisions and jump on track." "Keep your mind
open." "Knowledge is power." "Not all of you are going out
there to be an entrepreneur." "There will be different
outcomes from this class. You may start a business. You
may decide to work for someone in the same field to learn
more. You might go back to school. You might decide that
being an entrepreneur is not for you. You may become a
manager of a business." "You will be different persons at
the end of VBO."
After a break, the personality characteristics of
entrepreneurs were discussed. "Yes, you must be a self­
starter, confident, responsible, not a 9 to 5 person,
committed to tasks, self motivated, a leader that others are
willing to follow, organized, and like what you do," the
instructor said. And, she added, "This course teaches you
how to think. You and I are going to think together in this
course. You will create change, inspire, be an example and
cultivate those who work for you."
 193

The instructor's enthusiasm and dynamism greatly

influenced the students' own enthusiasm. This researcher
was vitally aware of this happening through the students'
increased alertness, excitement and spontaneity. She
culminated the sessions by saying, "I hate people who are
late! Why? It is an interruption and shows disrespect. I
want you to be on time. If there is a problem call. If you
must leave early, speak to me before class starts.” To sum
up expectations she said, "We're not asking for a master's
thesis, but I do expect to see the business plan parts as
they are assigned."
The place of meeting on Thursday was changed to the
church next door and for the rest of the course. Everyone
seemed enthused and excited after this first class.
Thursday. Februarv 8. 1990 Skills Evaluation. "Many
business skills are not only learned at work but also at
work in the home. "Let's discuss some", said the
instructor. "Management of a budget," "Taking care of
bills," "Making decisions about other's health,"
"Maintenance of the home," "Supervision, leadership skills,
ethics and values," "Fund raising, spiritual growth, etc.
are all parts of a homemaker's responsibilities." These
ideas were concurrently voiced in enthusiastic tones by the
students.
"Why do businesses fail?" asked the instructor. Poor
management, and planning, lack of capital, wrong location, a
 194

bad idea, failure to give commitment to a business, lack of

a marketing niche or advantage were heard. "That's why a
business plan is so essential," the instructor said
emphatically. "That's what you all must think about in
planning for a business. Choosing a type of ownership,
choosing a location, planning the marketing, legal issues,
keeping records, managing employees and sales efforts,
liabilities...Yes, there's a lot to learn about when
starting a business."
"I'm going to get you to sit in groups of four to
complete a business skills inventory," said the instructor.
The students moved and then went on their 20 minute break.
After the break this researcher passed out the first open-
ended questionnaire. "I'd like you to answer these
questions from the standpoint of where you are now, how you
feel, not just yes and nos."
The instructor discussed the need for calling if the
students were going to be absent.
This class can't accommodate children, too. It's not
in our grant to pay for childcare. I sympathize with
your problems, but if time is a problem this class
can become a real burden. This is hardly the only
time you'll be spending on starting a business.
Maybe you can help each other. If you know people
who sit maybe you can get a reduced price.
The instructor said, "Now let me tell you about ARDB—
The Akron Regional Development Board and AAE— Akron Area
Entrepreneurs. Membership in AAE is $12. It's important
for you to network and meet others even if you are a loner.
 195

There are seven on the board of AAE and two ex-officio

members".
Februarv 13th and 15th. 1990 Support systems and
assessing personal finance were taken up. The instructor
said, "Now we're going to play the cross fire game...Victim
and enemy...Asking a lot of questions about each other's
business idea." Rapid interactive conversation ensued until
the guest speaker arrived on assessing personal finances.
"Oh, those personal finances", said C.S. The guest
speaker made the subject interesting, provocative, and
something to think about seriously. Debits, credits,
assets, liabilities, net worth, balance sheets, cash flow,
loans, gross income, net income, venture capital and SBA
loans were all discussed with a stiff encounter from the
verbally interactive student. "Why does a bank want all of
the customer's eggs in one basket?" The speaker responded:
Banks aren't in business to be in your
business. You are the entrepreneur. The bank
is tying you to the business. The bank is
loaning you other depositor's money. If you
don't deposit with us we don't want to do
business with you. Each bank determines their
market and tries to develop a life-long
customer.
The instructor said "To sum up, the moral of the story is
there is no free lunch! Let's break and then back to
'cross-fire'."
There was no let down in the tenor of the class.
Up-beat back and forth conversation and questioning was
encouraged and led by the instructor. She said, "Remember
 196

to have an open mind, be competitive, be like a sponge and

soak up information. There is no room for arrogance in this
room. It is rude to talk when others are." The woman who
made simultaneous comments in a rude way was directed to
drop the class. Her mother had enrolled this thirty-year
old because she wanted her to get organized. The instructor
did not put up with her rudeness, which the other class
members also strongly disliked. This woman was soon to be
asked to depart from the group.
Februarv 20th through March 8. 1990. Cross fire
continued through these sessions;
My name is A.W. I'd like to go into home
health care. There are people who go to
hospitals but don't stay as long. The need
some one at home when they get there.
Mary: Yes, there's a great need. What will
you do differently from other agencies?
A.W. There's a need for a proper level of care
through monitoring good employment practices and
relationships. I intend to treat my employees more
like human beings.
The quest speaker arrived and started the session on
the development of a business plan.
C.S.: Have you heard the term? There is a
method for doing the core work in a business
plan. The planning and thinking process is 95
percent. Five percent is in the actual
writing. Can you put enough product out there
to generate cash? What is your cost of sales?
Can you get sales in the door of potential
customers? What are your expenses? From
what? There must be a product/market match.
Can you meet servicing needs? Who has a
product?
 197

Mary; I do, child care. It is a small

business and minority owned.
C.S.; Describe the market for this product.
How much do you need in terms of an
investment? A service business needs much
less in terms of capital equipment. I want
you to think of that. Your sales might be for
any time period. Forecast sales for product
penetration. This could be from a historical
perspective. The forecast could be on a
transaction basis— units instead of dollars—
or on a transactions per day. Make assump­
tions. Look at industry averages and write
them down.
Look at the Yellow pages to determine your
competition. Where are they located? Call or
go to the competition. Be a detective.
Victoria asked many questions. The instructor and the
speaker told the health care person that there was another
way of determining her sales and that became part of the
capacity issue. "How many employees do you plan on having?
What are their available hours? Forecast the number of
hours billable per week." A good interaction of class
members followed. C.S.; "There are any number of books on
business plan. You have a luxury here which is the
instructor's expertise and chances to do things groupwise."
C.S.; To sum up, determine your individual
markets. How do you know who they are? Then
determine how to reach them. The total market
is the sum of the segment. The total sales
forecast is how big the business can be in
even the first year. Then, subtract the
costs. This is the core of starting a
business. I work by appointment. The Small
Business Management (SBM) works with ARDB—
Akron Regional Program Development Board,
SBA— Small Business Administration, and
SCORE— Service Corps of Retired Executives.
We are all available to assist.
 198

B.W.; The one stop Permit Center at the

Department of Development is a place to call
to get a packet of information pertinent to
the kind of business you want to start. Grab
a business idea now and build a plan around
it. You might change the business plan parts
many times.
During the time frame of Bevond A Dream, five VBO
former grads (all women) talked to the class. D.A. gets
apartments ready for occupancy. B.R. has a business called
Tailored Elegance for Women. P.M. decorates eggshells.
L.N. does bulk mailing. E.T. runs a gift shop. Two men
then appeared, D.S. who installs cable T.V. and N.R. who
puts photos on tee shirts. The class asked many questions.
Victoria gave a very thorough description of her
business for "firing line". Her business was making
draperies and accessories. A portfolio of her work was in
the process of being completed. Her long-range goal is a
retail store. Her target market is Summit County to those
with an income of $40,000 plus. Curtains for Vans and R.V's
are also being made, since her family is a van owner too.
"I'm in the market for a different home with room for
sewing," she said. Her high motivation allowed her to move
her thoughts into action.
This woman thoroughly researched her competitors. She
decided to price according to time required by the project
plus her supplies. She wanted to stay competitive within
the going rate. "My husband wasn't interested at first, but
 199

now he's willing to get involved installing when he has

time." "Installations are very important," said this woman.
"I will not take on a job that is too much, too big. I
don't have commercial equipment. My mother and a neighbor
are presently helping." "I will go to the customers home
twice, but first I screen over the telephone and determine
if it's something I can do. I then look the situation over,
collect a down payment for the cost of the material and draw
up a contract. Installation is my second trip back."
Victoria was going to start an open-air produce market.
"It's just been approved by the EPA. We'll have fillers
in the off season like Christmas trees, nuts, dry produce,
and flowers. We'll wholesale to restaurants, clubs and
airports." Her business was therefore two-fold, wholesale
and retail. The trucking of the produce and wares then
became a factor. Victoria said.
My husband will also be in the family busi­
ness, as well as my four children. We feel
that the consumer gets what they pay for.
Therefore nothing is really that competitive.
We need two trucks. My husband who is a
machinist by trade can put in the refrigera­
tion. We know business ethics and we want to
start out right. God willing, we'll be open
before Mother's day.
B.L., another minority, designed children's clothes.
Her target market was Summit County and she sewed in her
home.
I price two and one half times over my cost.
Promotion is through word-of-mouth, the
newspaper and fashion shows. Each garment is
individualized. I have swatch books and
 200

patterns. I'm trying to get a portfolio

together. I also have in mind mother and
daughter clothes.
B.L.'s garments, this researcher feels, are just as
lovely and tastefully completed as she is herself. B.L. is
a fine extension of her sewing and design work.
On the last day of Bevond A Dream (March 8)the
Advisory Committee came to hear about some of the business
ideas. P.O. talked about her business Squeaky Cleaning,
which would be home-based. She emphasized quality service,
dependability and reliability. Her market niche was to be
post-construction clean-up before people move in.
The Advisory Committee entered into Firing Line and
asked P.O. about her pricing. They told her not to give her
services away. They asked about future plans, the hiring of
others and where an office for her operation would be
located.
A.W. talked about the Whitlock Agency. Her nichewas
the handicapped, terminally ill and post surgery patients.
She would rely on referrals from physicians in the greater
Akron area. Her business was to be priced at $17.95 to
$28.95 an hour with the patient paying the agency and the
insurance company paying the patients in return. A.W. would
only hire nurses with a license and certification. Malprac­
tice insurance was to be carried by the agency for the
workers also. A.W. stressed the extreme need for this kind
 201

of service and her right to be very selective in terms of

the clients she selected.
Advisory members were impressed and emphasized that
there was a great need for this service. "I'm a critical
care nurse, A.W. said, "and that is at the top of the
nursing ladder." Other question were fired at her such as,
"will your help be bonded?" "How often will you pay your
employees?" "You're going to have to be right on-top of the
insurance companies or you won't have a good cash flow."
A.W. handled the questions in a very competent way.
Abby gave a dynamic portrayal of her resume and office
services business, which already operated out of her home.
From writing to typesetting to printing she was ready for
business. Having worked nine years in an employment
services operation she was well-acquainted with the type of
people businesses were looking for. She counseled and
prepared the person for interviews. She also did a business
profile, which is more than a resume. The profile, for
which she charged $400, told the history of the person,
their plans for growth and projections for future plans.
After this presentation a student was heard to say, "She's
not too confident!"
The Advisory Committee asked, "How much will your
equipment cost?" "Will you carry paper?" Abby said, "Paper
is a good item to stock and make money on." "Are you going
 202

to hire others?" To which she replied, "I'll hire profes­

sional typists who type a minimum of 70 plus words a minute.
I'll pay them eight dollars an hour." "I personally can
take dictation over the telephone which saves a lot of
time." Abby commented in a very business like manner.
The Advisory Committee stayed for cake and mingled
with the students. All of the men advisors showed up but
only a few of the women. Speculations on the part of the
instructor ranged from "Men are more comfortable networking"
to "Men feel that support is very important," and "Women
don't have enough time."
After the break, D.W. from the Industrial Incubator
that opened in 1983 spoke. He explained:
It's like a sheltered workshop. It keeps
start-up costs down for manufacturing
businesses. One million dollars has been
invested into the project. There are
management consulting services available as
well as day-to-day support available,
accounting services, lowered rent per square
foot ($2.00) with utilities etc. Companies
can stay up to 3-4 years but then must go on
their own.
Bevond A Dream came to an end. Most of the evaluation
comments were excellent, with some useful ideas and sugges­
tions added. The range of remarks went from "Today was very
special" (last Bevond A Dream class) to "There could be more
class discussion on materials handed out." "Most of the
people in the class seemed to contribute" to "One fourth of
the class are involved and the rest sit like doorstops!"
"Right now this course is the best thing I could have done
 203

for myself" to "I have been able to gain direction and

information necessary to obtain a more level and feasible
approach to beginning my own establishment." "I have
changed some of the ideas I had in the beginning, but for
the better." "The instructor was very much prepared and
presented subject matter well." "The information I received
was much more detailed than previous business courses I have
had." "The instructor is all business."
Other comments on the instructor and materials from the
four selected participants were:
Abbv: Very informative, vibrant, constant
ideas— Made me think a lot of my natural
potential— I can't think of anything that was
not 100 percent beneficial.
Heidi: Not enough time. Class should have
been split in half. Pricing evaluation has
been very beneficial to me. Time goes fast.
Instructor keeps it moving when someone gets
off the track. I am confident that I can
become successful with guidance. I was able
to get direction and not afraid to start slow
and grow with my business.
Victoria: Instructor has done a nice job. I
think the course was done well for such a
large group. Strengthened my conviction on a
good business prospect and success. I'm
definitely going into the produce business.
I'm just trying to get things in order to get
opened!
Mary: The networking is very good. I'm very
happy to know more entrepreneurs. The
instructor unfortunately did not have enough
time to accommodate her wealth of knowledge to
be shared. I think on the whole, it went over
some people's heads!
This researcher's perceptions were that there was a
high degree of interest in the course. The instructor was
 204

extremely knowledgeable and in full control of the class.

