CHAPTER 1

Electromechanical Instruments
Waveforms

Analog waveform

Digital waveform
 Permanent Moving Magnetic Coil (PMMC)

Also known as a D’Arsonval meter or galvanometer

• PMMC is essentially a low level Dc ammeter, however with the use of
parallel-connected resistors, it can measure wide range of Dc current

• The instrument may also be made to function as a Dc voltmeter by

connecting the resistors in series with the coil.

• Multirange meters can function as a ammeter, voltmeter and

ohmmeter.

• Electrodynamic instrument is similar to the PMMC except it uses

stationary coils instead of permanent magnet. It is use as a wattmeter.
• Three forces operates inside the instrument
• Deflecting force
• Controlling force
• Damping force

• The deflecting force causes the pointer to move from its zero position
when the current flows

• The controlling force is provided by the springs. The springs retain the
coil and pointer at their zero position when no current is flowing.

• When current flows the springs exert the force on the coil and the coil
and the pointer stop rotating when the controlling force becomes equal
to the deflecting force.

• Spring material should be non magnetic. Phosphorous bronze in

usually employed
 Basic Electrical sensing device
• Galvanometer
• Moving Iron instrument
• Electrodynamometer movement

JP Holman, Experimental methods

Shunt Resistance
Example from David A bell book
Example from David A bell book
Swamping resistance
 Variable Conversion Elements
Bridge Circuit
• Bridge circuits are used very commonly as a variable conversion
element in measurement systems and produce an output in the form
of a voltage level that changes as the measured physical quantity
changes.
• They provide an accurate method of measuring resistance,
inductance and capacitance values, and enable the detection of very
small changes in these quantities about a nominal value.
• The displacement-measuring strain gauge, which has a varying
resistance output, is but one example of this class of transducers.
Normally, excitation of the bridge is by a d.c. voltage for resistance
measurement and by an a.c. voltage for inductance or capacitance
measurement. Both null and deflection types of bridge exist, and, in
a like manner to instruments in general, null types are mainly
employed for calibration purposes.
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 Wheatstone Bridge

• The Wheatstone Bridge was originally developed by Charles

Wheatstone to measure unknown resistance values.

• The Wheatstone Bridge can be used to measure very low values of

resistances down in the milli-Ohms range.

• The Wheatstone bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit is used in a

number of applications e.g.; with modern operational amplifiers we
can use the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit to interface various
transducers and sensors to these amplifier circuits.
 Wheatstone Bridge
• The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple
series-parallel arrangements of resistances connected between a
voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero voltage
difference between the two parallel branches when balanced.

• A Wheatstone bridge circuit has two input terminals and two output
terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a diamond-like
arrangement as shown.
 Variable Conversion Elements

Errors associated with DC bridge

• Main source of error is the limiting error of the

Three resistors.
• Insufficient sensitivity of the null detector
• The heating effect may lead to change in the
Resistance of the resistor. The change may be
Temporary or permanent (excessive current). Power
dissipation must be calculated and when low
resistances is used current must be limited to a safe
Value.
• Errors due to the resistances of leads and contacts exterior to the
actual bridge circuit play a role in measurement of low resistances.

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 Variable Conversion Elements
Kelvin Bridge

Kelvin bridge is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge and

provides greater accuracy in measuring low value resistances,
generally below 1

• Ry represents the resistance of the connecting leads from R3 to

Rx
• Two galvanometer connections are possible to pt m or to pt n
 Variable Conversion Elements
Kelvin Bridge
Kelvin bridge is a modification of the wheatstone bridge and
provides greater accuracy in measuring low value resistances,
generally below 1

• When galvano is connected to pt m, the resistance Ry of the

connecting lead is added to the unknown Rx resulting in too
high an indication for Rx.
• When connection is to pt n, Ry is added to R3 and Rx will be
lower then it should be
Double Kelvin Bridge