Overview of Transmission

Chapter 2

Overview of Transmission
• PCM, Multiplexing techniques, PDH & SDH

(With specific reference to bit rates and interfaces)

• Media – OFC.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
One dedicated pair of conductor is used to connect a telephone subscriber to the
exchange. In a similar way, initially, exchanges were connected to each other using pairs
of conductors (O/H line/U/G cable). One pair providing one speech circuit. To cater to
the increased demand of traffic between two exchanges number of conductor pairs had to
be increased. But increasing the number of conductor pairs is uneconomical and leads to
maintenance problems.
Therefore, it was tried to use a single pair of conductors to carry more number of
circuits Thus the medium of transmission is shared by more than one circuit. The
technique used to provide a number of circuits using a single transmission link is
called Multiplexing.

2.1 Multiplexing Techniques

There are two types of multiplexing techniques
(i) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
(ii) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing Techniques (FDM)
FDM technique divides transmission medium into different frequency slots. Each
frequency slot is used to carry signals of one speech circuit. FDM is usually used in
analogue transmission systems. An analogue transmission system is one which is used
for transmitting continuously varying signals.
 Overview of Transmission
Time Division Multiplexing
In time division multiplexing (TDM), transmission medium is shared on time
basis. Signals of all the channels are transmitted on the medium one by one. Thus the
entire medium(bandwidth) is periodically available to each channel. The time used by
one channel is called as Time Slot (TS). Normally all time slots are equal in length. Time
slots follow certain sequence. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.1.
Each channel is sampled at a specified rate and transmitted for a fixed duration.
All channels are sampled one by one and transmitted one by one, the cycle is repeated
again and again. The channels are connected to individual gates which are opened one by
one in a fixed sequence. At the receiving end also similar gates are opened in unison
with the gates at the transmitting end.
The signal received at the receiving end will be in the form of discrete samples
and these are combined to reproduce the original signal. Thus at a given instant of time,
signals of only one channel are transmitted through the medium in TDM, where as in
FDM all the channels are transmitted at the same time. This process of combining
channels in time sequence for transmission over a common medium is called Time
Division Multiplexing (TDM).

Receive
Trans
Gate Gate
CH1 1 ( ) ( ) 1 CH1

CH2 2 ( ) ( ) 2 CH2
/ /~
~

Medium
CH3 3 ( ) ( ) 3 CH3

CHn n ( ) ( ) n CHn

Fig.2.1 : Time Division Multiplexing

 Overview of Transmission
2.2 Pulse Code Modulation System
In 1938 Mr. A.H. Reaves (USA) developed a Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
system to transmit the spoken word in digital form.
PCM systems use TDM technique to provide a number of circuits on the same
transmission medium viz-open wire or underground cable pair of a channel provided by
carrier, coaxial, microwave or satellite system.
PCM systems used in BSNL provide 30 speech circuits-called as channels.

PCM is the first step in digitization of analog voice signal. It converts analog
signals of all the thirty channels into digital form and then combines them to form a
continuous stream of 2.048 Mb/s. In this respect PCM is also called as First order Mux.
Basic Requirements for PCM System
To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following processing
steps are required:
• Filtering
• Sampling
• Quantization
• Encoding
• Line Coding
2.3 PCM Frame:
In a 30 channel PCM system. 125 microseconds are divided into 32 parts. That is
30 time slots are used for 30 speech signals, one time slot for signalling of all the 30 chls
and one time slot for synchronization between Transmitter & Receiver.
The time available per channel would be = TS =(Total Time) /(No. of TS)
=125/32

