Nuclear power

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"Atomic power" redirects here. For the film, see Atomic Power (film).

The 1200 MWe Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant in Switzerland. The boiling water reactor (BWR), located inside the
dome capped cylindrical structure, is dwarfed in size by its cooling tower. The station produces a yearly average of
25 million kilowatt-hours per day, sufficient to power a city the size of Boston.[1]

The Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station, the largest in the United States with 3 pressurized water
reactors (PWRs), is situated in the Arizona desert. It uses sewage from cities as its cooling water in 9 squat
mechanical draft cooling towers.[2][3] Its total spent fuel inventory, produced since 1986, is contained in dry cask
storage cylinders located between the artificial body of water and the electrical switchyard.

U.S. nuclear powered ships: (top to bottom) cruisers USS  Bainbridge, USS  Long Beach, and USS  Enterprise, the
first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. Picture taken in 1964 during a record setting voyage of 26,540 nmi
(49,152 km) around the world in 65 days without refueling. Crew members are spelling out Einstein's mass-energy
equivalence formula E  =  mc2 on the flight deck.

Global civilian electricity generation by source. Some 23,816 TWh total.[4]

 Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to generate heat, which most
frequently is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant. Nuclear power
can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast
majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium.
Nuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators.
Generating electricity from fusion power remains at the focus of international research. This article
mostly deals with nuclear fission power for electricity generation.
Civilian nuclear power supplied 2,563 terawatt hours (TWh) of electricity in 2018, equivalent to about
10% of global electricity generation, and was the second largest low-carbon power source
after hydroelectricity.[5][6] As of December 2019, there are 443 civilian fission reactors in the world, with a
combined electrical capacity of 395 gigawatt (GW). There are also 56 nuclear power reactors under
construction and 109 reactors planned, with a combined capacity of 60 GW and 120 GW,
respectively. [7] Most reactors under construction are generation III reactors in Asia.[8]
Nuclear power has one of the lowest levels of fatalities per unit of energy generated compared to other
energy sources. Coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydroelectricity each have caused more fatalities per
unit of energy due to air pollution and accidents.[9] Since its commercialization in the 1970s, nuclear
power has prevented about 1.84 million air pollution-related deaths and the emission of about 64 billion
tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of fossil fuels.
[10]
 Accidents in nuclear power plants include the Chernobyl disaster in the Soviet Union in 1986,
the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan in 2011, and the more contained Three Mile Island
accident in the United States in 1979. There have also been some nuclear submarine accidents.
There is a debate about nuclear power. Proponents, such as the World Nuclear
Association and Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy, contend that nuclear power is a safe, sustainable
energy source (see also Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy) that reduces carbon
emissions. Nuclear power opponents, such as Greenpeace and NIRS, contend that nuclear power
poses many threats to people and the environment.
Collaboration on research and development towards greater efficiency, safety and recycling of spent
fuel in future generation IV reactors presently includes Euratom and the co-operation of more than 10
permanent member countries globally.

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Origins
o 1.2First nuclear reactor
o 1.3Early years
o 1.4Development and early opposition to nuclear power
o 1.5Regulations, pricing and accidents
o 1.6Nuclear renaissance
o 1.7Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster
o 1.8Post-Fukushima
 2Future
o 2.1Extending plant lifetimes
 3Nuclear power station
 4Life cycle of nuclear fuel
o 4.1Conventional fuel resources
 4.1.1Unconventional fuel resources
o 4.2Breeding
o 4.3Nuclear waste
 4.3.1High-level radioactive waste
  4.3.2Low-level radioactive waste
 4.3.3Waste relative to other types
 4.3.4Waste disposal
o 4.4Reprocessing
o 4.5Nuclear decommissioning
 5Installed capacity and electricity production
 6Use in space
 7Economics
 8Accidents, attacks and safety
o 8.1Accidents
o 8.2Safety
o 8.3Attacks and sabotage
 9Nuclear proliferation
 10Environmental impact
o 10.1Carbon emissions
o 10.2Radiation
 11Renewable energy and nuclear power
 12Debate on nuclear power
 13Research
o 13.1Advanced fission reactor designs
o 13.2Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission
o 13.3Nuclear fusion
 14See also
 15References
 16Further reading
 17External links

History
Origins

The nuclear binding energy of all natural elements in the periodic table. Higher values translate into more tightly
bound nuclei and greater nuclear stability. Iron (Fe) is the end product of nucleosynthesis within the core
of hydrogen fusing stars. The elements surrounding iron are the fission products of the fissionable actinides (e.g.
uranium). Except for iron, all other elemental nuclei have in theory the potential to be nuclear fuel, and the greater
distance from iron the greater nuclear potential energy that could be released.

See also: Nuclear fission §  History, and Atomic Age

In 1932 physicist Ernest Rutherford discovered that when lithium atoms were "split" by protons from a
proton accelerator, immense amounts of energy were released in accordance with the principle
of mass–energy equivalence. However, he and other nuclear physics pioneers Niels Bohr and Albert
Einstein believed harnessing the power of the atom for practical purposes anytime in the near future
was unlikely.[11]
The same year, his doctoral student James Chadwick discovered the neutron,[12] which was immediately
recognized as a potential tool for nuclear experimentation because of its lack of an electric charge.
Experiments bombarding materials with neutrons led Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie to discover induced
radioactivity in 1934, which allowed the creation of radium-like elements. [13] Further work by Enrico
Fermi in the 1930s focused on using slow neutrons to increase the effectiveness of induced
radioactivity. Experiments bombarding uranium with neutrons led Fermi to believe he had created a
new transuranic element, which was dubbed hesperium.[14]
In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn[15] and Fritz Strassmann, along with Austrian physicist Lise
Meitner[16] and Meitner's nephew, Otto Robert Frisch,[17] conducted experiments with the products of
neutron-bombarded uranium, as a means of further investigating Fermi's claims. They determined that
the relatively tiny neutron split the nucleus of the massive uranium atoms into two roughly equal pieces,
contradicting Fermi.[14] This was an extremely surprising result: all other forms of nuclear decay involved
only small changes to the mass of the nucleus, whereas this process—dubbed "fission" as a reference
to biology—involved a complete rupture of the nucleus. Numerous scientists, including Leó Szilárd, who
was one of the first, recognized that if fission reactions released additional neutrons, a self-
sustaining nuclear chain reaction could result.[18][19] Once this was experimentally confirmed and
announced by Frédéric Joliot-Curie in 1939, scientists in many countries (including the United States,
the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union) petitioned their governments for support
of nuclear fission research, just on the cusp of World War II, for the development of a nuclear weapon.[20]

First nuclear reactor

In the United States, where Fermi and Szilárd had both emigrated, the discovery of the nuclear chain
reaction led to the creation of the first man-made reactor, the research reactor known as Chicago Pile-1,
which achieved criticality on December 2, 1942. The reactor's development was part of the Manhattan
Project, the Allied effort to create atomic bombs during World War II. It led to the building of larger
single-purpose production reactors, such as the X-10 Pile, for the production of weapons-grade
plutonium for use in the first nuclear weapons. The United States tested the first nuclear weapon in July
1945, the Trinity test, with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki taking place one month
later.