The problem student was confronted by the head administrator
of the adult vocational center and this talking interruptive
woman soon quit the class.
Excitement and great enthusiasm was generated by the
instructor. Her command of the group was awesome in spite
of its size. The instructor was confident that this large a
class could work. Had she not commented several times on
its size, the researcher believes it was doubtful that
negative comments would have been generated concerning class
size. The instructor emphasized that the exchange of ideas
was more useful and stimulating with more students, in
contrast to six in a class, for example. This researcher
agreed with the notion, having confronted such a situation
first-hand as an instructor. Too small a class seems more
deadly than too big of a class.
The study indicated that this instructor carried out
the educational VBO program as it was planned. She
augmented the course materials with many guest speakers, a
highly acceptable way for teaching the course as indicated
in the teacher's manuals. Outcomes of the program (See page
19) can and did vary, as related to Gartner's (1985) model.

Phase II: PACE: The Program for Acquiring Competency

in Entrepreneurship Program Planning

Program Planning. The curriculum for this program had

been used for training entrepreneurs prior to this observa-
 205

tion and study. The Program for Acquiring Competence in

Entrepreneurship (PACE) provided information that built on
management knowledge and worked toward an effective success­
ful business. The instructor used this intensive approach
focusing on 18 specific topic areas. All of the 27 students
had completed Bevond A Dream.
The instructor had guest speakers again for several
specialty areas of small business venture development. The
participants learned how to work individually using the PACE
materials, available consultants, and the instructor. Time
lines were set ahead for assignments that were due. Last
minute work was therefore hopefully avoided.
Each student was given their PACE materials for use at
home. In this case those students who scored higher on the
pre-entrance reading test received Level 2 and those with
lesser reading abilities received Level 1.
PACE in Akron. The instructor determined through her
past experience that in the first four weeks of the fifteen
week course— PACE— that it was necessary to schedule four
weekly extra sessions to deal with financial information up
front. She had the Small Business Management instructor,
C.S. do this. This method not only gave financing and money
issues more emphasis and importance but aided C.S. in
recruiting Small Business Management students for his course
after PACE. The calendar. Exhibit gives the program for
the remainder of the course.
 206

Unit 3— The Business Plan was dealt with first, the

major core of the course. The importance of doing the plan
as it was assigned was stressed in order for the students to
be able to keep up with the course requirements.
On Thursday of the first week C.S. dealt with the
planning for financial needs. "The bottom line is to make
money," C.S. stressed. "Sales, cost of items sold, fixed
expenses and profit amount are the first considerations."
Victoria asked, "Is it better to borrow or use your own
money?" C.S. said "A rule of thumb is to use others money.
How much will you sell? This can be broken down into units,
hours, number of jobs, etc." C.S. went on to say.
Who's going to buy your product or service?
Why is it important to know who your customers
are? Make a list of your start-up costs. Is
this a hobby or a true business? Don't make
this the busy-work syndrome. How are you
going to reach your market? Your homework is
to do a sales, expense, and cost projection
for 12 months. List your 12 month fixed costs
and your start up costs. What percent of your
sales will your costs be?
Mary, Victoria and the woman who was later asked to
leave the course did a lot of the talking. During the break
L.R. and M.G. said, "Do you notice that the same two or
three people need attention and do most of the talking? Of
note, however, was the fact that neither of them made any
effort to speak up even after their verbal comments to the
researcher.
Units 8— Financing the Business, 16— Managing the
Finances, 4— Obtaining Technical Assistance, and 5— Choosing
 207

the Type of Ownership were assigned and highlighted by

speaker Alice Ann (A.A.). She exuded enthusiasm and
confidence. She used these characteristics to motivate the
students.
As students introduced themselves A.A. noted:
You must believe in you. Know you're good.
Know you're terrific. Look me in the eye when
you introduce yourself. This program is about
life.
Shake hands firmly. Make a positive first impression.
"The importance of communication is fundamental in any
business situation," A.A. went on to say.
Be prepared to put yourself in the other
person's shoes. Try to understand what is
going on with your customer. What appeals to
them? Communicate to the person behind the
company profile. Communicate in a way that
reaches people and now, let's hear about a
business at each table.
Brainstorming then began on ways to communicate to
potential customers in an inexpensive way. "Word-of-mouth,
flyers, radio, placemats, coupons, church and community
bulletin boards and even a name on the back of a windbreaker
can be useful." Heidi spoke up first through a consensus of
others at the table. They wanted her to speak first.
I plan to open a produce market-wholesale/retail.
I plan to advertise in local papers. I think the
decor of my building is important. Its 50 X 60.
I will have a sign out in front with a name that
will be noticed.
The instructor said, "I've got an idea. Hire an artist
to do a mural on the side of the building."
 208

A.A.— "Stop apologizing for ideas. It really is

exciting going into business. Don't think ideas are insane.
There is a psychology of color. For example, red can be
impulsive."
Table 3, A.W. health-care business. A.A. said.
Let me share something with you. The days of
effective mass communication are gone. Masses
are not segmented into individuals. Niche
marketing is important. Referrals are
extremely effective. Doctors and home health
care, nutrition, management, and life styles
are important in the medical community.
Table 4— Taste by Design. J.S. a male who eventually
had to drop out of the program because of mental health
problems.
A.A. emphasized.
See banquet managers for important hotels who
deal with influential people in corporations.
Do some taste testing. Write articles for the
Akron Beacon Journal food section.
J.S. said,
I need a place to work with enough refrigera­
tion. I have enough money to buy equipment or
guarantee rent. I don't have enough money for
both.
Table 5— J.A. and M.R.— Mother and daughter who want to
start a catering business, but are now talking about home
delivery of Italian food.
A.A. said,
I hear you saying that you're afraid to go out
and earn enough money. This is not L.A. If
you were in Toronto, for example, you could
cater to homes downtown because business
buildings must be one half residential. In
Akron, that's not true. Who would order
 209

spaghetti and meatballs and have the dinner

delivered? That's too expensive for Akron.
Go back to your catering idea to class
reunions, parties, etc.
Table 6— Abby spoke up.
I really can't afford to advertise right now.
I have a resume and professional writing
business now. Press releases to hotels about
my service have proved to be beneficial. I
take dictation over the telephone and can
assist business people in tight, last-minute
situations. I go in person to possible big
clients. I gave some to Akron University and
advertised on bulletin boards.
A.A. made some general comment. "Be certain to get
some money up front. Don't ever give your services away."
A.A. had many questions asked of her on a one-to-one basis
during the break.
B.W.: I now want you to do a customer
profile. Akron is a big test market, coupon
test area. I want you to develop a survey and
to determine who you would administer the
survey to and when. Go where a lot of people
are. Do your survey with your target market.
Remember that Part I of your Business Plan is
due next Tuesday.
B.W.; I want to encourage all of you to join a
networking group. AAE is meeting tonight. If
you're afraid of groups it's all the more
reason to go. I've learned from I've learned
from people how not to do things. Competition
calls and asks me questions. That keeps me on
my toes. Others copy and so whatI I change
my tactics. I've learned many tricks of the
photography trade. I use a blow-horn to round
up people at a reunion. There are always new
techniques to be learned in business.
Half-way through PACE the instructor said, "We need the
following people to stand up. They have perfect attendance
to date: L.R,J.A., P.F., G.A., S,T., B.L., and C.M. I now
 210

need part one of your business plan. Part two will be due
April 24.
Encouraging comments throughout the PACE curriculum
seemed to motivate and give credit to conscientious
students. The instructor was continually enthusiastic,
energetic, and on her toes. She appeared very professional
in all of her class presentations. This researcher was
impressed with her concern and personal interest in each
student.
"Now let's talk about demographics", said the
instructor. "There's a book, American Demographics, if
you're going to do large scale marketing. Now let's discuss
what demographics are."
Multiple voices chimed in. "Income, age, surrounding
businesses, home owners, type of homes, buying patterns,
what people own, expendable income..." The instructor said,
"And all this leads up to doing a marketing survey. Today
we're going to discuss two survey samples. What questions
are asked and why."
Business Plans Part I were also turned in. The
instructor said.
I'll read off the names of the people who
turned in part one and their business name.
Mary— Clutter Cleaner. Heidi— Draperies by
Peggy. Abby— Office Services. P.O.— Odum and
Associates— Cleaning. L.R.— Custard/Yogurt.
C.H.— Wedding Cakes. J.S.— Taste by Design.
V.W.— Children's Boutique. J.A. & M.R.—
Italian Restaurant. M.G.— affordable
training. V.G.— Wedding Veils by Valerie.
B.K.— Washing Houses. G.A.— Adams Assisted
 211

Living. J.R.— Rellah & Associates. B.S.—

Personal Moving and Trimming Service. S.F.—
Handy Sandy. L.W.— Enchantment (Lingerie).
Victoria was absent.
Spring vacation was the second week in April. This
gave the students a breather and time to work on Part II
of the business plan, due on April 22. The instructor said,
Who motivates the motivators? We've all
become busy people. One of our jobs is to
motivate others through selling work and
business. Self-motivation is directly related
to our attitude. It is a way of thinking
about ourselves and about others. I'd now
like to introduce E.V.
E.V. was the guest speaker on the topic of customer
service and the development of a professional attitude, a
habit of thought. E.V. started by saying,
I can't stress enough how important what
you're doing is. In 1971 I was in a position
to purchase a company. I came across a book
Think & Grow Rich by Napoleon Hill, written in
1937. On page 36 the book says, success is
tied to attitude, confidence and commitment.
Success begins with desire. The book listed
six ways to turn desires into goals.
1. Define the amount of money that is desired.
2. Define what you'll give up to get that money.
3. List a date when you want to possess that money.
4. Develop a plan of action to get that money.
5. List the amount of money, the when and where.
And what you'll be doing to get the money.
6. Read the fifth statement twice a day. See
yourself with money.
It all begins with a desire in the mind.
You need to plan and to set deadlines on
self.
E.V. went on to say:
I started my business with a desire. I had
20 employees. Last fiscal year I did 10
million in sales and have 300 employees. In
 212

1981 I expanded to Houston, Texas, and I

thought, how can 1 pull myself from a 1 to 3
on a scale to an 8, 9, or 10? I thought,
there are no successes or failures. These
are only results. What I learn today I can
use to improve my professional performance,
entrance, my self-esteem and my positive and
professional outlook on life...Attitudes
contaminate... On Project 3 you'll list
events, activities and situation that cause
contamination. On project 4 you'll list
solutions for dealing with the contamina­
tion.
After the students engaged in the two projects E.V.
went on to say.
What can I do? Self talk, self-directed
behavior, affirmations till you thinketh in
your own heart. There is a book by Dr.
Helnstetter called What to Sav When vou Talk
to Yourself? Affirmations...
A good management tool is 3 X 5 cards. Jot
down on the cards examples of negative self­
talk. On the other side repeat a positive to
counter the negative...
Let's look at characteristics of a profession­
al. Pride, direction, sense of humor, love of
challenges, new knowledge, willing to change,
balance, competitive, a team player and
dedicated...
You must learn to manage thought that comes
into the mind. Your attitude is worn like a
badge. When you improve your thoughts you
will improve your life.
E.V. then listed and talked about the ten character­
istics of a professional. These characteristics included:
1. Pride in who you are and what you do.
2. Be directed and goal oriented. Write a plan and
review it daily.
3. Develop and have a sense of humor.
4. Love challenges and take calculated risks.
5. Seek new knowledge constantly.
6. Enjoy change.
 213

8. Be competitive and keep on your toes.

9. Be a team player.
10. Be dedicated to goals.
E.V. stirred up a great deal of class enthusiasm.
Participation from each table of students was encouraged.
He questioned each table and asked students to talk about
characteristics of an attitude. He clearly explained that
an attitude is a habit of thought— how you think about
yourself and the world. "Remember," E.V. said, "When you
improve your thoughts you will improve your life."
After the break assignments were handed out for the
next week - Units 12, Managing Human Resources and 14 -
Managing Sales Efforts. Market survey questionnaires were
then discussed. The instructor stressed that these surveys
are to be done before going into business.
Assignments for the following week of interviews were
assigned. They were grouped and assigned by the instructor
so that the weaker student's skills could be worked on while
the stronger student was given a more minimal role. The
instructor was very skillful in her class management style.
Abby— Interviewee and S.N. (very quiet)— the interviewer;
B.L. (minority and quiet)— interviewer and Heidi— the
interviewee; M.R. (youngest/catering)— interviewer and C.H.
(Cake maker)— interviewee; were paired together. The
instructor stressed the development of a job description for
any potential position.
 214

May 8. 1990. Logo design, business cards, letterhead,

the naming of the business, advertising and promotion were
all discussed. The third part of the business plan was also
due.
Victoria got into a discussion with the instructor over
what to name her produce business. "Let'^s do the retail
part of the business," the instructor suggested. Victoria
asked, "How about Granny's Market for the retail portion.
The wholesale part might be T & P Wholesale." Heidi said,
"Granny's Market suggests garden fresh." The instructor
asked, "Why can't you use the same name for retail and
wholesale?" Heidi replied, "There are more than 800
wholesale businesses. The number is astronomical. Granny
sounds too folksy for a large business."
The instructor pointed out that the name should suggest
what your business is. Mary suggested "Bruce's Power
Clean." B.K. retorted, "Remember, I don't like my name."
"Power Clean," "Mr. K's Power Clean," "Action Power Clean
which will get you up front in the Yellow Pages" and
"Action Power Wash" were some of the names thrown out for
discussion.
Heidi was next to discuss a name. "Decorative
Draperies By Peggy is what I like," Heidi said. "Creative
Fabrication is too general." The instructor said, "What if
I call you and you had six drapery orders. Would you make
me pillows?" Heidi continued, "The money that is to be made
 215

is in the custom draperies. I would simply state that I was

fully booked for the time being. I really do accessories
such as pillows as a part of a larger order."
B.K. asked, "Is it proper to put your picture on your
card?" The instructor replied, "It may turn women off.
There are a lot of factors to consider."
Abby said, "Insurance and real estate people use
pictures. I think that's because they want you to know who
they are. They want to legitimize themselves."
The instructor pointed out that the cost of printing
cards becomes a factor. "Remember that color, too, projects
an image." After the break more discussion took place on
image, names, good-will and public relations (P.R.) etc.
M.R. and J.A. discussed the name for their catering
business. "Mary Jo's Catering," "Jo and Mary's Catering,"
"Pasta Delight Catering," "Catering Moda Italiana," were
suggested. M.R. said, "We want people to know our food by
also delivering." The instructor pointed out that one name
can serve two different purposes.
Names for the other businesses were verbally exchanged
among the nineteen women. There was great participatory
action by the entire class. The class ended on the note
that a full page ad in the Beacon Journal cost $5,500. The
statement did not take on a "wet blanket" or negative
effect. Rather, the cost of advertising brought back the
realities of starting a small business.
 216