= 3.9 microseconds

Thus in a 30 channel PCM system time slot duration is 3.9 microseconds & time
period of sampling i.e. the interval between 2 consecutive samples of the same channel is
125 microseconds. This duration i.e. 125 microseconds is called Time Frame.
A frame of 125 microseconds duration has 32 time slots. These slots are
numbered Ts 0 to 31.
 Overview of Transmission
Information for providing synchronization between trans and receive ends is
passed through a separate time slot. Usually the slot Ts 0 caries the synchronization
signals. This slot is also called Frame alignment word (FAW).
The signalling information is transmitted through time slot Ts 16.
Ts 1 to Ts 15 are utilized for voltage signal of channels 1 to 15 respectively.
Ts 17 to Ts 31 are utilized for voltage signal of channels 16 to 30 respectively.
2.5 . PDH Fiber Optic Transmission Systems :-
. The PDH systems are normally used for the Point-to-Point transmission (
carrying a signal between two end points ) e.g. for connecting two cities. It combines four
tributaries of lower bit rate into a single stream of higher bit rate.e.g. Four 2mbps strem
are combined to form a single stream of 8mbps.Four 8mbps streams are combined to
form a single stream of 34mbps.and so on. These stages of PDH multiplexing are called
as Second order, Third order and so on. Different PDH mux. stages which are used in the
network of BSNL, are given below: -
• 1st order 2mbps 30 channels capacity. PCM
• 2nd order 8 mbps 120 channels capacity (4*2mbps tribs.)
• 3rd order 34 mbps 480 channels capacity (4*8mbps tribs.)
• 4th order 140 mbps 1920 channels capacity (4*34mbpstribs.)
• 5th order 565 mbps 7680 channels capacity (4*140mbps tribs)
These combined electrical signals are then converted into optical form i.e. light
and then they are transmitted on optical fiber. The equipment which combines and
decombines the tributaries is called as MUX equipment (PDH mux in this case).The
equipment which converts electrical signals into optical signal i.e. light and vice-versa is
called as Optical Line Terminating Equipment( OLTE).The PDH Fiber Optic
Transmission Systems are available either in separate OLTE and MUX version or in an
integrated OLTE + MUX ( OPTIMUX ) version housed in a single rack. The application
of these systems depends upon the traffic of that particular route. Different manufacturers
to BSNL as given below supply these PDH Fiber Optic Transmission Systems: -
• M/s ITI, Bagalore
• M/s MAC, Bangalore
• M/s NATELCO , Mumbai
• M/s PCL, Chandigarh
 Overview of Transmission
• M/s HFCL, Solan etc.
Main parts of PDH Fiber Optic Transmission Systems :-
(Refer fig.2.2)
• Multiplexing Equipments
• Line Equipments
1. OLTE (Optical Line Terminating Equipment)
2. Repeater (Regenerator)
• Transmission Media (Optical Fiber )

Fig. 2.2 Block diagram of FOTS

O R O
M E M
Telephone U L
G L
N Telephone
calls X U
E calls
from/to T R T from/to
Exchange A X Exchange
E T E
O
R

Optical fiber Cable

 Overview of Transmission

2.6 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

It is the latest international standard multiplexing method. It is synchronous, used
for higher bit rates (minimum 1.55mbps), more flexible and suitable for ring topology. It
is used for short as well as long distance working.
. The basic signal structure of SDH is called as Synchronous Transport Module
(STM) Different stages of multiplexing are called as STM-1, STM-4, STM-16 and STM-
64.
STM-1 is formed by combining PDH signals in one of the following ways,
63 nos. of 2mbps streams OR
42 nos. of 2mbps streams and 1 no. of 34mbps streams. OR
21 nos. of 2mbps streams and 2 nos. of 34mbps streams. OR
3 nos. of 34mbps streams. OR
1 no. of 140 mbps stream.
Once STM-1 module is formed, no. of STM-1 modules are combined to form
higher stages.Their bit rates and capacities are listed below.
Name of system Speed Capacity
• STM-1 155.52 mbps 1890 channels
• STM –4 622.08 mbps 7560 channels (4* STM-1)
• STM –16 2.50gbps 30,240 channels (16* STM-1)
• STM - 64 10.0 gbps 120,960 channels (64* STM-1)
2.7 Merits of SDH
1. Simplified Multiplexing and Demultiplexing process
2. Direct access to lower speed tributaries without need to demultiplex the
entire high speed signal
3. Enhanced OAM&P :- Due to enhanced Operation , Administration ,
Maintenance and Provisioning capabilities user can control the whole network from a
central location i.e. remote supervision and control is very easy.
4. Easy Growth :- Easy growth to high capacity systems.
5. Capable of transporting existing PDH signals.
 Overview of Transmission
6. Capable of transporting future broadband signals like, interactive
multimedia & video conferencing.
7. Capable of operating in a multivender and multi-operator environment: -
Before SDH optical systems for the long distance transmission were intensely vendor
specific but SDH were firm standards for vendor inter operability.
8. Synchronous networking :- SDH supports multy-point, Hub and Ring
Configuration whereas PDH networking only supports Point-to-Point Configuration.
2.8 SDH Network Element :-
The major network element of SDH are :-
• Terminal Multiplexer (TM ) – TM an end point device of SDH network
, it is used at terminals of point to point SDH network .
• ADD / DROP Multiplexer ( ADM ) – ADM is network element which
allows configurable add/drop of a subset of traffic channels from higher rate data stream.
• REGENRATER (REG ):-. They terminate and regenrate the optical
signal .They have alarms and performance monitoring capability .
• SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL CROSS CONNECT (SDXC ):-It can
function as semi permanent switch for transmission channels and can switch at any level
from 64 kbps to STM-1 under software control
The previous systems like analogue transmission systems and PDH based
digital transmission systems are only point to point or in bus configuration, this
configuration is as shown in fig.2.3.