The first light bulbs ever lit by electricity generated by nuclear power at EBR-1 at Argonne National Laboratory-
West, December 20, 1951.[21] As the first liquid metal cooled reactor, it demonstrated Fermi's breeder
reactor principle to maximize the energy obtainable from natural uranium, which at that time was considered
scarce.[22]

In August 1945, the first widely distributed account of nuclear energy, the pocketbook The Atomic Age,
was released. It discussed the peaceful future uses of nuclear energy and depicted a future where fossil
fuels would go unused. Nobel laureate Glenn Seaborg, who later chaired the United States Atomic
Energy Commission, is quoted as saying "there will be nuclear powered earth-to-moon shuttles, nuclear
powered artificial hearts, plutonium heated swimming pools for SCUBA divers, and much more". [23]
In the same month, with the end of the war, Seaborg and others would file hundreds of initially
classified patents,[19] most notably Eugene Wigner and Alvin Weinberg's Patent #2,736,696, on a
conceptual light water reactor (LWR) that would later become the United States' primary reactor
for naval propulsion and later take up the greatest share of the commercial fission-electric landscape. [24]
The United Kingdom, Canada,[25] and the USSR proceeded to research and develop nuclear energy over
the course of the late 1940s and early 1950s.
Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951, at the EBR-
I experimental station near Arco, Idaho, which initially produced about 100 kW.[26][27] In 1953, American
President Dwight Eisenhower gave his "Atoms for Peace" speech at the United Nations, emphasizing
the need to develop "peaceful" uses of nuclear power quickly. This was followed by the Atomic Energy
Act of 1954 which allowed rapid declassification of U.S. reactor technology and encouraged
development by the private sector.

Early years

The launching ceremony of the USS  Nautilus January 1954. In 1958 it would become the first vessel to reach
the North Pole.[28]

The first organization to develop nuclear power was the U.S. Navy, with the S1W reactor for the purpose
of propelling submarines and aircraft carriers. The first nuclear-powered submarine, USS  Nautilus, was
put to sea in January 1954.[29][30] The trajectory of civil reactor design was heavily influenced by
Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, who with Weinberg as a close advisor, selected the PWR/Pressurized
Water Reactor design, in the form of a 10 MW reactor for the Nautilus, a decision that would result in the
PWR receiving a government commitment to develop, an engineering lead that would result in a lasting
impact on the civilian electricity market in the years to come. [31] The United States Navy Nuclear
Propulsion design and operation community, under Rickover's style of attentive management retains a
continuing record of zero reactor accidents (defined as the uncontrolled release of fission products to
the environment resulting from damage to a reactor core).[32][33] with the U.S. Navy fleet of nuclear-
powered ships, standing at some 80 vessels as of 2018. [34]
On June 27, 1954, the USSR's Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant, based on what would become the
prototype of the RBMK reactor design, became the world's first nuclear power plant to generate
electricity for a power grid, producing around 5 megawatts of electric power. [35]
Generation II reactor vessels size comparison, a design classification of commercial reactors built until the end of
the 1990s. The CANDU vessel is longer than it is tall. The PWR is the most compact and has the highest power
density, thus most suited to submarines.

On July 17, 1955 the BORAX III reactor, the prototype to later Boiling Water Reactors, became the first
to generate electricity for an entire community, the town of Arco, Idaho.[36] A motion picture record of the
demonstration, of supplying some 2 megawatts (2 MW) of electricity, was presented to the United
Nations,[37] Where at the "First Geneva Conference", the world's largest gathering of scientists and
engineers, met to explore the technology in that year. In 1957 EURATOM was launched alongside
the European Economic Community (the latter is now the European Union). The same year also saw
the launch of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

The Calder Hall nuclear power station in the United Kingdom was the world's first commercial nuclear power
station. It was connected to the national power grid on 27 August 1956 and officially revealed in a ceremony by
Queen Elizabeth II on 17 October 1956. In common with a number of other Generation I nuclear reactors, the plant
had the dual purpose of producing electrical power and plutonium-239, the latter for the nascent nuclear weapons
program in Britain.[38]
The 60 MWe Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Pennsylvania, opened in 1957 and originating from a
cancelled nuclear-powered aircraft carrier contract[39] the Pressurized water reactor design became the first
commercial reactor in the United States and the first devoted exclusively to peacetime uses. [40] Its early adoption, a
case of technological lock-in,[41] and familiarity among retired naval personnel, established the PWR as the
predominant civilian reactor design, that it still retains today in the US.

The world's first "commercial nuclear power station", Calder Hall at Windscale, England, was opened in
1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW per reactor (200 MW total), [42][43] it was the first of a fleet of dual-
purpose MAGNOX reactors, though officially code-named PIPPA (Pressurized Pile Producing Power
and Plutonium) by the UKAEA to denote the plant's dual commercial and military role. [44]
The U.S. Army Nuclear Power Program formally commenced in 1954. Under its management, the 2
megawatt SM-1, at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, was the first in the United States to supply electricity in an
industrial capacity to the commercial grid (VEPCO), in April 1957.[45]
The first commercial nuclear station to become operational in the United States was the 60
MW Shippingport Reactor (Pennsylvania), in December 1957.[46]
The 3 MW SL-1 was a U.S. Army experimental nuclear power reactor at the National Reactor Testing
Station, Idaho National Laboratory. It was derived from the Borax Boiling water reactor (BWR) design
and it first achieved operational criticality and connection to the grid in 1958. For reasons unknown, in
1961 a technician removed a control rod about 22 inches farther than the prescribed 4 inches. This
resulted in a steam explosion which killed the three crew members and caused a meltdown.[47][48] The
event was eventually rated at 4 on the seven-level INES scale.
In service from 1963 and operated as the experimental testbed for the later Alfa-class submarine fleet,
one of the two liquid-metal-cooled reactors on board the Soviet submarine  K-27, underwent a fuel
element failure accident in 1968, with the emission of gaseous fission products into the surrounding air,
producing 9 crew fatalities and 83 injuries. [49]

Development and early opposition to nuclear power

Number of generating and under construction civilian fission-electric reactors, over the period 1960 to 2015.