May 15. 1990. L.B. of Balista and Associates served as

the speaker on business records, setting up the "books".
L.B. began by saying, "I'll tell you why it's important to
pay someone to set up the books. It's to your advantage to
have someone on a retainer basis that charges a flat fee so
you can get the assistance when you need it."
Questions were exchanged back and forth. L.B. asked,
"How many of you plan to work from home?" Many hands were
raised. She said, "Eighteen percent of businesses are
home-based. Agriculture which can be big business is
home-based, too."
The subject came around to laws for a home-based
business. L.B. said.
There's a law pending in the Ohio congress.
There must be a private entrance for the
business. Psychologically it's better to
enter and go down instead of up. If an
auditor comes to the home don't invite them
in. You don't have to. You should have
gotten six letters before an auditor will
appear at home. Rather say that you'll get
your records together and come to their
office. Tax rules are changing everyday.
Call the Ohio Department of Taxation.
Questions were generated and asked at a rapid pace.
L.B. said.
Remember that the 1RS wants to know that
you've deposited all of your money. Your
deposits must match what you bring in. On a
tax return accuracy is essential. Remember
profit is not always money. Keep your bank
statements together. Ninety-nine percent of
those in business cannot reconcile bank state­
ments. You have ten days to call the bank.
 217

Don't allow too much credit. You will be out

of business. Find people you are comfortable
to work with. Remember that there is a
difference between subcontractors and
employees. At the end of the year you give a
subcontractor/independent contractor a 1099.
A rapid verbal interchange and comments continued on
the topics of financing, taxes, money and money management.
Mary asked "What does working at home really mean?" L.B.
answered:
I work at home. There are seven rooms in the
house. That means I can deduct 1/7 of the
utilities and rent as a business expense. You
can't use expenses to throw your business into
a loss, but you can bring the profits to zero.
You must inform the insurance company about
your home-based business. There is, after
all, an increased risk. A car for business
may be needed as would two telephone lines be
needed. Keep a telephone log.
Travel doesn't mean to and from the office.
Eighty percent of cost of travel, meals, and
lodging can be deducted, and 25 1/2 cents per
mile is allowed. Keep track of travel day by
day. All mileage is essential to note. The
day, the beginning odometer reading and the
end reading, where went, why went, and what do
you expect to happen? That is all essential
in keeping a log.
May 29. 1991. Clerk of Courts— B.C. spoke to the
class. The subject of a small claims court was discussed.
B.C. asked and commented:
When do you use a small claims court? You
don't necessarily need an attorney. If you've
seen people's court it's much like that. For
$15 you can file a statement. You must have a
correct full name and address of the person
you want to sue. It's frequently a case of
who's organized and the best prepared.
Victoria; "It enlightens you to go to court."
 218

Mary; "What if the person is not working?"

B.C.; A bank attachment is done. That's the
clean way. Personalities are not involved. Next
would be a property attachment.
A discussion on the details of the Business Plan
followed. The instructor had written a new case study
business plan for PACE. She felt that the version in the
curriculum was inadequate so the instructor and J.F. used
their initiative to write a new case. The instructor
warned, "Don't forget to keep a copy of the plan you write
for yourself."
The following three weeks in June were spent on the
instructor's private student interviews concerning their
business plans. The instructor was firm that she did not
want the researcher present. She felt that income
disclosure and a person's private business plans were not to
go beyond her office. She felt very strongly about that
principle.
In the meantime, this researcher did first-hand
interviews. Trust, by now, was firmly in place with the
students. This researcher was told "secrets", some of which
were not told to the instructor. This researcher is quite
certain of that, because she was told so by a reliable
source. Other information was shared with both, the
instructor and this researcher.
Abby: My ideas were broadened when I came to
this class. I realized what my potential is.
My parents and I went into the restaurant-bar
 219

business a long time ago (1975). They acted

as mentors along with my grandfather who was
an inventor and my uncle who owns a siding
business. These family members have all acted
as mentors and networkers to others for me.
Things I didn't reveal on the form is that I
need to focus. Even when I started this
course, I was helping real estate people.
The conversation turned to money and she didn't
elaborate how. Abby revealed that as a (WEGO) Board of
Directors member she was not eligible to get financial aid
from them. She had needed $1,000 to start her business.
She saved from jobs, scraped and scoured for herself. The
business was limping along when she came to VBO. When asked
how she saw WEGO and VBO she stated that the VBO curriculum
was much more thorough. WEGO was not nearly as intense and
offered workshop types of assistance. "Both organizations,
she said, were helpful to the Akron area."
Other sources of assistance and potential funding were:
1) The Women's Network is good, but doesn't have seed money.
2) NOW, she felt, had become offensive to women. 3) The
Akron Board of Trade— I've been a speaker there many times
for different types of businesses. My health plan is
through them and applicable to anyone who reports to the
Board of Trade. 4) Small Business Association and 5) Akron
University. The problem in 1990 was that educational
support was available but not financial assistance for small
business start-ups.
 220

Graduation. Graduation at the Tangiers restaurant on

June 29, 1990, was a gala event (Appendix A, Exhibit 15).
The luncheon and ceremonies were held in the grand ballroom,
which was quite elegant. Gold and reds permeated the room
with wine carpeting and a dark parquet floor area was used
for the buffet set up, speaker area and awards ceremony.
Nineteen women and two men were dressed elegantly for
the occasion, as were the (AAE) Akron Area Entrepreneurs who
were former graduates. Each student was eager to introduce
their family members to this researcher. An aura of
excitement filled the air. Mayor Don Plusquellic gave a
stimulating speech on the state of small business in the
Akron area. He commented on small business growth in the
Akron area. He congratulated the VBO program on their help
in the growth of small business ventures. Frank Pichichero,
the Director of the Adult Vocational Services and Conrad C.
Ott, Superintendent of the Akron Public Schools were also in
attendance as well as many of the VBO Advisory Committee.

Summary

The process suggested by Gartner (1985) for new venture

creation and adapted by this researcher for tracking and
evaluation of the program was a continuous and necessary
part of the entire project.
Basics were covered during phase one of the program,
Bevond A Dream. Competency awareness for starting a
 221

business was building during phase two of the program— PACE.

Creative application of the competencies during the
formation of a business plan was followed through well on by
the instructor. The entire VBO curriculum worked well for
the nineteen women as well as the instructor.
The eight barriers to women starting businesses were
well attended to during the course. Both Bevond A Dream and
PACE addressed those eight barriers, which interfaced well
with the adapted Gartner (1985) model. Each of the Gassman
barriers were specifically discussed during the course
curriculum. The barriers and model interacted well with
each other during the twenty weeks. The thinking across
dimensions proved very useful in theory development for a
curriculum. The VBO program recognized the importance of
the interactions of these variables.

Outcomes
The Fourth Dimension of the Framework

Each student was interviewed by this researcher at the

end of the VBO class. This interaction provided insight as
to the immediate class outcomes. One year after the
graduation ceremony attempts to contact each of the nineteen
female VBO student graduates were made again by this
researcher. Many telephone calls were made until it was
determined that only seventeen of the nineteen could be
located.
 222

One Year Later After the June. 1990 Graduation

Abby felt when asked about Akron^s politics that the

Councilmen don't do anything. Because the instructor was
now going into politics, she expounded on the importance
of women in small business entering the political arena.
Mary stated, they were there to cut ribbons and look good
but offer little else. Her view of the political
environment was strongly negative. She mentioned that D.A.,
a former VBO class graduate, went to Washington, DC to try
and get money for a kid's center. She needed $25,000 for
parking, gym equipment, etc- The Community House was going
to pay her way to Washington, DC except for food. However,
upon calling her Councilman he said, "I'm filling out my
taxes. I don't have time or money to give to something like
that."
Public policy is administered and made by politicians.
Whether there is or isn't sympathy for small business is a
political fact of life. Akron was and is a part of this
political system that does address small business issues.
These women were concerned with the barriers to entrepre­
neurship for themselves. These women realized that the
policy for new venture creation would directly affect them.
Abby had tenacity, spunk and courage. Her entrepre­
neurial ideas were wonderful but difficult to tie-down and
implement. The instructor said to this researcher one year
later, "She's always in a problem situation. She has too
 223

many ideas and becomes scattered when trying to do them

all."
Heidi had started her custom draperies, Decorative
Draperies by Peggy. Her Mom's decorator is in the same
business and serves as a role model. She mentioned that
her father, a retired auditor, also had served as a mentor.
Heidi said, VBO is motivational and has kept
me on my toes. It has been very constructive.
The networking is marvelous. With two small
children today two incomes are necessary.
I've also sold Avon on the side.
A year later, Heidi had moved and gone on with her
business, which had grown. Her husband was interested and
did some of the installation. He had made extra money, too.
"I've had a steady flow of business," Heidi stated, "and
will take on up to three projects at one time. I've had
business cards made, and many of my clients have come
through word-of-mouth."
Heidi had gone back to Akron University for Interior
Decoration II. "It's helping me help the customers," P.P.
related. "I've also gotten a woman to work with me. We
also do projects for school together."
This researcher originally thought that Heidi
would be successful. As Heidi commented on her PACE
evaluation form, "This class has helped me to not get
discouraged and to solve problems in an analytical, logical
manner. It is great to get feedback on my ideas and obtain
 224

new ideas from others who may perceive things differently

from me."
Victoria (Produce stand). She said at her interview:
"I have enjoyed class very much. I do wish we had some
class time to go over some of the material handed out in
class. I think a little more time spent and explaining
bookkeeping would have been helpful to some of the class
members. I'm glad I took this class. Thanks to the staff."
The May 1990 interview indicated that an architect was
coming out tomorrow to draw up the plans for Victoria and
her husband so they could get bids on the electrical and
plumbing.
We've decided to go one story, she related.
We're going to use weather vanes to give the
building a country effect. Ted, my husband,
took eight weeks to find all of the pricing,
but the ideas are coming along real fine.
We've gotten our vendor's license and Federal
I.D. number. We were going to be partners, my
husband and me, but money became an issue
because I am a widow. The kids are now trying
to get their greedy fingers into the money.
(It was at this point in the interview that Victoria
told the researcher about her son on death-row, referred to
on page 137 in this research. She also talked about her
second husband, referred to on the same page in this
document.)
Victoria went on to say, I love running a business.
It's wonderful. It's nice to get employees to do
something. I probably, on a personal basis, have had
a lot of things to go through. I've had to regroup
which takes time. I'm tired of this process. If I
don't make it, it won't matter. If it (the produce
stand) doesn't go, what difference does it make?
 225

I'll go to Florida. I was a service brat. I've

always wanted a business since I was a kid.
One year later this researcher found that the produce
business never started. One classmate told me over the
telephone that she thought it had EPA approval and was ready
to break ground when the Gulf War started. "Gas became
scarce and very expensive," said Victoria. "That's what our
business was dependent upon. We took a $2,000 loss, but so
what? I can take up to a $3,000 loss on my taxes. We
thought and thought but finally said 'No' to the idea."
Victoria went on:
I'm now working in a nursing home as the
staff coordinator. I'm also in charge of
scheduling. I'm moving to a different
coordinator job next week. OJT (on the job
training) is most useful. I hope to move to
Florida soon and go into the nursing home
business. There's a great deal of money to be
made. I still will go into my own business
someday.
The instructor commented on Victoria to the researcher,
when told that the business never started. The instructor
said, "All that she was in class for was to get attention
and be known. I didn't think that she had any intention of
starting a business. She wanted to be 'queen of the hill'
and acted as if the business was about to bloom."
During the telephone interview, Victoria seemed as
verbal as usual. Rapid speech erupted over the telephone.
It was difficult to bring closure to the conversation. She
finished by stating that "Of course the government owns you.
I do hate that about small business."
 226

This researcher left the interview wondering if the

enthusiasm for life is part of her thought planning process
without any of these ideas coming to fruition? The
challenge seems to be in the planning process. Actuality
may never be seen.
This researcher then called upon Mary.
Marv stated; In June of 1991 things in
general and she herself were in a confused
state of mind. I'm sort of in limbo. I have
so many vast interests. I'm thinking about
going back to school and learning about
programming for day camps. I do housecleaning
for some people. PTÀ and WEGO are my involve­
ment. Since I don't have time for the WEGO
board meetings I may resign. I do some
housecleaning, but it's nothing I want to do
forever. At least I can get into it without
much of an investment.
Mary is still doing housecleaning on a limited basis.
She didn't know if she wanted to hire any other employees.
Mary related, "All of my family has worked in factories. My
uncle who repairs washers is the only entrepreneur. Other
mentors are in my church."
Mary said: L.W. (a classmate) is a go-getter.
She is in my church. I'm a procrastinator.
It's helped me a lot, though, to talk
intelligently about my business. I feel more
comfortable talking and networking. Cleaning
is still appealing. I don't need any startup
funds.
Mary was a very knowledgeable student and asked very
insightful and on-target questions. She was alert and had a
wonderfully questioning mind.
G.A.: Adams Assisted Living for Adults. G.A. was in
the business a year ago and is still in the same business.
 227

Growth had not taken place because of a lack of money. She

was still looking for financing. Her three senior citizens
were still with her in a non-licensed home, which was more
like a halfway house for friends. G.A. a year later
exhibited the same unenthusiastic self. Conversation still
was a matter of prying. Her phase 2 evaluation form said:
"The classes are great. I think the time is drawn out too
long."
J.A.: (Italian Immigrant). Her daughter, M.R., did
the talking for her in 1990 and again in 1991. M.R.
fvounaest class member) stated they were doing about one
catering job a month with emphasis on Italian food, although
they cook all types of food. They both were attending the
Small Business Management course. They have placed ads in
two local newspapers: The Suburbanite in South Akron and
the West Side Leader in West Akron. They have brochures at
the Fair Lawn Bridal Shop and occasionally promote with food
samples at the bridal store. M.R. thinks that she and her
mom will take Small Business Management II in the Fall of
1991.
A.P.: Creations by Alleen. A.P. had an artistic
background. As of May, 1990, she was debating about having
her ideas produced by a large ceramic company that would
also produce the molds for the items so she could make the
items herself. She didn/t, however, want to end up hiring
employees, etc. Her two brothers and a sister in real
 228

estate have served as role models. Her mentors were the VBO
classmates.
In May of 1990 she was very enthused about a new local
program called Team Work. Women are offering this course
around the country. The goals of the program were to have
four women in teams take on a venture.
Finances were a real problem for A.D. Start-up money
for manufacturing the items herself was unavailable. She
therefore was selling Amway. No start-up capital was
necessary.
One year later, August, 1991, A.D.'s critters were
still "perched" on the shelf. However, she was also into
biomagnetics and aloe. "There is a pad that people sleep on
for pain," she said. "I know a man who ran a health store
and is into that. I'm going to a trade show in Cleveland
tomorrow to learn about this."
A.D.'s pleasant nature and curious nature was still
exhibited. Like many, start-up capital was difficult to
find. Her phase 2 evaluation form said, "There should be
more class discussions and active participation with handed
out literature." This researcher would agree with the
remark, although felt that the instructor thought they
should be able to digest the material on their own. Time
for discussion was minimal, at best, as the class activities
were well planned and kept at an ever moving forward pace.
 229

S .F.; Handy Sandy (Yard Work/Cleaninq/Paintina).

