Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2006, 20(1), 167–171

q 2006 National Strength & Conditioning Association

THE EFFECTS OF CARBOHYDRATE LOADING ON

REPETITIVE JUMP SQUAT POWER PERFORMANCE
DISA L. HATFIELD,1 WILLIAM J. KRAEMER,1,2 JEFF S. VOLEK,1 MARTYN R. RUBIN,1
BIANCA GREBIEN,3 ANA L. GÓMEZ,1 DUNCAN N. FRENCH,1 TIMOTHY P. SCHEETT,4
NICHOLAS A. RATAMESS,5 MATTHEW J. SHARMAN,2 MICHAEL R. MCGUIGAN,2
ROBERT U. NEWTON,2 AND KEIJO HÄKKINEN6
1
Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
06269; 2School of Biomedical and Sports Science, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia,
Australia; 3Department of Movement Sciences, University of Masstricht, Masstricht, Netherlands; 4School of
Human Performance and Recreation, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406;
5
Department of Health and Exercise Science, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, New Jersey 08628; 6Department
of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland.

ABSTRACT. Hatfield, D.L., W.J. Kraemer, J.S. Volek, M.R. Rub-
in, B. Grebien, A.L. Gómez, D.N. French, T.P. Scheett, N.A. Ra-
tamess, M.J. Sharman, M.R. McGuigan, R.U. Newton, and K.
Häkkinen. The effects of carbohydrate loading on repetitive
jump squat power performance. J. Strength Cond. Res. 20(1):
167–171. 2006.—The beneficial role of carbohydrate (CHO) sup-
plementation in endurance exercise is well documented. How-
ever, only few data are available on the effects of CHO loading
on resistance exercise performance. Because of the repetitive use
of high-threshold motor units, it was hypothesized that the pow-
er output (power-endurance) of multiple sets of jump squats
would be enhanced following a high-CHO (6.5 g CHO kg body
mass21) diet compared to a moderate-CHO (4.4 g CHO kg body
mass21) diet. Eight healthy men (mean 6 SD: age 26.3 6 2.6
years; weight 73.0 6 6.3 kg; body fat 13.4 6 5.0%; height 178.2
6 6.1 cm) participated in 2 randomly assigned counterbalanced
supplementation periods of 4 days after having their free-living
habitual diet monitored. The resistance exercise test consisted
of 4 sets of 12 repetitions of maximal-effort jump squats using
a Plyometric Power System unit and a load of 30% of 1 repetition
maximum (1RM). A 2-minute rest period was used between sets.
Immediately before and after the exercise test, a blood sample
was obtained to determine the serum glucose and blood lactate
concentrations. No significant difference in power performance
existed between the 2 diets. As expected, there was a significant
(p # 0.05) decrease in power performance between the repeti-
tions in every set. Blood lactate concentrations were significant-
ly higher postexercise with both the high-CHO and the moder-
ate- or lower-CHO diet, but there were no differences between
conditions. The results indicated that the power output during
multiple sets of maximal jump squats was not enhanced follow-
ing a higher-CHO diet compared to a moderate- or lower-CHO
diet. These data show that elevated carbohydrate intake is not
needed to optimize a repetitive power-endurance performance
when it is done as the first exercise in a workout.
KEY WORDS. nutrition, supplementation, power, recovery
INTRODUCTION
utritional strategies are an integral compo-
crease while in a glycogen-depleted state. Glycogen de-
pletion has also been shown to affect high-intensity in-
termittent sprint performance on a cycle ergometer (1, 27,
28) and a treadmill (3). Although glycolysis provides the
majority of adenosine triphosphate in exhaustive exercise
lasting approximately 3 minutes, CHO ingestion has not
been shown to improve repeated short-duration maximal
effort exercise lasting less than 5 minutes (10, 14, 16).
Several studies indicate that glycogenolysis is an im-
portant source of energy during resistance training as
well (5, 7, 14), implying that CHO supplementation may
enhance resistance-training results. An acute bout of re-
sistance training can significantly decrease muscle gly-
cogen stores (5, 7) and has been shown to result in re-
duced isokinetic torque production, decreased isometric
strength, and increased fatigue (6, 12). It has been re-
ported that mixed-muscle glycogen loss is related to load
(24), with the rate of glycogenolysis dependent on load
and the decrement dependent on the magnitude of muscle
force development (19). Thus, hypotheses related to CHO
supplementation effects would be dependent on the mag-
nitude of glycogen depletion with the exercise protocol.