See also: Generation II reactor and United States Atomic Energy Commission §  Public opinion and
abolishment of the AEC
    PWR: 277 (63.2%)
   BWR: 80 (18.3%)
   GCR: 15 (3.4%)
   PHWR: 49 (11.2%)
   LWGR: 15 (3.4%)
   FBR: 2 (0.5%)
Number of electricity generating civilian reactors by type (end 2014): 277 Pressurized Water Reactors, 80 Boiling
Water Reactors, 15 Gas Cooled Reactors, 49 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (CANDU), 15 LWGR (RBMK),
and 2 Fast Breeder Reactors.[50]

The total global installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than
1 gigawatt (GW) in 1960 to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and 300 GW in the late 1980s. Since the late
1980s worldwide capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005. Between around
1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the
late 1970s and early 1980s)—in 2005, around 25 GW of new capacity was planned. More than two-
thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled. [29] A total of 63 nuclear
units were canceled in the United States between 1975 and 1980.[51]
In 1972 Alvin Weinberg, co-inventor of the light water reactor design (the most common nuclear reactors
today) was fired from his job at Oak Ridge National Laboratory by the Nixon administration, "at least in
part" over his raising of concerns about the safety and wisdom of ever larger scaling-up of his design,
especially above a power rating of ~500 MWe, as in a loss of coolant accident scenario, the decay
heat generated from such large compact solid-fuel cores was thought to be beyond the capabilities of
passive/natural convection cooling to prevent a rapid fuel rod melt-down and resulting in then, potential
far reaching fission product pluming. While considering the LWR, well suited at sea for the submarine
and naval fleet, Weinberg did not show complete support for its use by utilities on land at the power
output that they were interested in for supply scale reasons, and would request for a greater share
of AEC research funding to evolve his team's demonstrated, [52] Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment, a
design with greater inherent safety in this scenario and with that an envisioned greater economic growth
potential in the market of large-scale civilian electricity generation. [53][54][55]
Similar to the earlier BORAX reactor safety experiments, conducted by Argonne National Laboratory,
[56]
 in 1976 Idaho National Laboratory began a test program focused on LWR reactors under various
accident scenarios, with the aim of understanding the event progression and mitigating steps necessary
to respond to a failure of one or more of the disparate systems, with much of the redundant back-up
safety equipment and nuclear regulations drawing from these series of destructive testing investigations.
[57]

During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction times largely due
to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation) [58] and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power
plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s in the U.S. and 1990s in Europe, the flat
electric grid growth and electricity liberalization also made the addition of large new baseload energy
generators economically unattractive.

Electricity production in France, previously dominated by fossil fuels, has been dominated by nuclear power since
the early 1980s, and a large portion of that power is exported to neighboring countries.
  thermofossil
  hydroelectric
  nuclear
  Other renewables

The 1973 oil crisis had a significant effect on countries, such as France and Japan, which had relied
more heavily on oil for electric generation (39%[59] and 73% respectively) to invest in nuclear power.
[60]
 The French plan, known as the Messmer plan, was for the complete independence from oil, with an
envisaged construction of 80 reactors by 1985 and 170 by 2000. [61] France would construct 25 fission-
electric stations, installing 56 mostly PWR design reactors over the next 15 years, though foregoing the
100 reactors initially charted in 1973, for the 1990s. [62][63] In 2018, 72% of French electricity was
generated by 58 reactors, the highest percentage by any nation in the world. [64]
Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the U.S. in the early 1960s, beginning with the
proposed Bodega Bay station in California, in 1958, which produced conflict with local citizens and by
1964 the concept was ultimately abandoned.[65] In the late 1960s some members of the scientific
community began to express pointed concerns.[66] These anti-nuclear concerns related to nuclear
accidents, nuclear proliferation, nuclear terrorism and radioactive waste disposal.[67] In the early 1970s,
there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl, Germany. The project was
cancelled in 1975 the anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of
Europe and North America.[68][69] By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism gained a wider appeal and
influence, and nuclear power began to become an issue of major public protest. [70][71] In some countries,
the nuclear power conflict "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology
controversies".[72][73][73] In May 1979, an estimated 70,000 people, including then governor of
California Jerry Brown, attended a march against nuclear power in Washington, D.C.[74] Anti-nuclear
power groups emerged in every country that had a nuclear power programme.
Globally during the 1980s one new nuclear reactor started up every 17 days on average.[75]

Regulations, pricing and accidents

In the early 1970s, the increased public hostility to nuclear power in the United States lead the United
States Atomic Energy Commission and later the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to lengthen the license
procurement process, tighten engineering regulations and increase the requirements for safety
equipment.[76][77] Together with relatively minor percentage increases in the total quantity of steel, piping,
cabling and concrete per unit of installed nameplate capacity, the more notable changes to the
regulatory open public hearing-response cycle for the granting of construction licenses, had the effect of
what was once an initial 16 months for project initiation to the pouring of first concrete in 1967,
escalating to 32 months in 1972 and finally 54 months in 1980, which ultimately, quadrupled the price of
power reactors.[78][79]
Utility proposals in the U.S for nuclear generating stations, peaked at 52 in 1974, fell to 12 in 1976 and
have never recovered,[80] in large part due to the pressure-group litigation strategy, of launching lawsuits
against each proposed U.S construction proposal, keeping private utilities tied up in court for years, one
of which having reached the supreme court in 1978.[81] With permission to build a nuclear station in the
U.S. eventually taking longer than in any other industrial country, the spectre facing utilities of having to
pay interest on large construction loans while the anti-nuclear movement used the legal system to
produce delays, increasingly made the viability of financing construction, less certain. [80] By the close of
the 1970s it became clear that nuclear power would not grow nearly as dramatically as once believed.
Over 120 reactor proposals in the United States were ultimately cancelled[82] and the construction of new
reactors ground to a halt. A cover story in the February 11, 1985, issue of Forbes magazine commented
on the overall failure of the U.S. nuclear power program, saying it "ranks as the largest managerial
disaster in business history".[83]
According to some commentators, the 1979 accident at Three Mile Island (TMI) played a major part in
the reduction in the number of new plant constructions in many other countries. [66] According to the NRC,
TMI was the most serious accident in "U.S. commercial nuclear power plant operating history, even
though it led to no deaths or injuries to plant workers or members of the nearby community." [84] The
regulatory uncertainty and delays eventually resulted in an escalation of construction related debt that
led to the bankruptcy of Seabrook's major utility owner, Public Service Company of New Hampshire.
[85]
 At the time, the fourth largest bankruptcy in United States corporate history.[86]
Among American engineers, the cost increases from implementing the regulatory changes that resulted
from the TMI accident were, when eventually finalized, only a few percent of total construction costs for
new reactors, primarily relating to the prevention of safety systems from being turned off. With the most
significant engineering result of the TMI accident, the recognition that better operator training was
needed and that the existing emergency core cooling system of PWRs worked better in a real-world
emergency than members of the anti-nuclear movement had routinely claimed. [76][87]

The town of Pripyat abandoned since 1986, with the Chernobyl plant and the Chernobyl New Safe
Confinement arch in the distance.