Sandy utilized the class information well. She brought her
idea to the class and by May had done eight jobs. "Anything
I can handle I can. My husband has helped but he's working
again full-time, thank God. So, I can hire someone part-
time if I have to."
We were in business before. We owned a small
neighborhood grocery store and we went
bankrupt. Lack of cash flow was the reason.
We had purchased a nicely established
business. Things looked good on paper but we
didn't have the best accountant. We got poor
advice from a lawyer and filed bankruptcy. My
father kept saying on the way to court, "Don't
do this." The lawyer said this is really all
that we could do. In hind sight, we could
have filed one of those Chapters, like Chapter
Eleven. We didn't have that many bills that
we owed against our assets. That was
seventeen years ago.
S.F. went on to say:
VBO has helped me tremendously. It covers a
lot of subjects I didn't know anything about
or that I had forgotten.
I don't have overhead to keep at home. As a
matter of fact, the jobs I've done so far I've
used their (the clients) equipment and
cleaning supplies. In that way I'm using what
they prefer. If they have it there why
bother. I usually carry stuff in the car.
Hey-wow.
I talked to and interviewed a woman last week
who is on a fixed income. I charge $10.00 an
hour. She said she'd gotten people for $5.50
an hour. I just looked at her and said fine.
I said I had called around and maid service
was $10 to $15 an hour. I discussed this with
the instructor and she said she didn't think
it was a good idea to give an estimate in
advance. It could take six hours instead of
four. She didn't go for the housecleaning but
called back for some yardwork. I feel sorry
 230

for people on a fixed income, but I can't

afford less than $10 an hour. If I hire
someone for $5.50 or $6.00 I have to get $10
an hour.
One year later S.F. said, "I'm working for a janitorial
service that is new to the Akron area. They are also in
Pittsburgh and Youngstown. I'm the operations manager."
S.F. had gone on to learn how to do cleaning
commercially. She said,
I have seen the worst and the best. Smaller
is easier. My husband is a salesman now so I
need a steady income. Hiring is a "real
treat." I hired four or five already who have
never showed up for work or have just stayed
for a day or two. I'm learning by doing!
S.F.'s phase 2 evaluation stated, "I found the course
very helpful and enjoyed both the personnel and speakers."
V.G.; Wedding Veils (Minority). V.G. always seemed
on "the edge" of the class. She was not an outgoing person
at all. She didn't share ideas either and eluded the
researcher's interviewing process. She did report in the
final evaluation form that, "Although I don't plan to start
my business for a year or two, the VBO program helped me and
my business to understand so much about starting a business.
The only regret I have is with myself because I failed to
keep up with the due date of part of my business plan and I
have learned in this class that I need to be able and
confident if I am to start my own business."
This researcher had the sense that V.G. was malingering
along the way and was therefore surprised that she was
 231

eligible for graduation. Yes, the business plan did get

completed! She ended the evaluation form by saying; "I
truly appreciate the effort and time given to me. I
honestly feel now that I am capable of starting a business,
thanks to the instructors, speakers and class."
Upon interviewing her over the phone one year later
V.G. reported:
I am now taking IBM computer training. I have
one child and no money to invest in the
inventory for my business. I made one veil
for one girl. I'm not so certain about
wedding veils anymore. There is so much time
and effort involved.
V.G. had finished high school and went to Akron
University for one semester. She then went into Court
Reporting but didn't finish that either. She did take Small
Business Management I with C.S. and plans on continuing in
the fall with Small Business Management II.
Her case in point is a good example of the single
parent homemakers problem syndrome. She got aid for further
education. However, for her to break the welfare cycle and
go out on her own became extremely difficult.
M.G.: Affordable Framing. M.G. also eluded the
personal interview. She was quiet, shy and nonverbal in
class and sat next to V.G. Her phase 2 evaluation form
indicated:
I found the program very helpful in the way
that it gave me a clearer direction and
definition of a proposed business. Initially,
the concept of owning a business was extremely
vague and quite blurry. Breaking down the
 232

term "Business" from a rather intimidating

mystery into a comprehensible explanation was
probably my greatest lesson from the program.
The instruction in classes was excellent and I
felt the personalized attention was impressive
as well as encouraging. I would recommend
this program to anyone who has ever or is
wresting with the idea to make a stand and
direct the business of their choice.
One year later M.G. was doing her picture framing
business on a part-time basis. She had retained the
accounts that she had before. She said:
I promote through word-of-mouth, go to art
shows and speak to exhibitors as well as
dealers and go into businesses and make a
personal call. I then will pick up what they
want done and go home to my workshop. I am
also going to Akron University to take
education courses. Someday I want to teach
art.
C.H.: Wedding Cakes. C.H.'s evaluation form indicated
that she learned a lot from the class. She felt that the
smaller the class got the more interesting it became because
there was more personal contact. "Everyone had some input
and it was a nice way to learn."
In this researcher's first interview C.H. said:
In terms of equipment for baking, I have
everything that I need. I have loads of pans
of different sizes, a mixer and a lot of odds
and ends.
My role models are my brother and sister. My
sister is also my mentor. She imports gold
and has a Dog Resort Pet Grooming Salon. She
has added a pet cemetery to that business.
I had a flea market before I got pregnant.
That was a high-risk business that I had to
close down. I now continue to do cakes at
home, but many little cakes are not worth my
time.
 233

A year later, this researcher found C.H. at a bakery in

a department store. She excitedly said:
I work 60 hours a week. I bake everything
besides just decorating cakes. It's a
wonderful experience.
I bought some commercial property worth
$150,000 which I got for a 'song'. There is
165 foot frontage. I'm remodeling it into a
home and will eventually have a pastry shop
there— not just cakes. I will then build a
home in back. The land is on a corner where
four townships come together.
She proudly added, "My baby will be three next week."

P .H .: Partv Store. P.H. started in the middle of the

course where she had dropped out the previous year. She was
partially physically disabled. She reported:
I really don't feel like this program is
geared towards single parents and homemakers
like it advertises, but I enjoy the class and
find it educational for people who want to
start a business.
P.H. could not be found one year later. Another person
had her previous telephone number. There was no one listed
on her questionnaire for a forwarding number. B.W., the
instructor, did not have any information either.
B.L.: Custom Tailoring and Children's Wear (Minority).
B.L. said on her second evaluation sheet:
I found the class to be very informative
toward the business aspects of the program. I
really enjoyed learning and working with the
other students with similar ideals and other
interests also.
In her interview a year ago, B.L. said she had most
of her inventory and necessities for sewing and that she
 234

would purchase the fabric after the client expressed her

preferences. She said:
Being competitive is not a problem for me. My
ideas are unique and I love to be profit-
oriented and make money. I had read that
women in business was a negative, but it's
certainly a trend now. I feel good.
My family has served as role models. My
brother for seven years and her uncle who owns
a glass company for thirty years.
My daughter is nine and I do my work while she
is in school. I treat my work as a business.
VBO has been fantastic. I have learned a lot.
All of the details that go into a business are
amazing. I now know how to price items. I
price according to how much goes into the
product. I'm shy but this course has helped
me talk in front of others.
One year later B.L. elaborated on her role model
brother who had been a paraplegic for sixteen years. He is
a glass contractor. She said:
I've been away in Minnesota where he was to
have an operation. My daughter is now 10.
I've named my business "Tailoring for Tots"
and it has grown. I went to college in
Alabama for three years and then came to Akron
because I was in love. I have never gone back
to school. I worked at BMW, Akron until my
daughter was born.
B.L. seemed pleased with her business growth. She was
a fine example of a home-based business that will probably
always remain as such.
S.N.: Letter Circuit. Quiet, S.N. said on her phase 2
evaluation form:
This part of the class was very interesting
and helped me to focus in on my goals.
Everyone became more involved and it was
 235

exciting to see our plans start coining

together. This researcher and B.W.'s
assistant, J.F., sensed no enthusiasm from her
and were delighted that she was capable of
feeling excitedI I would have liked to go
over the reading materials in class, she
added.
The speakers were interesting and knew their
subjects well. VBO is a good program. I
would recommend it. Classes were well planned
and I enjoyed many of the exercises we did,
such as "firing line."
S.N. revealed in the first interview that she had been
a news correspondent for The Beacon Journal. She also had
worked in Washington, D.C. She went on to talk about her
family and their role as role models and mentors.
My mother was ill for a long time with lung
cancer. My dad went into his father's real
estate business. My grandmother took in
foster kids and my aunt is a Notre Dame nun in
an Akron school. She is now no longer the
principal. I've done my letterhead and will
do cards this week. I'm also preparing a
stylebook of things I can do. I like being my
own boss and work well without supervision.
One year later has found S.N. quite fragmented in
her business efforts. Besides "Letter Circuit," she has
"Sweetheart Baskets and Gifts." "I design them
individually. I did some fantasy baskets with ballerinas on
them for a group of dancers. I advertise in newspapers and
on bulletin boards."
When asked where she was working, she said at Osmond's
Pies at night and a kennel in the daytime. "My dad is now
getting remarried, so I'm in the midst of moving out. I
have so much to do."
 236

P.O.; Odum and Associates. (A cleaning and mainte­

nance company.) Her phase 2 evaluation stated, "I would
just like to say that I enjoyed the VBO class very much. It
changed the whole way I think concerning a business and
running it. Thanks a lot."
In her first interview she said:
I'm unemployed right now. I have money to
start my business. I want to be competitive.
I want to make money, a profit.
Society thinks that men are still for certain
jobs. But, I want to be in control. He (my
husband) will be employed. He is starting
with me.
My role models are my sister who does cleaning
for big companies, move outs in Columbus. She
did very good. I've seen everything she did.
As a matter of fact, that's where I got my
experience. I worked for her plus I have a
friend who has owned a few businesses. My dad
is a furnace installer. He works for himself
with a helper.
I already have a few leads. My old boss, I
managed his restaurant, now owns a real estate
company and he's interested in using me and my
company. It's just ready to go. My little
boy don't start school until September. Think
I'll wait until I can give it my all.
I think my credit is very good. Just thought
I could get a loan for a CD store because I
have good credit. I have worked up until the
last two years. I have very good credit. I
changed to a cleaning company. I like it.
I'm learning a lot...the contact. I'm
learning to think things through. The
Business Plan is a big help.
P.O. could not be located. I called her sister who did
not know the telephone number but said she'd have her call
my 1-800 work number. When that did not happen I called and
 237

left messages on her sister's answering machine. No

response.
L.L.R.: Custard Stand. Evaluation of phase 2 said, "I
found the program very informative. I now know a great deal
more than I knew when the class started. I enjoyed the
program very much.
Her first interview revealed much more than this
researcher previously knew. L.L.R. was always neat,
interested but quiet, and very well groomed. She revealed;
When we first got married we owned 150 vending
machines in addition to a family grocery
business. I worked at Sears for 21 years— 7
in children's, 7 in men's, and 7 in jewelry
and cosmetics. Five years ago we bought a
beverage drive-thru, which we spend a lot of
time at. Now I'd like to open a frozen yogurt
and custard stand that would be open only 7
months a year.
We're already entrepreneurs. My father owned
a grocery store as well as my husband's
father. I think being in business is in my
blood. I'm not afraid to tackle it. I've
seen it. I have two grown children at home.
My concern is that opening this stand will
take a lot of money. We have to buy the
property and build the stand. But, I'm
willing to sacrifice to have 5 months off.
The drive-thru is so cold.
I learned about this class in the paper.
There is always something you can learn. The
lectures are great. I love it!
One year later finds L.L.R. still in the drive-thru
business. "It's been 7 and one-half years. There is no big
influence right now to start a custard stand."
 238

This researcher found L.L.R. to be very cautious. If

the drive-thru were sold there should be enough money for
the custard business. This entire process will take
germination of the idea and time.
L.W.; Intimate Apparel Bouticme (Minority). Her phase
2 evaluation stated;
With the class size being smaller it seemed
that more people were able to participate this
time. Some of the speakers we had during
phase 2 were extremely helpful. The informa­
tion the accountant had for the class made
some of us rethink our business. I think with
the information to date gathered from the
instructor as well as the speakers, I could
open my doors up within a year if my financing
goes well.
During the first interview L.W. said:
I don't know. I'm mixed up now. It will take
$15,000 to get a little bit of inventory. I
want the Intimate Apparel Boutique to be in a
century old house, which I would have to buy.
The things I want to do needs money. I don't
know now. I've tried to change my line of
thinking, but I want my business image to
start from day one. The bankers say those
businesses that do well don't need a lot of
money at first.
It's kind of gotten more confusing not knowing
what they would say.
In answer to the question. Do you have any role
models?, L.W. went on to say:
Nobody I know. My husband, however, has his
own business out of our house. He is a sign
painter, a commercial artist. He wants me to
sell lingerie on the Party Plan out of the
house.
My best friend is in real estate. I did that
for awhile. I sent my license back but I do
plan on picking it up again after this course.
 239

I have four children: 2 boys, 9 and 10, and

two girls, 12 and 16. I'm the chauffeur and
it's too much doing real estate. I worked
hard for that license, but I'll get it back.
One year later L.W. called her business Renaissance
Woman. "I'm selling lingerie on the party plan. I do
lunch-time shows in offices, style shows at hotels, and I'm
also into flower arranging."
She continued, "I do two big flower and decoration
shows. One at Christmas and another in Spring. I just did
the centerpieces for a family reunion at the Raddison Hotel.
I put a baker doll in the middle of each cake and used the
baker/cook theme because of the profession of the person."
L.W. always dressed to perfection and had her hair very
attractively pulled back with hundreds of corn braids. This
researcher asked if she still was wearing her hair that way.
The answer was, "Yes, otherwise I could never do all of
these activities if I had to worry about my hair." This
lady exudes confidence and is proceeding nicely.
A.W.: The Whitlock Aoencv. Her phase 2 evaluation
form stated:
This is an excellent program which renders
invaluable information in a helpful and
supportive fashion to anyone with a true
desire to accomplish their goal. The level of
involvement of the community, and the quality
of their assistance attests to the respect
they have for the goals and accomplishment of
the program. I feel fortunate for having had
the opportunity.
In her first interview she said she really didn't have
any role models.
 240

Things sort of come to me. I got married

right out of high school and have gone through
many experiences with the children and my own
health problems. I went back to school to be
a nurse. Because of my back problem, I can't
be involved in clinical nursing.
I will be investing my own funds. My present
husband is a supportive person. From
insurance awards I have received several
"windfalls." I bought a computer for my home.
I had no ideas before VBO how to get information.
This is the nuts and bolts information I needed.
It may take a little longer or it may be a little
quicker, but this business is definitely going to
happen.
One year later A.W. said;
I've had health problems— my back— and have
been in a rehabilitation hospital and
receiving disability. Stress, of course,
makes my back act up. I've been learning
stress management.
Now I think I can go forward with my agency.
I am going to do some direct mailto
disability cases. Right now I have no
employees. The business has been on hold,but
I want to get on with it now.