Carbohydrate supplementation assists in glycogen re-
synthesis following both aerobic (2, 20) and anaerobic ex-
ercise bouts and spares glycogen stores (9, 11, 26). Car-
bohydrate supplementation has been reported to increase
total work output during an acute isokinetic leg exercise
(8). In addition, CHO supplementation has also been
shown to enhance hormonal and hypertrophic responses
to chronic resistance training (23).
Despite research on intermittent exercise and an
acute bout of resistance training, the effects of differing
CHO supplementation on an acute bout of power endur-
ance–type resistance exercise is not known. A typical
high-volume resistance training bout preferentially de-
pletes type IIA and IIX fiber (24), although these fibers
are not well equipped for energy supply and fatigue eas-

N nent of the overall goal of improving athletic

performance. Of these strategies, carbohy-
drate (CHO) supplementation, has repeatedly
been shown to improve endurance perfor-
mance (17, 28). Furthermore, power and time to exhaus-
tion during repeated short-term bouts of high-intensity
cycling (less than 10 minutes) have been shown to de-
ily. Power-type exercises, such as squat jumps and bench
press-throws, are used frequently by athletes to increase
power and power-endurance (15). In contrast to a typical
squat exercise, a squat jump exercise utilizes a much
lighter load but takes fuller advantage of the stretch–
shortening cycle to produce higher amounts of explosive
power. Explosive power is characterized by faster recruit-
168 HATFIELD, KRAEMER, VOLEK ET AL.
ment of motor units, which may affect rate of glycogen
resynthesis (18). However, research has clearly demon-
strated that short-term, high-intensity exercise (mea-
sured as isokinetic and isometric strength and force pro-
duced) is not affected by diet-induced glycogen depletion
(22). Thus, it was hypothesized that CHO supplementa-
tion would not have any effect on repetitive power per-
formances. The purpose of this study was to directly de-
termine the effects of differing amounts of CHO intakes
on an acute bout of power endurance–type resistance ex-
ercise protocol typically done at the beginning of a work-
out to optimize performance.
METHODS
Approach to the Problem
Subjects were recruited to participate in 2 randomly as-
signed counterbalanced supplementation periods of 4
days before commencement of the testing protocol, with
a washout week between testing segments. The protocol
consisted of 4 sets of 12 repetitions of maximal jump
squats on the Plyometric Power System (PPS) unit (Nor-
search, Lismore, Australia), using a load of 30% of 1 rep-
etition maximum (1RM) with 2 minutes of rest between
successive sets. The protocol allowed us to see the effects
of a demanding repetitive power-endurance-type perfor-
mance that requires high contribution from glycolysis en-
ergy sources, thereby placing a greater demand on muscle
cell glycogen stores. It was theorized that if the energy
demands were significant enough on the type II fast mo-
tor units depleting them of glycogen, power output would
be augmented with the additional glycogen concentra-
tions from a CHO-loading phase. Important to the gen-
eralization of the findings is the fact that the jump squat
protocol was placed at the beginning of a workout.
Subjects
Eight healthy men (age 26.3 6 2.6 years; weight 73.0 6
6.3 kg; body fat 13.4 6 5.0%; height 178.2 6 6.1 cm; 1RM
squat, 125.2 6 16.1 kg) who had only recreational resis-
tance-training experience of .1 year and were familiar
with power training were recruited to participate in this
study, which was approved by the Institutional Review
Board for use of human subjects. Before the investigation,
the experimental risks, procedures, and benefits were ex-
plained to each subject. Each subject then signed an in-
stitutionally approved informed consent form if he opted
to participate in the study. Subsequently, a medical his-
tory and body composition analysis via skinfolds were ob-
tained during preliminary laboratory visits and familiar-
ization sessions.