The already slowing rate of new construction along with the shutdown in the 1980s of two existing
demonstration nuclear power stations in the Tennessee Valley, United States, when they couldn't
economically meet the NRC's new tightened standards, shifted electricity generation to coal-fired power
plants.[88] In 1977, following the first oil shock, U.S. President Jimmy Carter made a speech calling the
energy crisis the "moral equivalent of war" and prominently supporting nuclear power. However, nuclear
power could not compete with cheap oil and gas, particularly after public opposition and regulatory
hurdles made new nuclear prohibitively expensive. [89]
In 2006 The Brookings Institution, a public policy organization, stated that new nuclear units had not
been built in the United States because of soft demand for electricity, the potential cost overruns on
nuclear reactors due to regulatory issues and resulting construction delays. [90]
In 1982, amongst a backdrop of ongoing protests directed at the construction of the first commercial
scale breeder reactor in France, a later member of the Swiss Green Party fired five RPG-7 rocket-
propelled grenades at the still under construction containment building of the Superphenix reactor. Two
grenades hit and caused minor damage to the reinforced concrete outer shell. It was the first time
protests reached such heights. After examination of the superficial damage, the prototype fast breeder
reactor started and operated for over a decade. [91]
According to some commentators, the 1986 Chernobyl disaster played a major part in the reduction in
the number of new plant constructions in many other countries: [66] Unlike the Three Mile Island accident
the much more serious Chernobyl accident did not increase regulations or engineering changes
affecting Western reactors; because the RBMK design, which lacks safety features such as
"robust" containment buildings, was only used in the Soviet Union. [92] Over 10 RBMK reactors are still in
use today. However, changes were made in both the RBMK reactors themselves (use of a safer
enrichment of uranium) and in the control system (preventing safety systems being disabled), amongst
other things, to reduce the possibility of a similar accident. [93] Russia now largely relies upon, builds and
exports a variant of the PWR, the VVER, with over 20 in use today.
An international organization to promote safety awareness and the professional development of
operators in nuclear facilities, the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO), was created as a
direct outcome of the 1986 Chernobyl accident. The organization was created with the intent to share
and grow the adoption of nuclear safety culture, technology and community, where before there was an
atmosphere of cold war secrecy.
Numerous countries, including Austria (1978), Sweden (1980) and Italy (1987) (influenced by
Chernobyl) have voted in referendums to oppose or phase out nuclear power.

Nuclear renaissance

Olkiluoto 3 under construction in 2009. It was the first EPR, a modernized PWR design, to start construction.
Problems with workmanship and supervision have created costly delays. The reactor is estimated to cost three
times the initial estimate and will be delivered over 10 years behind schedule. [94]

500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
1997
2000
2005
2010
2015
2018
Nuclear power generation (TWh)[5]

100
200
300
400
500
1997
2000
2005
2010
2015
2018
Operational nuclear reactors[5]

Main article: Nuclear renaissance

In the early 2000s, the nuclear industry was expecting a nuclear renaissance, an increase in the
construction of new reactors, due to concerns about carbon dioxide emissions. [95] However, in 2009,
Petteri Tiippana, the director of STUK's nuclear power plant division, told the BBC that it was difficult to
deliver a Generation III reactor project on schedule because builders were not used to working to the
exacting standards required on nuclear construction sites, since so few new reactors had been built in
recent years.[96]
In 2018 the MIT Energy Initiative study on the future of nuclear energy concluded that, together with the
strong suggestion that government should financially support development and demonstration of new
Generation IV nuclear technologies, for a worldwide renaissance to commence, a global standardization
of regulations needs to take place, with a move towards serial manufacturing of standardized units akin
to the other complex engineering field of aircraft and aviation. At present it is common for each country
to demand bespoke changes to the design to satisfy varying national regulatory bodies, often to the
benefit of domestic engineering supply firms. The report goes on to note that the most cost-effective
projects have been built with multiple (up to six) reactors per site using a standardized design, with the
same component suppliers and construction crews working on each unit, in a continuous work flow. [97]

Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster

Main article: Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster
See also: Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant
Following the Tōhoku earthquake on 11 March 2011, one of the largest earthquakes ever recorded, and
a subsequent tsunami off the coast of Japan, the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant suffered three
core meltdowns due to failure of the emergency cooling system for lack of electricity supply. This
resulted in the most serious nuclear accident since the Chernobyl disaster.
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident prompted a re-examination of nuclear safety and nuclear
energy policy in many countries[98] and raised questions among some commentators over the future of
the renaissance.[99][95] Germany approved plans to close all its reactors by 2022. Italian nuclear energy
plans[100] ended when Italy banned the generation, but not consumption, of nuclear electricity in a June
2011 referendum.[101][98] China, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, and the
Philippines reviewed their nuclear power programs. [102][103][104][105]
In 2011 the International Energy Agency halved its prior estimate of new generating capacity to be built
by 2035.[106][107] Nuclear power generation had the biggest ever fall year-on-year in 2012, with nuclear
power plants globally producing 2,346 TWh of electricity, a drop of 7% from 2011. This was caused
primarily by the majority of Japanese reactors remaining offline that year and the permanent closure of
eight reactors in Germany.[108]

Post-Fukushima
See also: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster §  Equipment, facility, and operational changes
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident sparked controversy about the importance of the accident and
its effect on nuclear's future. The crisis prompted countries with nuclear power to review the safety of
their reactor fleet and reconsider the speed and scale of planned nuclear expansions. [109] In 2011, The
Economist opined that nuclear power "looks dangerous, unpopular, expensive and risky", and
suggested a nuclear phase-out.[110] Jeffrey Sachs, Earth Institute Director, disagreed claiming combating
climate change would require an expansion of nuclear power. [111] Investment banks were also critical of
nuclear soon after the accident.[112][113]
In 2011 German engineering giant Siemens said it would withdraw entirely from the nuclear industry in
response to the Fukushima accident.[114][115] In 2017, Siemens set the "milestone" of supplying the
first additive manufacturing part to a nuclear power station, at the Krško Nuclear Power
Plant in Slovenia, which it regards as an "industry breakthrough". [116]
The Associated Press and Reuters reported in 2011 the suggestion that the safety and survival of the
younger Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, the closest reactor facility to the epicenter and on the coast,
demonstrate that it is possible for nuclear facilities to withstand the greatest natural disasters. The
Onagawa plant was also said to show that nuclear power can retain public trust, with the surviving
residents of the town of Onagawa taking refuge in the gymnasium of the nuclear facility following the
destruction of their town.[117][118]
The locations, primarily those adjacent to both decommissioned and operational reactors, across the U.S.
where nuclear waste is stored and the planned Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository.

Following an IAEA inspection in 2012, the agency stated that "The structural elements of the [Onagawa]
NPS (nuclear power station) were remarkably undamaged given the magnitude of ground motion
experienced and the duration and size of this great earthquake,”. [119][120]
In February 2012, the U.S. NRC approved the construction of 2 reactors at the Vogtle Electric
Generating Plant, the first approval in 30 years.[121][122]
In August 2015, following 4 years of near zero fission-electricity generation, Japan began restarting its
nuclear reactors, after safety upgrades were completed, beginning with Sendai Nuclear Power Plant.[123]
By 2015, the IAEA's outlook for nuclear energy had become more promising. "Nuclear power is a critical
element in limiting greenhouse gas emissions," the agency noted, and "the prospects for nuclear energy
remain positive in the medium to long term despite a negative impact in some countries in the aftermath
of the [Fukushima-Daiichi] accident...it is still the second-largest source worldwide of low-carbon
electricity. And the 72 reactors under construction at the start of last year were the most in 25
years."[124] As of 2015 the global trend was for new nuclear power stations coming online to be balanced
by the number of old plants being retired. [125] Eight new grid connections were completed by China in
2015.[126][127]
Kharecha and Hansen estimated that "global nuclear power has prevented an average of 1.84 million air
pollution-related deaths and 64 gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent (GtCO2-eq) greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions that would have resulted from fossil fuel burning" and, if continued, it could prevent up to 7
million deaths and 240 GtCO2-eq emissions by 2050.[10]