Summary

One year later after the course was over this research­
er had experienced no surprises in the results of the
telephone interviews. Those women who had exhibited high
classroom motivation had, in fact, gone back to school for
more education and were growing their businesses slowly.
Those who were unsure about a business startup still
remained so. None of the welfare recipients had enough
assurance that they could do better on their own. The
 241

welfare basic payments in addition to the medical benefits

were hard to replace in the starting of a new business.
Besides, these women had no sources for start-up capital.

Conclusions

This was the story of the nineteen women VBO graduates

and their life a year later. What conclusions can be drawn
about these outcomes for these women? Was the program
motivational and business content filled enough for the
actual business start-up process to take place? What VBO
program recommendations might be made for greater success in
start-ups? What further research may be recommended or
evolve out of these findings? Chapter five has synthesized
the various messages from these women's many voices.
 CHAPTER V
Summary. Implications and Recommendations

Introduction

Using the Adaptation of Gartner's (1985) A Model for New

Venture Creation (page 19), each of the four areas of major
concern for new business startups are summarized here. The
women themselves, the Akron environment, the process for
Ventures in Business Ownership (VBO) education, and the
outcomes for these women have been addressed. Based on
these findings, there are implications for the theory and
framework of new venture creation. Implications for further
research are then addressed. College professors, adult
educator specialists, scholars of entrepreneurship and other
practitioners will also find these implications useful.

Summary— The Women in The VBO Class

The nineteen women who graduated in June of 1990 from

the Ventures in Business Ownership program varied in age
from 28 to 58. Five of them were black Americans and the
other fourteen were Caucasians. One of the fourteen
Caucasians was an immigrant from Italy.

242
 243

Background

The women's levels of knowing were perceived through

listening to their comments and observing their actions for
twenty weeks. This researcher also spoke to these VBO women
graduates one year later. Starting up the ladder from
silent passive listening with little dialogue to the inner
voice of subjective knowledge that was accepted through
family standards, most of the women's knowledge was found
to be at the procedural level. Conscious, deliberate and
systematic analysis was taking place by these females. A
transference of knowledge was rapidly developing. Knowing
started to become connected through sharing with each other.
A few of the women in class went to the highest level
phase of structured knowledge. These women accepted the
responsibility for evaluating and revaluating their
knowledge assumptions. Self-knowledge began to develop.
Their own caring, imagery of relationships and ability to
do real talking progressed throughout the twenty weeks.
Barrier number five; Ambivalence About Being the
Competitive, Profit-Oriented Deal Maker related to these
women's backgrounds as well. The barrier was addressed with
strong individual reactions from the women. They wanted to
be strong. Some of them, however, had difficulty with the
concept.
Barrier number seven: Balancing Home and Work Roles was
well addressed in the class work and recognized as very
 244

important by the women. Discussions were centered around

balancing the work load with family responsibilities.
Brainstorming on specific issues was very helpful. The
interactions of the firing line exercise further stimulated
creative thoughts concerned with the juggling of women's
roles. Through firing line questions that were asked by
each other and addressed to each other prompted strong and
quick verbal responses.

Role models. The answers of the VBO participants to

their role models ranged from family members, brothers,
brother-in-law, mothers, two uncles, brother and friends to
places where they worked, other business people, a previous
employer who was a small business owner and business owners
in general in the area of Akron. Role models were perceived
by these women to be very helpful and important. All of the
nineteen women could identify with someone in that role.

Mentors. Many of the VBO women reported having mentors.

Answers ranged from one father, two mothers, several
sisters, one brother, two uncles, one husband, one family, a
few close friends and one boss to everyone I love. A few of
the students answered, "I really don't have any mentors."

Networks. The Advisory Committee, Akron Regional

Development Board— ARDB, Akron Area Entrepreneurs— AAE,
Women's Entrepreneurial Growth Organization— WEGO, Small
Business Administration— SBA, Service Corps of Retired
 245

Entrepreneurs— SCORE, Akron Vocational Services— AVS, and

other companies acted as networks according to these VBO
participants.
Role models, mentors and networks that included other
business contacts were perceived to also be very important
to these women. Interactions both verbal and through
participant behaviors were valued by these VBO students.
Contacts included "Companies in my same business line", to
"places I shop," "friends," "neighbors," "former customers
of mine," "others in my field," "lawyers," and "teachers".
It was generally acknowledged by these women that role
models, mentors, and networks are essential for business
success. Entrepreneurship does not start to grow inside of
a vacuum. Personal interactions are necessary for the
netweaving process to occur.
The research on role models, mentors and networks as
positive influences was also born out in this qualitative
research study. Comments by the class participants were
made about the role of these influences on themselves. The
development of women own networks was perceived to be very
positive. Akron seemed to rank high in these efforts. From
this researcher's perspective, the Akron Regional Develop­
ment Board served a very positive function of unifying
information concerning network organizations in the tri­
county area. Barrier number six dealing with isolation from
business networks was being addressed "head on" in Akron.
 246

The organizations are there. The individual motivation by

some, however, was lacking.

Ethnic backgrounds. The five black Americans, with the

exception of the one identified as minority, were perceived
by this researcher as being on the outer edge of the class­
room activity. They were well distributed among the groups
for activities that the instructor had set up. However, the
intensity of their participation was noticeably lacking
during this researcher's observations. When called on they
participated, but spontaneity was lacking. The instructor
frequently tried to pull them into conversations, but their
short responses were not elaborative.
It was not until the subject of small claims court was
focused on that several of the blacks became verbal. Their
personal experiences with money and legal problems evoked a
"multi-voiced" choir. The issues for these black women
were, to some extent, separated apart from those of the
Caucasians. This is an issue to be addressed in a VBO
course. The white women's issues may be different than
those of the blacks or other minorities. The instructors
should pay continual attention to issues of racial origins
and other minority problems.

Experiences

Many women have good natural entrepreneurial experiences

that are very useful to small business startups. In Bevond
 247

A Dream self-realization of these abilities for the develop­

ment of self-esteem was vital to the program. A consider­
able effort was directed in that direction during the first
five weeks— ten sessions of class.
Reflection in class by the women themselves was
necessary. This focus was skillfully handled by B.W., the
instructor. The women were constantly looking back and
examining their past experiences. Experience in their field
of interest, management experience and previous experience
in a small business were all useful. Eight of the students
had worked in small business and four of those had other
small businesses of their own or with family members.
Barrier number eight, the Development of a Management
Style was well addressed and handled in VBO. Household
management skills were emphasized for those with less
confidence. Many proud accomplishments by these women were
verbalized throughout the course.

Motivation

Motivation for starting a business varied within the

various class members themselves. Some of their motivations
were verbally expressed, written down and/or acted out.
Personal responsibility for a business startup was accepted
by those fourteen women who were highly motivated. The
other five did not yet accept this personal responsibility.
Their goals for a business were far in the future.
 248

Need for control. This motivation was clearly expressed

by sixteen of the women. The other three, only a few, may
not have yet considered this as a direct motivation in their
lives. The "can-do" attitude by the class did cause a
ripple effect. More and more women said, "I can do it," as
time went on. Because personal contact is limited by envi­
ronmental factors, each woman then had to consider their own
personal environment, which they did analyze for themselves.
Risk acceptance. Research shows that most entrepreneurs
are not swashbuckling venturers with not a care in the
world. In fact, with the women this researcher has taught
and observed it seemed that women were more cautious and
afraid in the long-run of failure. On the other hand, these
women seemed to be able to tolerate ambiguity for long
periods of time. One class member said "My entire life has
not been certain. I am sort of ambiguous. I'm used to that
feeling."
The risks were many to these women. Financial risks
meant putting everything on the line. Savings, pensions,
mortgaging the house again, down-scaling the family life­
style or using money that was earmarked for a child's
education were all considered as monetary risks.
The social and familial risks also followed for these
women. Much time was taken away from traditional and family
activities, the development and maintenance of personal
relationships, entertainment, and political involvement, as
 249

well. In some cases, the family could have felt deserted

and/or neglected. Emotional and physical health and well
being were not ignored, however, and a good healthy balance
between work and home was emphasized in the class work.
Career risks in the form of missed opportunities, ignoring
advancement possibilities through the corporate ladder, and
security factors were given up by many of these women, if
they even ever existed.
Organizational risks also could have developed. Making
quick decisions without complete information on hand,
however, were highly discouraged in the VBO classes. In
many cases, some of the risk was inherent in a given oppor­
tunity. Risk management was addressed and risk was closely
scrutinized. These women kept risk to a minimum. They did
not have money to squander and gained control throughout the
course with more information and access to information/
mentor sources. These women were not fast starters who
plunged ahead. They were, instead, slow and thoughtful risk
managers.
A. valued life style. To be independent and their own
boss sounded great to many of these VBO participants. Not
many immediately became independent as a result of this VBO
course, however, because of threatening barriers such as
access to start-up and/or growth money. Barrier number one:
Difficulty Obtaining Credit proved to be a very valid
 250

reality in Akron. The possibility and practicality of

finding start-up money seemed very dim to these women.

Education

The educational background of these women varied from

third grade to completion of college. Eighteen had a high
school education diploma or a GDE equivalent. There did not
seem to be any correlation between education completion
level and the start up of a business. Both groups were
overwhelmed to some degree with the risks and problems
ahead.
Barrier number two: Limited Exposure to Math and
Science indicated what might be expected. Only a few even
related basic math to what they were doing. Basic science,
except for the nurse, was far from their personal realm. A
year after the course ended, five had gone back to school
for further education.

Summarv— The Environment

of the Tri-Countv Area

The environment of the tri-county area for these VBO

women was seen by this researcher as being influential to
the actions and outcomes of these series of educational and
informational lessons for these nineteen women. The
entwined environmental policies and actions did affect the
start-ups of small business in the Akron area.
 251

Social Environment

The smokestack workers of Akron have had to be and

continue to be trained for new jobs. Higher technical
innovations have called for newly learned job skills: an
example would be from coal and shell production lines to the
technological expertise of making polymers.
The social environment of change for women is forever
pulling at them. Working women were and continue to be
confronted by their own cultural ties, not only on a local
level but also a world wide level. Changes in these women's
life patterns through negative changes encompassed three of
the women. Positive pulls by mentors, investors, partners
and customers also positively influenced six of the women.
Being in a niche for a certain market also assisted these
aspiring entrepreneurs. Specialized and localized services
and products were developed by fifteen of the women.

Economic Environment

The economic climate of Akron and the entire tri-county

valley area was perceived as being negative, not only by the
students and instructor but this researcher as well. The
climate in 1991 seemed worse than 1990. Layoffs and
closings were mounting at the time this researcher did her
follow-up calls. Victoria, the verbally interactive woman
did not even begin to start a produce business. The war in
the Gulf caused gasoline prices to rise and perhaps
 252

shortages to occur. An international economic fact of life.

Since trucking was a large part of her new venture, an
opening of a new small business did not happen.
Other women perceived the crime rate to be going up in
the Akron area and more small businesses being attacked and
burglarized as a direct result. "I would work so hard and
all of that can just be taken away," one class voice said
over the telephone.
Unfortunately, the Tri County Area lacks capital and
financing strategies for women's small business start-ups.
No seed money is available to these budding female entre­
preneurs. Even if their credit ratings and banking
relationships have improved; even if their business plans
are fine-tuned; and even if these women have gone to
Ventures in Business Ownership Class and other training
programs, research showed that funding in Ohio is lacking
for the women small business owners.
The major issues for women are the same for women
business owners around the world. "What was most valuable
for me," WEGO's executive director said, "...was listening
to these women talk about the power of women working
together to overcome the obstacles encountered in starting
business: getting financing, not being taken seriously, and
balancing family and business responsibilities" (Lange,
p. 2) . Lange (1990) went on to say, "WEGO's mission is to
empower women to become financially self-sufficient....WEGO
 253

is working to reduce the likelihood that we will spend some

part of our lives (while raising our children or when
elderly) in poverty. We want to make sure that the work of
women counts" (p. 2). The WEGO mission statement says, "Our
first step is to actively recognize and promote WEGO Women.
To let our community know we are here, we work, and we
count1 Let's work together to make our presence known"
(p. 2). The WEGO mission statement says, "Our first step is
to actively recognize and promote WEGO women. To let our
community know we are here, we work, and we count! Let's
work together to make our presence known" (p. 2).
This researcher talked to WEGO's Executive Director in
October of 1991 to find out what economic help had been
given to women in the Akron area. One business had started
using this loan fund but not that of a VBO participant. The
assistance available, however, is at the micro level. This
micro amount of money is not enough to sustain a woman who
wants to get off of welfare.