Experimental Design and Procedures
Free-living habitual diet and physical activity were mon-
itored and recorded for 4 days before testing (baseline
diet). Each subject was familiarized with the protocol
testing equipment and their 1RM was determined in the
squat exercise before testing. The subjects participated in
2 randomly assigned counterbalanced supplementation
periods of 4 days before commencement of the testing pro-
tocol, with a washout week between testing segments. A
crossover design was used with half of the group assigned
to a standard diet with 50% of calories from carbohy-
drates and the other half assigned to a diet with 80% of
caloric intake from carbohydrates. On completion of 1
protocol sequence, subjects crossed over to the other se-
quence after a washout period of 2 weeks on their base-
line diet. Before the study, subjects were educated on how
to consume the appropriate amount of carbohydrates by
a registered dietician. A registered dietician spent time
with each subject to screen for diet abnormalities, teach
subjects how to quantify their food intakes, and educate
each subject on keeping food records for the study. Food
records were kept and monitoring was done by the nutri-
tional staff. Food records were analyzed using NUTRI-
TIONIST IV version 3.5.1 software (N-Squared Comput-
ing and First DataBank, The Hearst Corporation, San
Bruno, CA) during each baseline and testing segment.
Squat Jump Procedures
The squat jump power-endurance exercise protocol con-
sisted of 4 sets of 12 repetitions with maximal effort on
each repetition using the PPS unit with a resistance load
of 30% of 1RM. Maximal mechanical power output was
the goal of the training resistance. Two minutes of rest
was allowed between sets, placing an added metabolic
stress on the subject. Before the protocol, each subject
warmed up by cycling for 5 minutes, performed dynamic
stretches, and performed 5–10 practice warm-up repeti-
tions with the squat at 40–60% of his 1RM. With the use
of the on-line computer interfaced with the PPS system,
power output variables were directly assessed.
Heart Rate Monitoring
Heart rate throughout the protocol was monitored using
a Polar heart rate monitor (Polart Electro Inc. Medical
Division, Lake Success, NY).
Biochemical Analyses
Blood lactate concentrations were determined using a YSI
Sport Lactate Analyzer (YSI Inc., Yellow Springs, OH).
Whole blood was used to determine hemoglobin in dupli-
cate using the cyanmethemoglobin method at 540 nm
(Sigma Diagnostics, St. Louis, MO), and hematocrit was
analyzed in triplicate via standard microcapillary tech-
niques and microcentrifugation. Serum glucose concen-
trations were measured using a spectrophotometer at 450
nm in duplicate with standard colorimetric procedures
(Sigma Diagnostics, St. Louis, MO). Intra-assay variances
were less than 5% for all assays.
Statistical Analyses
Statistical analyses of the data set were accomplished us-
ing an analysis of variance with repeated-measures de-
sign. In the case of significant differences, comparisons
were evaluated with a Fisher’s LSD post-hoc analysis to
determine pairwise differences between data distribu-
tions. Analysis was accomplished with Statistica software
(StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, OK, 1999). From the nQuery Ad-
visor software (Statistical Solutions, Saugus, MA), the
statistical power for the n size used ranged from 0.80 to
0.82. The level of significance was set at p # 0.05.
RESULTS
As expected, significant decreases in power were seen af-
ter successive repetitions in each set. However, no signif-
icant differences in peak power were observed. Peak pow-
er output (W) was (mean 6 SD) the following: baseline,
set 1, 1,160.1 6 121.8; set 2, 1,154.6 6 127.9; set 3,

FIGURE 1. Mean power. *p , 0.05 compared to baseline diet
in same set, and #p $ 0.05 compared to corresponding
baseline diet, set 1.
FIGURE 2. Total work for the exercise protocol. *p # 0.05
compared to lower-carbohydrate and higher-carbohydrate
diets.
1,138.8 6 130.7; set 4, 1,110.5 6 131.9; low-CHO diet, set
1, 1,153.8 6 130.5; set 2, 1,155.8 6 129.5; set 3, 1,165.8
6 112.7; set 4, 1,138.1 6 114.4; high-CHO diet, set 1,
1,183.6 6 92.4; set 2, 1,177.6 6 99.1; set 3, 1,174.0 6 93.7;
set 4, 1,171.5 6 91.3.
Mean power was highest in set 1 for the baseline con-
ditions (1,095 6 125 W), highest in set 3 in the 50% CHO
diet (1,099 6 104), and highest in set 1 in the 80% CHO
diet (1,121 6 89). Baseline mean power values were sig-
nificantly lower (p , 0.05) than those of the 80% CHO
diet in all 4 sets (set 1, 1,095 6 125 vs. 1,121 6 89 W; set
2, 1,076 6 131 vs. 1,108 6 88 W; set 3, 1,049 6 128 vs.