Future
See also: Nuclear energy policy and Mitigation of global warming

The Hanul Nuclear Power Plant in South Korea, as of 2019 the second highest generating output in the world, [128] by
means of operating six power reactors with two additional indigenously-designed APR-1400 generation-III reactors
under construction. South Korea exported the APR design to the United Arab Emirates, where four of these
reactors are under construction at Barakah nuclear power plant.
As of 2018, there are over 150 nuclear reactors planned including 50 under construction. [129] However,
while investment on upgrades of existing plant and life-time extensions continues, [130] investment in new
nuclear is declining, reaching a 5-year-low in 2017.
In 2016, the U.S. Energy Information Administration projected for its “base case” that world nuclear
power generation would increase from 2,344 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2012 to 4,500 TWh in 2040. Most
of the predicted increase was expected to be in Asia. [131]
The future of nuclear power varies greatly between countries, depending on government policies. Some
countries, most notably, Germany, have adopted policies of nuclear power phase-out. At the same time,
some Asian countries, such as China [132] and India,[133] have committed to rapid expansion of nuclear
power. Many other countries, such as the United Kingdom [134] and the United States, have policies in
between. Japan generated about 30% of its electricity from nuclear power before the Fukushima
accident. In 2015 the Japanese government committed to the aim of restarting its fleet of 40 reactors by
2030 after safety upgrades, and to finish the construction of the Generation III Ōma Nuclear Power
Plant.[135] This would mean that approximately 20% of electricity would come from nuclear power by
2030. As of 2018, some reactors have restarted commercial operation following inspections and
upgrades with new regulations.[136] While South Korea has a large nuclear power industry, the new
government in 2017, influenced by a vocal anti-nuclear movement, [137] committed to halting nuclear
development after the completion of the facilities presently under construction. [138][139]

The Generation IV roadmap. Nuclear Energy Systems Deployable no later than 2030 and offering significant
advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, and economics.

The nuclear power industry in some western nations have a history of construction delays, cost
overruns, plant cancellations, and nuclear safety issues, despite significant government subsidies and
support.[83][140][141][142] These problems are related to very strict safety requirements, uncertain regulatory
environment, slow rate of construction, and large stretches of time with no nuclear construction and
consequent loss of know-how. Commentators therefore argue that new nuclear is impractical in western
countries because of popular opposition, regulatory uncertainty, soft demand for multiple reactor units
and high costs.[143][144][145] The bankruptcy of Westinghouse in March 2017 due to US$9 billion of losses
from the halting of construction at Virgil C. Summer Nuclear Generating Station, in the U.S. is
considered an advantage for eastern companies, for the future export and design of nuclear fuel and
reactors.[146][147] In 2016, Greenpeace and the wind industry company Ecotricity criticized the high cost of
the Hinkley Point C nuclear power station and threatened to take action in British or French courts or
lodge a complaint with the European Commission, in order to trigger an investigation, which they said
could last as long as a year.[148]
The greatest new build activity is occurring in Asian countries like South Korea, India and China. In
January 2019, China had 45 reactors in operation, 13 under construction, and plans to build 43 more,
which would make it the world's largest generator of nuclear electricity. [132]
Blue light from Cherenkov radiation/emission, produced near the core of the Advanced Test Reactor. One of many
facilities taking part in future fuel-cycle/Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiatives, investigating fast-spectrums and thereby
also indicative of Fusion-Fission hybrid neutron-spectrums, that could transmute 'waste' and with the particular
focus upon the actinide proportion, into what could become suitable mixed-fuel forms, with the overall intent that
the new fuel-cycles may then find use in commercial reactors, thereby reducing a number of the security hazards
of, what is all presently considered "waste".[149][150]

In 2016 the BN-800 sodium cooled fast reactor in Russia, began commercial electricity generation, while
plans for a BN-1200 were initially conceived the future of the fast reactor program in Russia awaits the
results from MBIR, an under construction multi-loop Generation research facility for testing the
chemically more inert lead, lead-bismuth and gas coolants, it will similarly run on recycled MOX (mixed
uranium and plutonium oxide) fuel. An on-site pyrochemical processing, closed fuel-cycle facility, is
planned, to recycle the spent fuel/"waste" and reduce the necessity for a growth in uranium mining and
exploration. In 2017 the manufacture program for the reactor commenced with the facility open to
collaboration under the "International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycle", it has a
construction schedule, that includes an operational start in 2020. As planned, it will be the world's most-
powerful research reactor.[151]

Extending plant lifetimes

As of 2019 the cost of extending plant lifetimes is competitive with other electricity generation
technologies, including new solar and wind projects. [6] In the United States, licenses of almost half of the
operating nuclear reactors have been extended to 60 years.[152] The U.S. NRC and the U.S. Department
of Energy have initiated research into Light water reactor sustainability which is hoped will lead to
allowing extensions of reactor licenses beyond 60 years, provided that safety can be maintained, to
increase energy security and preserve low-carbon generation sources. Research into nuclear reactors
that can last 100 years, known as Centurion Reactors, is being conducted.[153]

Nuclear power station

An animation of a Pressurized water reactor in operation.

Main article: Nuclear power station

See also: List of nuclear reactors
Just as many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal
energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants convert the energy released from
the nucleus of an atom via nuclear fission that takes place in a nuclear reactor. When a neutron hits the
nucleus of a uranium-235 or plutonium atom, it can split the nucleus into two smaller nuclei. The
reaction is called nuclear fission. The fission reaction releases energy and neutrons. The released
neutrons can hit other uranium or plutonium nuclei, causing new fission reactions, which release more
energy and more neutrons. This is called a chain reaction. The reaction rate is controlled by control
rods that absorb excess neutrons. The controllability of nuclear reactors depends on the fact that a
small fraction of neutrons resulting from fission are delayed. The time delay between the fission and the
release of the neutrons slows down changes in reaction rates and gives time for moving the control rods
to adjust the reaction rate.[154][155]
A fission nuclear power plant is generally composed of a nuclear reactor, in which the nuclear reactions
generating heat take place; a cooling system, which removes the heat from inside the reactor; a steam
turbine, which transforms the heat in mechanical energy; an electric generator, which transform the
mechanical energy into electrical energy.[154]

Life cycle of nuclear fuel

The nuclear fuel cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and manufactured into nuclear fuel, (1) which is
delivered to a nuclear power plant. After usage in the power plant, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing
plant (2) or to a final repository (3) for geological disposition. In reprocessing 95% of spent fuel can potentially be
recycled to be returned to usage in a power plant (4).