Political Environment

The political initiatives of 1990 and 1991 have not been

able to curb the deepening recession during this time. The
vast majority of the nineteen women were negative about
politics. They either didn't see politics as a factor of
consequence or said that politicians were "glad-handers."
 254

They shook hands and smiled appropriately but didn't really

care about women starting businesses.
The VBO instructor ran for City Council in Cuyahoga
Falls. She beat out two others in the Primary Election and
faced the Republican incumbent on November 5, 1991. She
beat the incumbent and is now an active Democratic Council-
Woman.

Summarv— Process for New Venture Creation

Did the Bevond A Dream and Program for Acquiring

Competencies in Entrepreneurship (PACE) curriculum fit the
needs of these nineteen women? Were the curriculum
materials satisfactory in their presentation by the
instructor? Is this Ventures in Business Ownership program
properly planned to meet the needs of the single parent,
displaced homemaker? Are the barriers to women entering the
workplace and starting a business addressed in this curricu­
lum? Do the interactions of Gartner's (1985) model for new
venture creation actually take place in the VBO programs?

Advisors/Consultants/Communitv Advisory Committee

The advisors/consultants all directly assisted in the

Akron VBO program in one way or another. Seven of the
fifteen were classroom speakers. Four others added voices
to these seven by actively participating in the critiquing
 255

of business ideas during a class session. Eight partici­

pated in the graduation luncheon and ceremony.
The instructor utilized her Advisory Committee to the
fullest degree. She made maximum use of their own areas of
expertise. She included them in classroom experiences
whenever possible. She was a master at using this Advisory
Committee to its fullest extent.

Recruitment

By the time this research took place it was Akron's

fourth VBO class. Through word-of-mouth, WEGO and other
networks for potential class candidates were contacting the
Akron Public School Adult Vocational Center for further
information. A waiting list was then formed for the Fall of
1990 class.
A small advertisement was placed in the Akron Beacon
Journal. more for publicity and as reminder advertising.
The advertisement was not necessary for class participants
at that time. The instructor's reputation had followed her
from the initial course offering to four years later.

Summarv of the Process; Ventures in Business Ownership

Educational Program

The immediate Institutional and Educational goals of the

VBO program were fulfilled through the twenty weeks of
classroom activity. Linkages between the school and
community were strengthened. The Akron Vocational Center
 256

certainly served small business well and focused on

opportunities for single parents and displaced homemakers.
Educational opportunities were broadened for this audience
and the needs of the small business startups were
excellently addressed.
However, the Economic goals of the program were not
achieved. Positive attitudes may have improved concerning
the Akron Regional Development Board and other tri-county
agencies, but the local economy's positive image did not
seem adequate. The leveraging of local resources for small
business startups did not happen. The addressing of a job
that was compatible with the person's home responsibilities
did take place to some degree, but the reality for welfare
mothers to start a business is extremely difficult, if not
impossible.
The Individual goals of positive attitudes toward
oneself, community and the economy were well tackled by the
classes. The greatest improvement occurred in the area of
self-improvement and self-esteem development. Long range
goals were also properly addressed for those starting an
immediate business. The understanding of potential small
business employers was well thought through. Many of these
women might not start a small business but may end up
working for one. The eight barriers that women encounter
when starting a business were dealt with head-on during the
VBO classes.
 257

Beyond A Dream (Phase 1). This training program package

for the first five weeks part of VBO was extremely
successful. All of the evaluations were excellent and this
researcher was captivated by the dynamic and fluid teaching
style of the instructor.
Self-employment potential and a plan of action for small
business startup was addressed head-on. The women's self-
assessments and skills were well thought through by each
individual. The community support that had been built since
1988 was formidable. Consumers and the competitive market
were well researched as the development of a business plan
proceeded by the women. Resources were addressed and then
the financial needs were apparent. The sources of funding
to this single parent displaced homemaker were not addressed
to any satisfactory degree. WEGO and WWB (Women's World
Bank) were not referred to in class. The minority represen­
tative told me that she was going to investigate WEGO when
she graduated. The abused woman told me that she was not
eligible for WEGO funding because she was on the Board of
Directors. It became apparent that only the woman with
access to money somehow could even dream of going ahead with
her business.

Program for Acquiring Competencies in Entrepreneurship

(PACE) (Phase 2). The program was greatly implemented by
the use of C.S.— Small Management Instructor— who taught
four extra sessions on financials. The goals for more
 258

financial emphasis and importance plus giving the management

instructor a direct contact with women for the Small
Business Management course worked.
The PACE segment of VBO kept the women moving ahead on
their business plan for a critique. The program was
intensive and focused well on the eighteen topics of PACE.
Guest speakers were abundant and served the program in an
exceedingly outstanding way. Each speaker brought auxiliary
materials for reference and matched the instructor's
enthusiasm as well.
The instructor, quest speakers, Board members, AAE—
Akron Area Entrepreneurs— served the individual women well.
Ideas and frustrations were aired and bounced back and
forth. Intensive questioning though the "firing line"
simulation was ongoing during the class periods.
These women all were continually but unknowingly working
on E.V.'s (guest speaker) ten characteristics of a profes­
sional. Deep down honest feelings were discussed in class.
As the group through attrition whittled itself down to
nineteen members, being a team member became quite apparent.
Those who were uncomfortable with this educational environ­
ment dropped out of the course. Individual pride developed.
Direction and goals were focused on throughout the many
challenges and calculated risks. Yes, these women did
laugh. If they didn't have a sense of humor when they
started the 20 week course, the electric ever-changing
 259

environment of class certainly favorably jolted them into

laughing. Change became a challenge through new knowledge.
The competitive atmosphere of class was stimulating and kept
these women constantly challenged. These women were
dedicated to their new goals.
Nineteen women developed competitive business plans.
Competitive meant that the plans were detailed enough to be
presented to possible investors and a financial institution
such as a bank. Competitive meant that the plans were
accepted not only by the instructor but also by a member of
the Advisory Committee as well as C.S., the Small Business
Management instructor. Competitive meant that the VBO
Program in its entirety instilled the need forknowledge and
research by these women to reach their goals.

Summarv— Outcomes of the VBO Program

As discussed, successful outcomes do not necessarily

mean the starting of a business immediately following the
VBO program. Other outcomes as spoken about by Rabbior
(1990) are perfectly acceptable. "If they (criteria for a
successful entrepreneurship education program)make you
think, imagine, consider, wonder, and envision, then they
will have served their purpose. One of the wonderful
aspects of entrepreneurship education is that hopes, dreams,
inspirations, and aspirations are part of the curriculum.
No matter how great of how small, there is the belief that
 260

the world— or some small part of the world— can be better"

(Rabbior, p. 65).
Nine of the women were doing a small business venture
part-time when they started the course. Of these nine, two
of them changed their business idea and the other seven
learned new ways to expand and or be more effective in their
operations. The other ten students did not have a part-time
business in place, but worked on their ideas and came up
with a business plan.
One year later, this researcher found that two of the
nine students who had a part-time business have also gone
back to school at Akron University. Both Heidi and M.G. are
getting more education in their area of business. Of the
ten who did not have a part-time business, three followed
through on the Small Business Management course and are
starting up businesses out of their homes.
Two of the nine women who had a part-time business
changed their plans. L.W. switched from real estate to
lingerie and fashion shows and L.R. switched ideas from a
drive-through carry out with her husband to a custard stand.
Her ambitions to start the stand are a few years down the
road when her husband retires. They then plan on having the
stand 6 to 8 months a year in the Akron area and to spend
the rest of their time in Florida.
Of the ten women not in a part-time business, three have
started a part-time business, one is on the verge of doing
 261

SO and the three who have started are in the Small Business
Management Course. Of the six who haven't started anything,
one is working in a similar business for further experience;
Victoria has changed from the produce idea to home care for
the elderly where she now works; two could not be located
and the other two have changed their idea completely.
This researcher now sees one year later that growing
steps for full-time business startups are taking place by
those women who have had a part-time business. In any case,
these nine women reported that they felt better about
themselves and their method of doing business. They were
more aware of the Akron small business environment and the
political influences at work.
Those three in the beginning start-up phase of business
are still considering these businesses to operate out of
their homes on a part-time basis. Those seven contemplating
business start-ups are working in similar business types.
Two women could not be located after every effort was made.
One was P.O. and her cleaning company and P.H., a handi­
capped mother with five children.
All of these nineteen women agreed that they have
benefitted from this educational program. Slow startups and
growth of their businesses were happening. No, there have
been no quick successes as discussed in class. Self-esteem
development and a positive attitude were ever present among
these women. These women were very grateful for the VBO
 262

program, as indicated on their critique sheets and in a

personal interview conducted by this researcher.

Implications

Gartner's Conceptual Framework for Describing the

Phenomenon of New Venture Creation (1985) is certainly
applicable to the last decade of the 20th century. The
multi dimensional aspect of new business startups says that
entrepreneurship educators must address more than the indi­
vidual. The entire global impact of nations and individuals
with one another in an environment filled with problems
impact each of us and every business startup.
The entrepreneur is more than an individual with
expertise. The environmental and organizational entities
must also be examined in entrepreneurship education. The
individual must seek out environmental resources to compete
in the world market place. The social, economic and politi­
cal climate of the environment must each be addressed. The
variables within these three environments again affect
individuals differently.
The process of entrepreneurship education is most
beneficial when focused on the individual rather than the
business or enterprise. The aim is not to be preoccupied
with teaching the institution of small enterprise, but
rather to center on individuals and their personal
environment. The way one looks at and feels about oneself
 263

and the world is essential to those considering the startup

of a small business. An individual's perspectives and
behaviors come first. Once the individual has become
motivated and has the necessary skills for the specific
small business, then the educational concern can be placed
on the institutional learning. Bevond A Dream (1985)
fulfills that need well in the VBO program. Thinking,
imagining, considering, wondering and envisioning are
successful components of this entire educational program.
The interplay between research, course development and
teaching entrepreneurship is a constantly changing woven
web. As new research concepts emerge from systematic study,
case studies of real entrepreneurs have been written and
entrepreneurship educational curriculum have been formulated
and tried with new pedagogical processes and approaches that
have been suggested. Flexibility of course management with
room to breathe is essential to this new pedagogy.

Recommendat ions

The following recommendations are made based on the

qualitative findings of the study. These recommendations
are clustered into three areas. The first area is concerned
with the implications for theory and the framework for
teaching entrepreneurship. The second are the implications
for pedagogy and practice. The third cluster addresses the
 264

issue of further research that will be useful and necessary

for small venture development courses.

Implications for theory and the framework for teaching

entrepreneurship

Based on these findings, the following implications for

the theory of a framework for new venture creation are
presented. This new framework theory has shown how complex
and multi- dimensional the entrepreneurship phenomenon is.
Combinations of variables make up each new venture. The new
organizational forms evolve through variation. The adapted
framework used by this researcher from Gartner's framework
(1985) provided a way to conceptualize variation and
complexity.
First, the concept of educated entrepreneurs is still
valid. Entrepreneurial knowledge is a cornerstone for
future understanding and possible success of a new venture.
Individuals with expertise are key in the formation of a new
venture. The 19 women indicated the knowledge imparted
during the VBO program was invaluable.
It would be most useful for class participants to under­
stand Gartner's (1985) Model for New Venture Creation. That
information would be helpful if placed up front in the
Beyond A Dream portion of VBO curriculum. Potential new
business entrepreneurs should be aware of the interactive
environment of new business. This is very useful informa­
tion before the idea of a business plan is thought of and
 265

developed. New business entities are not instantaneously

produced. Rather, these new ventures evolve over a period
of time, usually beyond a year. As Gartner (1985) said,
"... an attempt is made to discover how variables from each
dimension interact with variables from other dimensions
(Gartner, p. 698).
Creative thinking should be stressed in entrepreneurship
education courses. On-going understanding of new venture
thinking will aid in the implementation of an idea. For
example, the original and imaginative look the VBO
participants used in naming, structuring and viewing their
own businesses were essential in developing their ideas.
Women entrepreneur's goals are no different than men's
reasons for starting a business. The same entrepreneurship
concepts should be taught to both sexes and minorities,
including the disabled. However, the barriers for women as
researched by Gassman (1988) have shown to be of great value
in this study for the understanding of the special barriers
for women. To address the eight barriers upfront in the VBO
course would be most beneficial to the students. Although
the barriers were all confronted and touched on during
Phases 1 and 2 of the curriculum, the spelling out of the
barriers would provide a useful direction for the focus of
the students.
Entrepreneurship education must be on-going and life­
long. Learning takes place at any age. The women in the
 266

VBO course ranged in age from 28 to 58. Based on these

observations, age did not appear to be a factor influencing
their attitudes or acquisition of entrepreneurial knowledge.