EX E
T T
CH R X
E R E
A E C
R E R
N P H
M P M
GE E A
I E I
N A A N N
A T T A G
L E E L E
R R
 Overview of Transmission

MEDIA OF TRANSMISSION
(Copper or Optical Fibre )
Fig.2.3 Layout Of Transmission System

In bus configuration repeaters are having drop and insert facility of

channels and in point to point configuration repeaters do not have drop and insert facility.
But in both of these configuration if media breaks or repeater fails , the full system goes
out of order .
In SDH this problem is overcome by using other type of configurations
specially RING TYPE as shown in fig.2.4.

ADM

“A”

E
E X
X ADM C
ADM
C H
H “D” A
“B”
A N
N G
G E
E

ADM

“C”

EXCHANGE

Fig.2.4 Ring configuration of SDH system

 Overview of Transmission

In the fig.2.4 Four nodes (A,B,C,D)are shown , when media between say
node A and B breaks ,the traffic interrupted is automatically rerouted between nodes
A&B via nodes D&C

2.9 INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE

Optical fibre is a medium, in which information (voice, data or video) is
transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light, following the
transmission sequence given below :
(i) Information is encoded into electrical signals.
(ii) Electrical signals are converted into light signals.
(iii) Light travels down the fibre.
(iv) A detector changes the light signals into electrical signals at receiver.

(v) Electrical signals are decoded into information.

2.10 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE

 Overview of Transmission
(i) Optical Fibres are non conductive (Dielectric)
(ii) Electromagnetic immunity
– Unauthorized tapping difficult.
(iii) Large Bandwidth
– Future up-gradability
– Maximum utilization of cable right of way.
– One time cable installation costs.
(iv) Low Loss
Loss is low and same at all operating speeds within the fibre's specified
bandwidth.
– Long, unrepeated links (> 70 km is in operation).
– Inexpensive light sources available.
(v) Small, light weight cables
– Easy installation and handling.
– Efficient use of space.
(vi) Available in Long lengths
(vii) Security
– Extremely difficult to tap a fibre as it does not radiate energy that can
be received by a nearby antenna.
– Highly secure transmission medium.
(viii) Safety – Being a dielectric
– It cannot cause fire.
– Does not attract lightning.
– It does not carry electricity.
– Can be run through hazardous areas.
(ix) Universal medium
– Serve all communication needs.
– Non–obsolescence.
2.11 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE
The optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The
inner core is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference in
refractive index that allows total internal reflection of light through the core. The index of
 Overview of Transmission
the cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of the core. Typical values for example are a
core refractive index of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46. Fibre manufacturers control
this difference to obtain desired optical fibre characteristics.
Most fibres have an additional coating around the cladding. This buffer coating is
a shock absorber and has no optical properties affecting the propagation of light within
the fibre.
2.12 FIBRE GEOMETRY
An Optical fibre consists of a core of optically transparent material usually silica
or borosilicate glass surrounded by a cladding of the same material but a slightly lower
refractive index. Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed
by the cladding size. Thus, 50/125 means a core diameter of 50m and a cladding diameter
of 125 m.

Fig. 2 6 Fibre structure

2.13 FIBRE TYPES

The refractive index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core
and cladding. Two main relationship exist :
(i) Step Index, and
(ii) Graded Index
 Overview of Transmission
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows
a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a
non uniform core. The index is highest at the centre and gradually decreases until it
matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core
and the cladding.
By this classification there are three types of fibres :
(i) Multimode Step index fibre (Step index Fibre)
(ii) Multimode graded index fibre (Graded index Fibre)
(iii) Single-Mode Step Index Fibre (Single Mode Fibre)

2.14 APPLICATIONS OF FIBRE OPTICS IN COMMUNICATIONS

– Common carrier nationwide networks.
– Telephone inter–office trunk lines.
– Customer premise communication networks.
– Undersea cables.
– High EMI areas (Power lines, Rails, Roads).
– Factory communication/Automation.
– Control systems.
– Expensive environments.
– High lightning areas.
– Rural Area Networks
Optical fibre cables of various capacities viz 12 fibre, 24 fibre, 48 fibre, 96 fibre are in
use in BSNL

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