Main articles: Nuclear fuel cycle and Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System

The life cycle of nuclear fuel starts with Uranium mining, which can be underground, open-pit, or in-situ
leach mining, an increasing number of the highest output mines are remote underground operations,
such as McArthur River uranium mine, in Canada, which by itself accounts for 13% of global production.
The uranium ore, now independent from the ore body is then, as is shared in common with other metal
mining, converted into a compact ore concentrate form, known in the case of uranium as
"yellowcake"((U3O8) to facilitate transport.
In reactors that can sustain the neutron economy with the use of graphite or heavy water moderators,
the reactor fuel can be this natural uranium on reducing to the much denser black ceramic oxide (UO 2)
form. For light water reactors, the fuel for which requires a further isotopic refining, the yellowcake is
converted to the only suitable monoatomic uranium molecule, that is a gas just above room
temperature, uranium hexafluoride, which is then sent through gaseous enrichment. In civilian light
water reactors, Uranium is typically enriched to 3-5% uranium-235, and then generally converted back
into a black powdered ceramic uranium oxide(UO2) form, that is then compressively sintered into fuel
pellets, a stack of which forms fuel rods of the proper composition and geometry for the particular
reactor that the fuel is needed in.
In modern light-water reactors the fuel rods will typically spend 3 operational cycles (about 6 years)
inside the reactor, generally until about 3% of the uranium has been fissioned. Afterwards, they will be
moved to a spent fuel pool which provides cooling for the thermal heat and shielding for ionizing
radiation. Depending largely upon burnup efficiency, after about 5 years in a spent fuel pool the spent
fuel is radioactively and thermally cool enough to handle, and can be moved to dry storage casks or
reprocessed.

Conventional fuel resources

Main articles: Uranium market and Energy development – Nuclear
Proportions of the isotopes uranium-238 (blue) and uranium-235 (red) found in natural uranium and in enriched
uranium for different applications. Light water reactors use 3-5% enriched uranium, while CANDU reactors work
with natural uranium.

Uranium is a fairly common element in the Earth's crust: it is approximately as common

as tin or germanium, and is about 40 times more common than silver.[156] Uranium is present in trace
concentrations in most rocks, dirt, and ocean water, but is generally economically extracted only where
it is present in high concentrations. As of 2011 the world's known resources of uranium, economically
recoverable at the arbitrary price ceiling of US$130/kg, were enough to last for between 70 and 100
years.[157][158][159]
The OECD's red book of 2011 said that conventional uranium resources had grown by 12.5% since
2008 due to increased exploration, with this increase translating into greater than a century of uranium
available if the rate of use were to continue at the 2011 level. [160][161][page  needed] In 2007, the OECD estimated
670 years of economically recoverable uranium in total conventional resources and phosphate ores
assuming the then-current use rate.[162]
Light water reactors make relatively inefficient use of nuclear fuel, mostly fissioning only the very rare
uranium-235 isotope.[163] Nuclear reprocessing can make this waste reusable. [163] Newer generation III
reactors also achieve a more efficient use of the available resources than the generation II
reactors which make up the vast majority of reactors worldwide. [163] With a pure fast reactor fuel cycle
with a burn up of all the Uranium and actinides (which presently make up the most hazardous
substances in nuclear waste), there is an estimated 160,000 years worth of Uranium in total
conventional resources and phosphate ore at the price of 60–100 US$/kg. [164]
Unconventional fuel resources
Unconventional uranium resources also exist. Uranium is naturally present in seawater at a
concentration of about 3 micrograms per liter,[165][166][167][168][169] with 4.5 billion tons of uranium considered
present in seawater at any time. In 2012 it was estimated that this fuel source could be extracted at 10
times the current price of uranium.[170]
In 2014, with the advances made in the efficiency of seawater uranium extraction, it was suggested that
it would be economically competitive to produce fuel for light water reactors from seawater if the process
was implemented at large scale.[171] Uranium extracted on an industrial scale from seawater would
constantly be replenished by both river erosion of rocks and the natural process of
uranium dissolved from the surface area of the ocean floor, both of which maintain the solubility
equilibria of seawater concentration at a stable level.[169] Some commentators have argued that this
strengthens the case for Nuclear power to be considered a renewable energy [172]

Breeding

Nuclear fuel assemblies being inspected before entering a pressurized water reactor in the United States.

Main articles: Breeder reactor and Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy

As opposed to light water reactors which use uranium-235 (0.7% of all natural uranium), fast breeder
reactors use uranium-238 (99.3% of all natural uranium) or thorium. A number of fuel cycles and
breeder reactor combinations are considered to be sustainable and/or renewable sources of energy. [173]
[174]
 In 2006 it was estimated that with seawater extraction, there was likely some five billion years' worth
of uranium-238 for use in breeder reactors.[175]
Breeder technology has been used in several reactors, but the high cost of reprocessing fuel safely, at
2006 technological levels, requires uranium prices of more than US$200/kg before becoming justified
economically.[176] Breeder reactors are however being pursued as they have the potential to burn up all of
the actinides in the present inventory of nuclear waste while also producing power and creating
additional quantities of fuel for more reactors via the breeding process. [177][178]
As of 2017, there are two breeders producing commercial power, BN-600 reactor and the BN-800
reactor, both in Russia.[179] The BN-600, with a capacity of 600 MW, was built in 1980 in Beloyarsk and is
planned to produce power until 2025.[179] The BN-800 is an updated version of the BN-600, and started
operation in 2014.[179] The Phénix breeder reactor in France was powered down in 2009 after 36 years of
operation.[179]
Both China and India are building breeder reactors. The Indian 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder
Reactor is in the commissioning phase,[180] with plans to build more.[181]
Another alternative to fast breeders are thermal breeder reactors that use uranium-233 bred
from thorium as fission fuel in the thorium fuel cycle.[182] Thorium is about 3.5 times more common than
uranium in the Earth's crust, and has different geographic characteristics. [182] This would extend the total
practical fissionable resource base by 450%.[182] India's three-stage nuclear power programme features
the use of a thorium fuel cycle in the third stage, as it has abundant thorium reserves but little uranium.
[182]

Nuclear waste
See also: Sievert §  Dose rate examples

The lifecycle of fuel in the present US system. If put in one place the total inventory of spent nuclear fuel generated
by the commercial fleet of power stations in the United States, would stand 7.6 metres (25 ft) tall and be 91 metres
(300 ft) on a side, approximately the footprint of one American football field.[183][184]

The most important waste stream from nuclear power reactors is spent nuclear fuel. From LWRs, it is
typically composed of 95% uranium, 4% fission products from the energy generating nuclear fission
reactions, as well as about 1% transuranic actinides (mostly reactor grade
plutonium, neptunium and americium)[185] from unavoidable neutron capture events. The plutonium and
other transuranics are responsible for the bulk of the long-term radioactivity, whereas the fission
products are responsible for the bulk of the short-term radioactivity. [186]
High-level radioactive waste
See also: Reactor-grade plutonium §  Reuse in reactors, and List of nuclear waste treatment
technologies
Typical composition of uranium dioxide fuel before and after approximately 3 years in the once-through nuclear fuel
cycle of a LWR.[187] Thermal neutron-spectrum-reactors, which presently constitute the majority of the world fleet,
cannot burn up the reactor grade plutonium that is generated, limiting the effective useful fuel life to a few years at
most. Reactors in Europe and Asia are permitted to burn later refined MOX fuel, though the burnup is similarly not
complete.