Implications for pedagogy and practice— the process for new

venture creation

Entrepreneurship education for planning and actually

starting a business must be creative, stimulating, organized
and with the achievement goals of the course clearly spelled
out. These goals should be stated upfront so there is no
mistaking what the intended outcomes of the entrepreneurship
education process might be. In this research, the women
addressed the course with the outcomes being a business plan
to start a business, improve and/or expand their present
business, or to address personal needs such as further
education or working in a similar type of business. Some
women were planning a business idea for a few years down the
road. Those who dropped the course were overwhelmed with
the complicated process of starting a business. They did
not realize that other outcomes were perfectly acceptable.
These outcomes as shown on page 19 are useful for the VBO
course students to study and understand upfront in the
course. Therefore, more should be taught about working with
and for other entrepreneurs. Most business is small
business and not all entrepreneurs necessarily start a
business. Students should realize that a wide range of
entrepreneurial behaviors exist.
 267

The case studies of other entrepreneurs (former VBO

students) were good teaching tools. The actual situations
provided opportunities for brainstorming and creative
problem solving through analyzing the pros and cons of
various alternatives. The best alternative(s) were selected
by the student (s) and a plan for implementation of the
recommendation was proposed.
Financial concepts need to be continually stressed, and
were innovatively handled in this Akron VBO class. There
was an "extra" in the Akron curriculum beyond the written
course syllabus and guidelines consisting of nine hours of
work on financials that were taught by the Small Business
Management instructor. This practice was useful in the VBO
program.
Entrepreneurship education should stress the competency
of recognizing and prioritizing work and nonwork roles. The
women carried the burden of both and needed guidance.
Interactive discussions and brainstorming about actual
problems were useful methods for solving real problems.
The self-management role of an entrepreneur should be
stressed in the educational process. Since the women's
businesses were to be small, their competence as a manager
will come into play. If their businesses are to grow, the
entrepreneur's competency for learning and creating new
roles also will be important. However, this phase of the
VBO program should be developed in a stronger manner.
 268

Emphasis in the course should continue on product and

service excellence. This helps ensure against unforeseen
external events that may negatively affect the business. In
this era of new service businesses, this concept needs to be
infused into the course materials. The service component
was stressed to these women students.
Interpersonal communication competence in speaking,
listening, empowering of others, and business etiquette are
important competencies to teach in an entrepreneurship
curriculum. In the interviews it became apparent to the
researcher that those competencies need to be reinforced.
This area should be strengthened in the VBO course.
The vast majority of the women in this study were facing
serious financial problems in establishing their businesses.
Therefore, the issue of start-up funding for small business
must be addressed by the State of Ohio. Innovative welfare
programs in other states should be researched and looked at.
The eight barriers to starting a business were relevant
to the women in this study. Ways to overcome barriers must
be highlighted. New curriculum materials should address
these barriers for individuals who would like to start a new
venture.
Most of the women in this study reported having
networks, role models, and mentors. Relationships with
others should be continually cultivated and stressed.
 269

Exposure to other business people and their problems and

successes also would be helpful.
The Ventures in Business Ownership (1986) curriculum
appeared to be valid. With more financial emphasis (as done
in Akron), with a dynamic instructor (as B.W.) and with an
understanding of the framework for small new venture devel­
opment, this educational program will help women consider
entrepreneurial opportunities.

Implications for further research

For the displaced single parent homemaker seed funds for

business start-ups are needed to assist welfare recipients
in starting a new venture. Most of these individuals have
been on welfare for a long time— generations. Few have
enough cash flow that allows for savings. Few have good
credit. Many would like to get off of welfare, but can't
feasibly envision how it can be done. How can one, then,
start a small business? Where does the capital come from?
Policy makers are considering plans for welfare reform.
Consideration should be given to determine how states might
provide this type of assistance. The financial programs for
small business startups in other states should be researched
and compared. Is there a feasible model that would work in
Ohio? Is there a feasible generic financial model that
would be of benefit to all small business venture
development programs?
 270

Entrepreneurship education will assist budding entre­

preneurs and help to rekindle the entrepreneurial spirit.
This spirit is essential in igniting individuals and groups,
managers and employees, and the desire for individual
excellence to be the best that one can be. Pioneering and
innovation in thinking and actions needs to be promoted.
This study provided an example of how one group of women
were involved in this process.
 APPENDIX A

271
 272

EXHIBIT 1

AKRON PUBLIC SCHOOLS

ADULT VOCATIONAL SERVICES
147PulSinet • A kne,0bio40at • neac35V51C

OITicc ef
DIRECTOR

September 18.1987

Mr. Paul Dombicld

Director of VIP dub
4500 Pilsuski Street
Warsaw, Poland

Dear Mr. Dombicki:

Please accept our invitation to be a member of the Advisoiy Committee for a new program
offered by the Akron Public Schools Adult Vocational Center called "Ventures In Business
Ownership". One of only sixsuch programs in the State of Ohio, thispilot effortrepresents
a positive step toward addressing the unique employment needs of the unemployed in üie
Akron area.

The success of any entrepreneurship training program depends, in large part, upon the level
and degree of support and assistance provided by the local business communier. Your
willingness to serve on the Advisory committee will demonstrate your commitment to our
city's economic future, and we value your input

The committee has been established primarily to assist in promoting the V B O program,
recruiting participants through referral, arranging for counseling opportunities, reviewing
business plans, forming a group of business consultants, and providing resource materials.

The firstmeeting of the Advisoiy Committee will be held on Monday, September 28,1987
at 8:00 a.m. in the Conference Room of the Akron Regional Development Board,
I Cascade Plaza-8ih Floor, in downtown Akron.

I will contact you soon to discuss your availability on this worthwhile project.

Sincerely,

Barbara J. White
X'BO Instructor
 273

EXHIBIT 2

AKRON PUBLIC SCHOOLS

ADULT VOCATIONAL SERVICES
WfëA aumt • Alm .0bi»4<X )B • P im a tU M lC

Officer
DIRECTOR $ e p t « s b e r 14, 1987

Attached it a futile Scrvlca Aaaousccscst sagardlz* a aev program talag

offered by the Aleos Publie Seboels Adult Vocational Ciatar eallad
'VEhTURTS IK 8USXKESS OUTSESBXP".

VBO la a pilot program (one of six la tbe State of Ohio) sponsored by the
Division of Vocational and Career Education, Ohio Department of Education,
and represents a unique opportunity for single parents and homemakers to
explore the possibility of achieving financial independence through self-
employment.

The 20-veek program addresses the special needs of single parents and
homemakera who, because of lack of educational training, self-confidence
or traditional support systems, have not been able to enter the job market.
Curriculum includes personal assessment and classroom instruction, as wall
as individualised counseling and consultation with area business owners
and managers.

Ac Akron's first VBO Instructor, X am ecclted about tbe program and Its
potential impact on our ceunlty. I hope y w will share in this excitement
by airing our PSA as soon and as often as possible.

If you have any questions or cormcnts, please feel free to contact me at

$29-5732 or 929-5756.

Sincerely,

Barbara J. White
VBO Instructor
Adult Vocational Services
 EXHIBIT 3 274

AKRON PUBLIC SCHOOLS

ADULT VOCATIONAL tSRVlCES
147 VêA • o w t • A kna, OWe 44306 • FAeat SS3-B142

Offiei tt
DM CTOR S c p te A e r 1 4 , 1M 7

7RDSS mSASS
D a te : S e p t c s b c x 14 , 1987
Contact; Sarbara 3, Kbit*
253-5142
Subject: TTSTITIS IK 8CS1K8SS (VKZS5SZP — sew txalalas eppsrtualtj
for aingle parent* and bos maker* (K-7}*

*** FOR I K Z D I A H SZLZASS ***

The Akron Public School* Adult Vocational Center la eurreatlj offering m '

nev progran called *’TZK7VR£S IN B7S1KISS (RrNRRSSXP" (VBO) for aingle parent*

and bonenaker# intereated in atarting their cvn buaineaaea. Sponaorad by the

Ohio Departs cot of Zducation, Diviaion of Vocational and Career Education,

the 20-week progrès offer* an alternative to aingle parent* and hosesakera

who, becauie of gap* in educational training or a lack of a elf-confidcnee

and adequate aupport ayatma, have been unable to aecure mploysent la the

traditional job sarket. VBO provide* peraonal aaaeaascnt and claaaroem

inttruetlon, aa well aa individual counaeling by local buaineaa apart*.

Curricula include* aaaeaaing entrepreneurial potential, preparing formal

buaineta plant and financing propoaala, and aeeuring the technical aaaiatance

necetaary to atart a asall buaineaa. Barbara Vbite, preaident of the

Cuyahoga Fall* Chasber of Co=erce, la tbe VBO Inatructor.

Deadline for application* la Septecber 25 for claaaea beginning In October.

Applicant* suat be certified by the Adult Vo-Zd Center, and tranaportation and

child care aaaiatance la available. For more Inforsatlon, contact the Adult

Vocational Center at 253-5142.

 275

EXHIBIT 4

APPLICATION FOR TRAINING

A K R O N PUBLIC S C H O O L S
ADULT VOCATIONAL SERVICES
TOLL • SERVICE • CENTER
147PvfcSucei • Akoa.Ohio4430* • Ftaoae(21Q2S3<5U2
PERSONAL INFORMATION . training FROCRAM .
SOCIAL SECURmr* .
NAME _______

PR£îÇ«.T A PPRIS:
— =y
PHOÆN^ OATEOFBUtTH

EDUCATION YEAR(S) DIDyou SUBJECTSSTUDIS)

NAME k LOCATION OF SCHOOL ATTENDED GRADUATE?

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

HIGH SCHOOL

COIXEK

OTHERTRAINING

FORMER E M PL O \‘ERS (LlSTEaOwiASTTv.OE'-CLOYERS. starting V.UHUST ONE FIRST)

DATE NAME k ADDRESS OF EMPLOYER SAURY POSITION REASON FORLEAVING
MONTH AND YEAR

I It il Ac policy of Ac Alsoti Public Schooli A u idueaeaul ^

s ig n a t u r e - iBiwaci. cnçloÿmcu p o p in * . uid lovicci uc elfcmd I
i viAeus R|inl ID net, color. U Boul origin, ux, nligiea. |
DATE ____ IkiRfic^.orcft. f
DO NOT WRITE BELOW THIS LINE
INTER\TE%ED*Y: DATE ASSESSMENT:
TUITION SOURCE
ELlCIBILirriKFO.

COURSE TEST DATE

pretrainincdate reapino

SPECIAL in st r u c t io n s MATH ____________

INTSlVlcW SCHEDULED
 276
Exhibit 4 (continued)

V ¥

VENTURES IN BUSINESS 0\W ERSHIP

Participant Information

Personal Information

N a m e __________

Binbdate. .Age.

Address _ ,Zip_

Home Telephone f ) - ,Business Telephone £ X.

Sex: Female ______ Male,

Elisbilia
Name of spouse:_________

yatpes.and agfs pf cMldren

Are you currently employed?

Full time______________ Part time

What isyour family monthly income? (net) i.

3. Where Did You Hear^bout The V B O Program?

 277

Exhibit 4 (continued)

4. Emnlo^ment Background

Type of Employment_____________________ Duties and Responsibilitiei;

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

5. Educational Background

Grade Completed (Circle One)

8 or less 9 10 11 12 (or GJEJ>.) 12+

Specialized Training _________________________________

Hobbies and Interests

6. V.'hat Ts Your Business Idea?

 278
Exhibit 4 (continued)

7. Business Financing Possîbilîtîes

1. Do you own your home? yes no

2. Do you have a car? yes no

3. Do you own any other real proper^? yes no

4. Do you have any savings? yes no

5. Have you ever had a loan? yes no

6. Do you have any outside sources of income? yes no

8. Expectations For This Program

Please express your interestin oryour expectations for participatingin thisprogram.

9. Agreement

If you are selected as a program participant, do you apee to attend the required
sessions and prepare tbe needed materials for completion of the training program
as outlined in the program Tact Sheet*?

Signature of Applicant

Date

Signature of Program Interviewer

Date
Example 8
 279
Exhibit 4 (continued)

AKRON PUBLIC SCHOOLS

ADULT VOCATIONAL SERVICES
147 Park Street • Akron. Onio 44308 • Pnone (216)283-5142 KJIL • SEEVICE • CENTER

\TENTURES IN BUSINESS OWNERSHIP

PARTICIPANT AGREEMENT

This agreement ismade between and the

Adult Vocational CenteroftheAkron Public Schools toestablishgraduationrequirementsforthe

Ventures inBusiness Ownership (VBO) Program.

Iunderstand thatin ordertoreceivea certificateofcompletion fortheV B O Program, Imust comply

with the following:

1) No participant shallmiss more than four (4)oftheregularlyscheduled classes

throughout the20-week course. Absence from two (2)consecutive classesshall
resultinautomatic withdrawal from the course, exceptin the case of extenuating
circumstances (e.g.,death inthefamily or illness)as documented.

2) Participantsmust submit a completed four-partbusinessplan forreview and

approval by the V B O Instuctorpriortotheend ofthecourse in orderto complete
theprogram and graduate.

Itisunderstood thatParticipants who fulfilltheV B O requirements as above stated, graduatethe

VB O program, and starta business areendtled toenroll,freeofcharge, in the Small Business
Management Program instructed by Charles Smith through Adult Vocational Services,provided
enrollment occurs within twelve (12) months ofgraduation.

ParticipantSignature Date

VBO Instructor Date Coordinator Date

Adult Vocational Services
 280

EXHIBIT 5

A PROFESSIONAL TEACHER IS.,

FLEXIBLE — A person who likestoplaywith ideas and iswilling to change \iewpoints and
looks for new solutions.

OP£N*MINDED — A person who isaware ofwhat isgoing on and iswillingto learn from
others. An open-minded person is not defensive.

EsDEPENDENT - A person who thinks on one’s own and makes up one’s own mind. An
independent person is not unduly influenced by others.

SENSITIVE - A person with keen empathy who strives to be aware of other people’s
thoughts and feelings and social problems that need solutions.

PERSISTENT - A per#son who concentrates on personal goals and has intense motivation
to accomplish objectives even in the face of hea^ obstades.

REALISTIC — A person who is aware of the complexi^ of situations, but is not

overwhelmed by such obstacles. A realisticperson rejects oversimplifications.

FORESEEING - A person with a high threshold of frustration tolerance, with a long­

term perspective allowing the person to live current uncertainly.

EXPRESSIVE ~ A person with a healthy child-like attitude that is spontaneous. An

expressive person is able to let loose" and communicate one’s real feelings.

CURIOUS ~ A person who tends to ask questions and challenge traditional ways of doing
things.

SELF-ACCEPTING - A person who not only believes In oneselfand who likesthe person
that they are, but is constantly striding to become as much as they can possibly be.

A SKILLED TEACHER HAS T HE ...

Ability to give information,

Abili^ to get information.

Ability to induce application, and

AbiliQf to get along with others.

 281

EXHIBIT 6

W H Y QUESTIONS?