1,086 6 76 W; set 4, 1,037 6 119 vs. 1,086 6 72 W), and
lower than those of the 50% CHO diet in sets 3 and 4
(1,099 6 104 and 1,094 6 98, respectively.) The baseline
diet condition exhibited significant decreases in mean
power in sets 3 and 4 compared to set 1, but these same
decreases were not apparent in the other 2 diet condi-
tions.
Also of interest is the significant relative decrease in
mean power in the baseline diet condition (a 5% de-
crease). The relative difference from set 1 to set 4 was not
significantly different in the 50% CHO and 80% CHO con-
ditions. However, this 5% decrease was significantly dif-
ferent from the 0.05% change in mean power in the 50%
CHO diet condition.
The only significant differences in total work per set
were observed among the 3 diet conditions in the second
set. Total work was highest in the baseline diet (9.43 6
0.92 J) compared to the 50% CHO (8.90 6 1.03 J) and
80% CHO groups (8.98 6 1.03 J). Total work among the
4 sets did not differ for any of the diets (see Figures 1
and 2).
CARBOHYDRATES AND JUMP SQUAT PERFORMANCE 169
FIGURE 3. Blood lactate response to the exercise protocol. *p
# 0.05 from pre-exercise value.
FIGURE 4. Serum glucose responses to the exercise protocol.
No significant differences in total work were observed between
groups or between sets.
No significant differences were found in blood glucose
concentrations on either the high-carbohydrate or the
moderate-carbohydrate diet. Mean glucose concentrations
in the 50% CHO condition were 5.49 6 0.75 mmol·L21
preprotocol and 5.65 6 0.64 mmol·L21 post. Mean glucose
concentrations in the 80% CHO condition were 5.42 6
0.63 mmol·L21 pre- and 5.83 6 1.03 mmol·L21 postproto-
col. These values also did not differ significantly from
baseline or washout values (Figure 3).
Mean lactate concentrations for the 50% CHO group
significantly increased from baseline values in both
groups (from 1.15 6 0.39 mmol·L21 pre to 9.56 6 3.34
mmol·L21 post in 50% CHO and 1.46 6 0.33 mmol·L21 pre
to 9.32 6 3.37 mmol·L21 post in 80% CHO). However, this
increase did not differ significantly between the 50%
CHO and 80% CHO diets (Figure 4).
There were few differences in the type of CHOs in-
gested among the 3 diets. Subjects consumed an average
of 125.6 6 47.8 g of sugar CHOs per day on the 50% CHO
diet, which was significantly different from the 186.7 6
27.9 g they consumed per day on the 80% CHO diet. Sig-
nificant differences in the amount of dietary fiber con-
sumed also existed between the 50% CHO and 80% CHO
diets (17.6 6 5.0 g vs. 25.8 6 6.8 g). Also, when expressed
as a percentage of daily calories, subjects consumed sig-
nificantly more sugar on the 80% CHO diet compared to
the 50% CHO diet (31.8 6 4.1% vs. 22.3 6 6.5%) and more
fiber on the 80% CHO diet than on baseline and 50%
CHO diets (80% CHO, 4.4% 6 0.7%; baseline, 3.5% 6
0.7%; 50% CHO, 3.3% 6 1.0%).
170 HATFIELD, KRAEMER, VOLEK ET AL.
DISCUSSION
The primary finding of this study was that an 80% daily
caloric intake from carbohydrates has no effect on repet-
itive power output (power-endurance) in an acute train-
ing session compared to a 50% CHO diet. However, it did
significantly enhance mean maximum power output
when compared to a self-selected (baseline) diet. With the
80% CHO diet, mean maximum power output was higher
than the baseline diet of 55% CHO. However, there were
no differences for this variable when compared to the con-
trolled 50% CHO diet. Explanations remain speculative
but may implicate the diet compositions (controlled and
instructed 50% CHO vs. self-selected 55% CHO), as reli-
ability of the test protocol was very high. Without biopsy
samples, it was not clear that the exercise protocol was
capable of actually depleting muscle glycogen stores fully.
The 2-minute rest period between sets may have been
sufficient to help restore energy levels enough to main-
tain power outputs, albeit obviously reduced with contin-
ued subsequent sets. In one investigation, neither type
IIA muscle fibers not type IIX 1 IIA muscle fibers were
totally depleted of muscle glycogen stores in response to
an acute bout of leg extensions at 30, 45, and 60% of 1RM
(24). Although this study utilized a 30% load, the number
of motor units and the subsequent recruitment of muscle
fibers may be different because of the whole-body struc-
tural nature of the ballistic exercise used in this study.