Activity of spent UOx fuel in comparison to the activity of natural uranium ore over the years.[188][187] In the long
term, plutonium isotopes and minor actinides that are generated constitute the primary hazard. The long lived
fission products Tc-99 and I-129, though less radioactive than the natural uranium ore they derived from, [189] are the
focus of much thought on containing, or transmutating and producing products with more socially acceptable
storage projections.[188]

Following interim storage in a spent fuel pool, the bundles of used fuel rod assemblies of a typical nuclear power
station are often stored on site in the likes of the eight dry cask storage vessels pictured above.[190] At Yankee Rowe
Nuclear Power Station, which generated 44 billion kilowatt hours of electricity when in service, its complete spent
fuel inventory is contained within sixteen casks. [191] It is commonly estimated that to produce a per capita lifetime
supply of energy at a western standard of living, approximately 3 GWh, would require on the order of the volume of
a soda can of Low enriched uranium per person and thus result in a similar volume of spent fuel generated. [183][184][192]

The high-level radioactive waste/spent fuel that is generated from power production, requires treatment,
management and isolation from the environment. The technical issues in accomplishing this are
considerable, due to the extremely long periods some particularly sublimation prone, mildly radioactive
wastes, remain potentially hazardous to living organisms, namely the long-lived fission
products, technetium-99 (half-life 220,000 years) and iodine-129 (half-life 15.7 million years),[193] which
dominate the waste stream in radioactivity after the more intensely radioactive short-lived fission
products(SLFPs)[187] have decayed into stable elements, which takes approximately 300 years. To
successfully isolate the LLFP waste from the biosphere, either separation and transmutation,[187][194] or
some variation of a synroc treatment and deep geological storage, is commonly suggested. [195][196][197][198]
While in the US, spent fuel is presently in its entirety, federally classified as a nuclear waste and is
treated similarly,[199] in other countries it is largely reprocessed to produce a partially recycled fuel, known
as mixed oxide fuel or MOX. For spent fuel that does not undergo reprocessing, the most concerning
isotopes are the medium-lived transuranic elements, which are led by reactor grade plutonium (half-life
24,000 years).[200]
Some proposed reactor designs, such as the American Integral Fast Reactor and the Molten salt
reactor can more completely use or burnup the spent reactor grade plutonium fuel and other minor
actinides, generated from light water reactors, as under the designed fast fission spectrum, these
elements are more likely to fission and produce the aforementioned fission products in their place. This
offers a potentially more attractive alternative to deep geological disposal. [201][202][203]
The thorium fuel cycle results in similar fission products, though creates a much smaller proportion
of transuranic elements from neutron capture events within a reactor. Therefore, spent thorium fuel,
breeding the true fuel of fissile uranium-233, is somewhat less concerning from a radiotoxic and security
standpoint.[204]
Low-level radioactive waste
See also: Low-level waste
The nuclear industry also produces a large volume of low-level radioactive waste in the form of
contaminated items like clothing, hand tools, water purifier resins, and (upon decommissioning) the
materials of which the reactor itself is built. Low-level waste can be stored on-site until radiation levels
are low enough to be disposed as ordinary waste, or it can be sent to a low-level waste disposal site. [205]
Waste relative to other types
See also: Radioactive waste §  Naturally occurring radioactive material
In countries with nuclear power, radioactive wastes account for less than 1% of total industrial toxic
wastes, much of which remains hazardous for long periods. [163] Overall, nuclear power produces far less
waste material by volume than fossil-fuel based power plants. [206] Coal-burning plants are particularly
noted for producing large amounts of toxic and mildly radioactive ash due to concentrating naturally
occurring metals and mildly radioactive material in coal.[207] A 2008 report from Oak Ridge National
Laboratory concluded that coal power actually results in more radioactivity being released into the
environment than nuclear power operation, and that the population effective dose equivalent, or dose to
the public from radiation from coal plants is 100 times as much as from the operation of nuclear plants.
[208]
 Although coal ash is much less radioactive than spent nuclear fuel on a weight per weight basis, coal
ash is produced in much higher quantities per unit of energy generated, and this is released directly into
the environment as fly ash, whereas nuclear plants use shielding to protect the environment from
radioactive materials, for example, in dry cask storage vessels.[209]
Waste disposal

The placement of Nuclear waste flasks, generated during US cold war activities, underground at the WIPP facility.
The facility is seen as a potential demonstration, for later civilian generated spent fuel, or constituents of it.

Disposal of nuclear waste is often considered the most politically divisive aspect in the lifecycle of a
nuclear power facility.[210] Presently, waste is mainly stored at individual reactor sites and there are over
430 locations around the world where radioactive material continues to accumulate. Some experts
suggest that centralized underground repositories which are well-managed, guarded, and monitored,
would be a vast improvement.[210] There is an "international consensus on the advisability of storing
nuclear waste in deep geological repositories",[211] with the lack of movement of nuclear waste in the 2
billion year old natural nuclear fission reactors in Oklo, Gabon being cited as "a source of essential
information today."[212][213]
Most waste packaging, small-scale experimental fuel recycling chemistry and radiopharmaceutical refinement is
conducted within remote-handled Hot cells.

There are no commercial scale purpose built underground high-level waste repositories in operation. [211]
[214][215][141]
 However, in Finland the Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository is under construction as of 2015.
[216]
 The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in New Mexico has been taking nuclear waste since 1999
from production reactors, but as the name suggests is a research and development facility. In 2014 a
radiation leak caused by violations in the use of chemically reactive packaging [217] brought renewed
attention to the need for quality control management, along with some initial calls for more R&D into the
alternative methods of disposal for radioactive waste and spent fuel. [218] In 2017, the facility was formally
reopened after three years of investigation and cleanup, with the resumption of new storage taking
place later that year.[219]
The U.S Nuclear Waste Policy Act, a fund which previously received $750 million in fee revenues each
year from the nation's combined nuclear electric utilities, had an unspent balance of $44.5 billion as of
the end of FY2017, when a court ordered the federal government to cease withdrawing the fund, until it
provides a destination for the utilities commercial spent fuel. [220]
Horizontal drillhole disposal describes proposals to drill over one kilometer vertically, and two kilometers
horizontally in the earth’s crust, for the purpose of disposing of high-level waste forms such as spent
nuclear fuel, Caesium-137, or Strontium-90. After the emplacement and the retrievability period, [clarification
needed]
 drillholes would be backfilled and sealed.[221][222]

Reprocessing
Further information: Nuclear reprocessing
See also: Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement
Reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel by the PUREX method, first developed in the 1940s to produce plutonium for
nuclear weapons,[223] was demonstrated commercially in Belgium to partially re-fuel a LWR in the 1960s. [224] This
aqueous chemical process continues to be used commercially to separate reactor grade plutonium (RGPu) for
reuse as MOX fuel. It remains controversial, as plutonium can be used to make nuclear weapons. [225][226]

The most developed, though commercially unfielded, alternative reprocessing method, is Pyroprocessing,
 suggested as part of the depicted metallic-fueled, Integral fast reactor (IFR) a sodium fast reactor concept of the
[227]