Teachers have many reasons for questioning. The following reasons are some of the more
important ones:

1. To provoke and stimulate thou^t

2. To give the students the opportuniQr to express themselves

3. To act as a springboard for further discussion and participation

4. To serve as a guide to reasoning

5. To help the teacher determine personal progress

6. To aid the teacher in checking student progress

7. To assist the student in determining personal progress

8. To arouse curiosity, thereby motivating fimher interest

9. To cause a student to use previous knowledge in learning new things

10.To attract attention and encourage participation on the part of all the students
 282

EXHIBIT 7

IDEAS FOR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Attendance sheet — Prepare a regular sign-up sheet to

help you keep track of each class. Post this where
students will learn to do it automatically.
Check-out system — Keep 3x5 cards handy for students to
identify each item they take home. When they return it
you can tear up the card.
Calendar for the instructor — Keep track of your lesson
plan.
Calendar on wall — Schedule classes, speakers, special
events so that everyone can see for themselves.
Transparencies — Have visual reinforcement of ideas to
help people learn.
Appointment schedule — Ask class to schedule
appointments in advance rather than expecting you to be
available at all times. Tell them how and when you
prefer this.
Handouts — Prepare handouts with the Center's help to
avoid last minute requests.
 PLEASE NOTE

Copyrighted materials in this document have

not been filmed at the request of the author.
They are available for consultation, however,
in the author’s university library.

pgs- 283 - 284

MOTIVATION

University Microfilms International

 EXHIBIT 9

Participant Course Evaluation

P h ase I B ey o n d a D ream

Vt t Quit* Sonfbut Vwy

Much ■ Bit N olM uctl LIHI* CemetMiti

Were you interected in this course?

Did you feel that the group was

Interested in this course?

Did you learn any new facts or get any

new ideas?

Did you change any of your previous

opinions about starting your own
business as a result of this course?

tVere your previous opinions

confirmed or strengthened?

Do you think the group accomplished

Its goal as a result o f this course?

Was the instructor sufficiently

prepared?

Would the course have treen better

if some parts had been left out?
What parts? N>
S
 Exhibit 9 (continued)

Participant Course Evaluation—Conffnued

V»iy O ulla Som e b u t Very

Much • Oil N ot Much LlHlc Cmmmcnh

Did you find (he social atmosphère of

the course congenial and enjoyable?

Do you have suggestions (about

techniques, material, and so
forth) for improving future courses?
(Use other side of page if necessary.)

If at this time you have made a decision afiout starting your own business and woukf like to share this Information, please do
so In tite space provided. You may want to attach a copy of your business plan.
 EXHIBIT 10

Phase 2 Evaluation Form

Please tell us how you feel about the VBO program In Phase 2.
We appreciate your comments whenever possible. Also please rate the program by
checking the appropriate response.
Very Quite Not Very
Much o n Much ULUle
0 I was Interested In this program
0 The Instructor helped me find ways to
get my Idea Into a sound business plan
0 The program Is helpful for single
parents and homemakers
0 The materials helped me build a better
knowledge of business
0 I enjoyed learning In a group that had
similar Interests and problems
0 The personnel and resources of the
Center helped me
o The community assistance helped me
start my business

Comments:
N
00
•oj
 288

EXHIBIT 11

VENTURES IN BUSINESS OWNERSHIP

Questionnaire #1

NAME:
Last First
(Please print)
PROPOSED BUSINESS:
We are interested in examining and understanding how
people such as yourself establish their own business. Please
take a few minutes and respond to the following questions.
I would like your honest response for each question.
Obviously, some of your reactions relate to a direct
experience or many experiences. Try to relate these reactions
to you now, at this moment in time, on February 8th, 1990.
Remember that there are no right or wrong answers. This is
how you feel about the questions.
1. Why are you interested in starting your own business?

2. What role model (s)/mentor (s) have influenced your

decision to start your own business?

3. What if any difficulty have you had obtaining credit? Do

you anticipate any trouble that you might have in
starting your business from a financial standpoint?

4. What concerns and/or experiences have you had with math

and science?
 289
Exhibit 11 (continued)

5. Do you think that there might be a societal bias against

women who are starting businesses outside of their home?
Explain.

6. How do you feel about being competitive, profit-oriented,

or a "deal maker?"

7. How large do you want your business to become?

8. What contact(s) do you have with other businesses?

9. How will you balance home and work roles? If your

business is home based, do you expect other problems?

10. What type of management skills do you have? Have you

developed a management style that you are comfortable
with?

11. What other concerns are affecting your ability to go

ahead and start your business?

12. What specific behaviors and characteristics do you bring

to this business effort?

Thanks so much for your cooperation.

Karen L. Kramer, The Ohio State University
 290

EXHIBIT 12

VENTURES IN BUSINESS OWNERSHIP— LOOKING BACK

Questionnaire #2

NAME: _____________________ NAME & ADDRESS OF PERSON

ADDRESS: __________________ WHO WILL KNOW WHERE YOU ARE:

City State Zip Code NAME: __

TELEPHONE NO: _____________ ADDRESS:.
City State Zip Code
TELEPHONE NO:______________

1. What stands out for you in terms of influences in

starting a business? (Positive or Negative)

2. What are very important relationships in your life?

(May or may not have to do with starting a business)

3. What kinds of educational learning have influenced you

the most?

4. What real-life decision making and moral dilemmas have

you experienced?

5. Give some important accounts of personal change and

growth.
 291

Exhibit 12 (continued)

6. What are your perceptions of the reasons for change?

(In yourself)

7. What are your visions for the future? (Yours in

particular)

8. Do you believe that the economic climate of Akron is

conducive (positive) for small business?

9. What organizations in Akron are aiding in helping

people start a business?

10. Is politics a factor in helping the economic climate of

the Akron area?

11. Do you feel that one political party is more supportive

of small business than another?

Thank you so much for all of your research assistance. I

will be in contact with you yearly. My best to you and your
new venture.
Very sincerely.

Karen L. Kramer
 EXHIBIT 13

M O N T H _______ Fchrvnry '90 YEAR. vno VI

T l!A iîijîiy .î^

J F ir s t class 1 IT
6 ) sn i Form
J J 1} 3
Raw Tacs VBO VI• Beyond A Dream
1 Attendance 7) d n s s
1 VBO Api» Calendar S ta rt, 2 - 06-90 2 /6 - 3/ 8/90
i AV3 Apps 8 ) Rules & End, 6 - 29-90
Î 1 AVS-VBO Regulations PACE
Acreement 3A3 - 6/ 29/90
il £j BAD #1 jjl 1-4 m iJ mj^ 1-4 m ±1 3
Open Barings Unit 1 Unit 2
account and Analyse S kills
estahlleh credit Self-Enploymt Evaluation

iÜ jWj BAD #2 Jij 1-4 PM id 1-4 ™ ül id

Unit 3 Unit 4
Support Assess Persona.
System Finances
If. CAT»#!
MCS
il ggJI 1-4 m id 2*1 1-4 PM d
Yellow pages Unit S Unit 6
U toarp t r i p Troduct^ervle CompeÙtlve
Market research Survey Market Survey
C. UAY

i£j aj BAD dU av| 1-4 m £TJ J J J

Mariner's Catch* Unit 7
sample tuslness Planning A
plans# Business

No
\)
N>
 EXHIBIT 13 (c o n tin u e d )

M O N T H _______ March *90___________ YfAP VHP VI

1.^1 iH'hrUfLA_L_L.. iulU&ilfdf s;, l i n tiM A irY > iv A iiM lttU rtft -iSilliMill/ni-Til’ r ' aiillA lIiiiilu . Tmmms
J __1 BAD - iJ 1-4 W a I A
conii
f Unit 8
Developing A
Business n a n

±1 £] BAD« li Li 1-4 m ll zd
Dlalrlbuta Unit 9 Unit 10 ASSICNi
AdvlBory Com. Comnunlty Personal Plan
tla t Resourceo' of Action Unit 3 - MCE
(VBO AdR'^Ow*^ ■BAD Evaluations

JÜ f*] was 1 d iT « ^ £ j ai zd
i l 5 fee Du* Buslnes* n * n ASSICNi nannlng fo r
QuMtlonnalra Tour Financial
Unit 8 Needs
Unit 16
C. Smith
£1 rt\ MGS 2 £»J 1-J5HS ai £ î | i i 30-3i 30 M d 3Zl
Technical ASSICNi ( ; A r ( k ''& W
AoolGtanco Financials
Unit 4
Unit 5
Neg C. Smith
"1 £ t) MCE 3 £zj 1-4 m ail 5 î ] i i 30-3i 30 m d
TelloN pacoB Marketing ASSICNi t-Vvcvnfiftcs-»
Compotltlom Financials
Demographic* S ftA M : Unit 6
MtCC a m ikJttiêA eA
Unit 7
H tA m in u iiA ttte . 0. Smith N5
VO
w
 EXHIBIT 13 (continued)

M O N T H ______ April *90_______________ YFAW vno VI

jJ *1 PACK» Zi i-» n , f 5 é v)
Marketing - ASSICNi
cent.
Unit 9
Unit 10
■HUK“
P trt I Bus» Flan

xJ i] -y id id X y / id / id
AXLp , - y m
X ^
id n\ 1 -1» iM id id id id
OM-€top Types of ASSICNi
Permit Cemtmr Ownership
Un it 11
SftAKob; mrty.
Irevi4 fdteOMt*
ad »(*6 £#J 1-4m »à id id id
Management ASSICNi
Unit 12
(CwnanSl s£Uita> Unit 19
% rt II Bus. Flan
MIR
ill' ..... Hi IT J ................. .. J J J
to
VO
4S
 EXHIBIT 13 (c o n t in u e d )

MONTH. Mny '90____________ YCAW vno VI

JJ 1-4 M
Bsrsonnel/ ASSIGN,
Sales
Unit 13

PACB 8
Competitor Ads
loRo Design
Business Cards Unit 15
'h rt H I Bus, flat
, ' b»E

Business ASSIGN,
Recoxda
Unit 18
sTentctttt. gAumrn
iAtut.
1-4 W
Protecting the
Business
SPtAMtA. Unit 17
A r t I f Bus. War
JUS.
PACB 11
Credit and
Collections
^ fiA K tf. î r . m i L ,
fMsW. tlAiHS 5
Ul
 EXHIBIT 13 (continued)

M O N T H ______ June_*90_____________ YfAP■ vnnVT

^jiiUîiiifdLifcÉt ^ n m ara
n

vj »(* 12 £J ±i 2J fj ±1
B.AW
pphtaite
» «or•/
0. Smith

iii u\ WC813 «1 a] id IÛ
Appta. w/
B. White or
0. Smith

id a} »CBIB Hi £d id id id
Apptoi w/
B. Whit*or
0. Smith

ai £»j TACB15 m] IJHM id id id id

niTALBUSINESS
PLANDUGIII
• PACE
Evalvations ro
VO
ov
 297

EXHIBIT 14

PARTlCIPANrS GOALS:
1. Detennining Self*empIq>ineDt Potential
2. Developing a Personal Plan of Action
for Small Business Start-up
1

Unit 1: Assessing Self-employment Potential

Unit 2: Evaluating Business Skills

I
Unit 3: Building Cooperation

I
Unit 4: Assessing Personal Finances

Unit 5: Developing a Business Idea

I
Unit 6: Completing a Product or Service Analysis

I
Unit 7: Determining Your Competition

I
Unit 8: Planning Your Operations

Unit 9: Legal Issues/Ov-nership Types

I
Unit 10: Developing a Personal Plan of Action

Costinue Education S tut OWB Dedde Not to Start

or Training Busiaeu Own Butineu

Start Ows
Busmeu

Business start-up exploration for displaced adults

 298

EXHIBIT 15

AKRON PUBLIC SCHOOLS

ADULT VOCATIONAL SERVICES
147 Pam Streei • Akron. Ohio 44308 . Phone (216) 25>5142 FOLL • S E H V I ^ • CENTER

INVITATION

VBO GRADUATION
Friday,June 29
11:30 a.m.-1-30pjn-
Tangier Restaurant (Center Ballroom)

Speaker Mayor Don Flusquellic

Pleasejoinus for a special luncheon ceremony honoring the 1990 graduates of

Akron's"Ventures in Business Ownership" Program. This year, both classes partiSpat-
ing in the 1989-90 school year will be recognized together,making for the largestV B O
graduation ever!

Cost of thebuffet luncheon is$10 per person (includes rolls,beverage, tax,and gratu­
ity) to be paid in advance per the enclosed reservation form which isdue no laterthan
June 22.

MENU

Chicken Florentine
Beef Tenderloin Sidlienne
Green Beans Almondine
Fettucini Alfredo
Pineapple Upside Down Cake
Salad Bar

Please make your check payable to Barbara White and mail to:

BarbaraWhite
V B O Instructor
Adult Vocational Services
147 Park Street
Akron, O H 44308

Feel free to bring spouse, friends,business associates, and other guests along. W e hope
to see you there!
VBO ADVISORY COMMITTEE

I f f RnliMa
Ventures in Business
Balista & A vw ciitn
Ownership
Eilcfn DIuhm
AVnm Regional Dcv*k*pmenl Board

Dale Camrron Graduation Ceremony

BankO ie

Barbara Dran June 29,1990

Akron Boacon Journal

Linda D m inger Tangier Restaurant

Med-Cnrtw
s
Frrda Dkkinaon
Accessible Design System* Guest Speaker wl
U
Harry Eaton
Mayor Don Plusquelllc
National City Bank g
tJ
lilt Rontana
Foim sbylbnlam i

AllcO Ann Hengeshaeb

Hcngesbach & Associates
Sponsored by: I
Oa
Akron Area Entrepreneurs
DonSecard
In C sse Marketing Cnpi
•and*
Charles Sndlh
The Business Center
Adult Vbcational Services
Coy Stewart Frank Pichidteio, Director
Private Industry Coirrrdl

ErkVorti Akron PublicSchools

P&SArrrbolamce Conrad C. Oil, Superintendent
Charley Way
The Business Center
NO
k>
VO
 February '90 Class

Graduates
Ventures in Business Ownership (VBO) isan
Gwen Adams Bruce Kilby
entrepreneurship training program sponsored by the M
Ohio Department of Education and offered through the
foAglioIa Brenda Lenzy
Akron Public Schools, Adult Vocational Services. Its i
purpose isto help single parents and homemakers start H
Jamie Bane Patrida Myers t—a
theirown small businesses.
Alleen Donohoe Shirley Nugent
Today we honor the foOowing V B O participants o
who completed the program during the 1989 90
Peggy Fatica Patrida O d u m
academic yean
?
Sandy Freeman MidielleRoss
1
ValerieGandy Mary Russo
September *89Qass
Michelle Granata Lora Rutter
■Cratfpalca
Crystal Haas BobSemuga
Bruce Kresge
Denise Marshall Patricia Hashman Anita Whitlock

Deborah Mobley Linda Wilson

Berta Reed
Neil Roth Congratulations, Graduates!
David Stradwick Barbara J.White, V B O Instructor
APPENDIX B

301
 302

APPENDIX B

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