With regard to total work, it is possible that more than 4
sets would be required to dramatically stress metabolic
energy stores. The exercise session was also placed at the
beginning of the workout with all muscle fibers at their
greatest energy storage potential. The placement of the
protocol is typical of most power-oriented training ses-
sions in that one is trying to produce optimum levels of
power output from the rested condition. However, the re-
sults might have differed dramatically if the squat jumps
had been performed at the end of a workout that stressed
the leg musculature or other high-intensity conditioning
exercises. Thus, such order effects require further study.
However, the eccentric component of the exercise in
this study may have led to greater glycogen depletion
than previously reported in other studies in which con-
centric-only actions were used. It has been reported that
fast-twitch fibers, such as those used in short-term high-
intensity exercise, may have a higher rate of muscle gly-
cogen resynthesis because of their high glycogen synthase
activity and depletion rate during high-intensity exercise
(13). Had muscle glycogen stores been fully depleted, this
phenomenon might have taken place. Again, the place-
ment of the squat jumps in a workout session may be of
importance to such effects. Also, this study only focused
on blood glucose concentrations, as opposed to muscle gly-
cogen concentrations. Because glycogen resynthesis rates
are higher with a CHO supplementation after high-inten-
sity exercise, it would be interesting to document the
rates of muscle glycogen repletion after an acute bout of
power-type resistance exercise.
Previous studies have reported that glycogen loss dur-
ing resistance exercise is related to exercise load, espe-
cially in fast-twitch muscle fibers (4, 19), although the
rate of loss is affected by intensity. It is not known how
an acute bout of power exercise affects the rate of glyco-
gen loss and subsequent resynthesis. Although the load
in such exercise is low (30% of 1RM in this study), the
eccentric component and recruitment pattern of the mus-
cle fiber differ from those in heavier loads that are moved
at a slower rate. This load was chosen in order to train
at the maximal mechanical power output because such
repetitive power output is often used in sports such as
wrestling, track, basketball, and rugby. The demands of
such exercise is great to maintain the quality of the high
levels of power produced with such a load, making the
exercise challenge for the motor units mediating the ex-
ercise quite extreme.
This study focused solely on an acute bout of power-
endurance resistance exercise. There are many potential
benefits of CHO supplementation on a chronic basis in
conjunction with resistance training. Carbohydrate sup-
plementation improves the anabolic environment by in-
creasing plasma insulin concentrations, promoting pro-
tein synthesis, and decreasing the rate of protein degra-
dation (20, 21, 25). However, further studies are needed
to quantify this relationship as it pertains to power-type
exercises by varying total volume of exercise, rest be-
tween sets, and muscle group involved.
Dietary choices may have also played a role in the
results. The mean CHO content of the baseline diet was
55%, so it seems contradictory that mean power would
differ significantly from the 80% CHO group although the
50% CHO group did not. However, there was an extreme-
ly large range of CHO intake between the subjects for the
baseline diets (from 49 to 62%). This variance may be
enough to account for the significant difference. Also,
there was a large variance in fat and protein intake
among all 3 diets. Although the type of CHO does not
appear to affect peak power, it may be possible that the
subjects’ food choices affected differences seen in mean
power between the 80% CHO and baseline diets. The sub-
jects consumed significantly more fiber as a percentage
of total calories on the 80% CHO diet compared to the
baseline diet. However, future studies are needed to in-
vestigate the effects of substrate ratio on repetitive power
output.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
High-intensity resistance training does deplete muscle
glycogen, and that rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis is
increased with CHO supplementation (7). However, in an
acute bout of short-duration maximal exercise, it appears
that a high-CHO (80%) diet has no effect on power-en-
durance performance compared to a moderate-CHO (50%)
diet. Placement of the protocol in a resistance exercise
workout may be another important consideration, as our
data can be generalized only when the squat jump pro-
tocol is placed at the beginning of a resistance workout
routine.
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank a dedicated group of test
subjects and the laboratory and the medical staffs for their
support.
Address correspondence to Dr. William J. Kraemer,
William.Kraemer@uconn.edu.