1990s. After the spent fuel is dissolved in molten salt, all of the recyclable actinides, consisting largely of plutonium
and uranium though with important minor constituents, are extracted using electrorefining/electrowinning. The
resulting mixture keeps the plutonium at all times in an unseparated gamma and alpha emitting actinide form, that
is also mildly self-protecting in theft scenarios.[228]

Most thermal reactors run on a once-through fuel cycle, mainly due to the low price of fresh uranium,
though many reactors are also fueled with recycled fissionable materials that remain in spent nuclear
fuel. The most common fissionable material that is recycled is the reactor-grade plutonium (RGPu) that
is extracted from spent fuel, it is mixed with uranium oxide and fabricated into mixed-oxide or MOX fuel.
The first LWR designs certified to operate on a full core of MOX fuel, the ABWR and the System 80,
began to appear in the 1990s.[229][230] The potential for recycling the spent fuel a second time is limited by
undesirable neutron economy issues using second-generation MOX fuel in thermal-reactors. These
issues do not affect fast reactors, which are therefore preferred in order to achieve the full energy
potential of the original uranium.[231][232] The only commercial demonstration of twice recycled, high burnup
fuel to date, occurred in the Phénix fast reactor.[233]
Because thermal LWRs remain the most common reactor worldwide, the most typical form of
commercial spent fuel recycling is to recycle the plutonium a single time as MOX fuel, as is done in
France, where it is considered to increase the sustainability of the nuclear fuel cycle, reduce the
attractiveness of spent fuel to theft and lower the volume of high level nuclear waste. [234] Reprocessing of
civilian fuel from power reactors is also currently done in the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan, and India.
The main constituent of spent fuel from the most common light water reactor, is uranium that is slightly
more enriched than natural uranium, which can be recycled, though there is a lower incentive to do so.
Most of this "recovered uranium",[235] or at times referred to as reprocessed uranium, remains in storage.
It can however be used in a fast reactor, used directly as fuel in CANDU reactors, or re-enriched for
another cycle through an LWR. The direct use of recovered uranium to fuel a CANDU reactor was first
demonstrated at Quishan, China.[236] The first re-enriched uranium reload to fuel a commercial LWR,
occurred in 1994 at the Cruas unit 4, France.[237][238] Re-enriching of reprocessed uranium is common in
France and Russia.[239] When reprocessed uranium, namely Uranium-236, is part of the fuel of LWRs, it
generates a spent fuel and plutonium isotope stream with greater inherent self-protection, than the
once-thru fuel cycle.[240][241][242]
While reprocessing offers the potential recovery of up to 95% of the remaining uranium and plutonium
fuel, in spent nuclear fuel and a reduction in long term radioactivity within the remaining waste.
Reprocessing has been politically controversial because of the potential to contribute to nuclear
proliferation and varied perceptions of increasing the vulnerability to nuclear terrorism and because of its
higher fuel cost, compared to the once-through fuel cycle. [231][243] Similarly, while reprocessing reduces the
volume of high-level waste, it does not reduce the fission products that are the primary residual heat
generating and radioactive substances for the first few centuries outside the reactor, thus still requiring
an almost identical container-spacing for the initial first few hundred years, within proposed geological
waste isolation facilities. However much of the opposition to the Yucca Mountain project and those
similar to it, primarily center not around fission products but the "plutonium mine" concern that placed in
the underground, un-reprocessed spent fuel, will eventually become. [244][245]
In the United States, spent nuclear fuel is currently not reprocessed. [239] A major recommendation of
the Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future was that "the United States should
undertake...one or more permanent deep geological facilities for the safe disposal of spent fuel and
high-level nuclear waste".[246]
The French La Hague reprocessing facility has operated commercially since 1976 and is responsible for
half the world's reprocessing as of 2010.[247] Having produced MOX fuel from spent fuel derived from
France, Japan, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Spain and the Netherlands, with the non-
recyclable part of the spent fuel eventually sent back to the user nation. More than 32,000 tonnes of
spent fuel had been reprocessed as of 2015, with the majority from France, 17% from Germany, and
9% from Japan.[248] Once a source of criticism from Greenpeace, more recently the organization have
ceased attempting to criticize the facility on technical grounds, having succeeded at performing the
process without serious incidents that have been frequent at other such facilities around the world. In
the past, the antinuclear movement argued that reprocessing would not be technically or economically
feasible.[249] A PUREX related facility, frequently considered to be the proprietary COEX,[250] designed
by Areva, is a major long term commitment of the PRC with the intention to supply by 2030, Chinese
reactors with economically separated and indigenous recycled fuel. [251][252]

Nuclear decommissioning
Main article: nuclear decommissioning
The financial costs of every nuclear power plant continues for some time after the facility has finished
generating its last useful electricity. Once no longer economically viable, nuclear reactors and uranium
enrichment facilities are generally decommissioned, returning the facility and its parts to a safe enough
level to be entrusted for other uses, such as greenfield status. After a cooling-off period that may last
decades, reactor core materials are dismantled and cut into small pieces to be packed in containers for
interim storage or transmutation experiments.
In the United States a Nuclear Waste Policy Act and Nuclear Decommissioning Trust Fund is legally
required, with utilities banking 0.1 to 0.2 cents/kWh during operations to fund future decommissioning.
They must report regularly to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) on the status of their
decommissioning funds. About 70% of the total estimated cost of decommissioning all U.S. nuclear
power reactors has already been collected (on the basis of the average cost of $320 million per reactor-
steam turbine unit).[253]
In the United States in 2011, there are 13 reactors that had permanently shut down and are in some
phase of decommissioning.[254] With Connecticut Yankee Nuclear Power Plant and Yankee Rowe
Nuclear Power Station having completed the process in 2006–2007, after ceasing commercial electricity
production circa 1992. The majority of the 15 years, was used to allow the station to naturally cool-down
on its own, which makes the manual disassembly process both safer and cheaper. Decommissioning at
nuclear sites which have experienced a serious accident are the most expensive and time-consuming.

Installed capacity and electricity production

Further information: Nuclear power by country and List of nuclear reactors
Share of electricity produced by nuclear power in the world

The status of nuclear power globally (click image for legend)

Net electrical generation by source and growth from 1980 to 2010. (Brown) – fossil fuels. (Red) – Fission. (Green)
– "all renewables". In terms of energy generated between 1980 and 2010, the contribution from fission grew the
fastest.

The rate of new construction builds for civilian fission-electric reactors essentially halted in the late 1980s, with the
effects of accidents having a chilling effect. Increased capacity factor realizations in existing reactors was primarily
responsible for the continuing increase in electrical energy produced during this period. The halting of new builds c.
1985, resulted in greater fossil fuel generation, see above graph.

Electricity generation trends in the top five fission-energy producing countries (US EIA data)
Nuclear fission power stations, excluding the contribution from naval nuclear fission reactors, provided
11% of the world's electricity in 2012,[255] somewhat less than that generated by hydro-electric stations at
16%. Since electricity accounts for about 25% of humanity's energy usage with the majority of the rest
coming from fossil fuel reliant sectors such as transport, manufacture and home heating, nuclear
fission's contribution to the global final energy consumption was about 2.5%.[256] This is a little more than
the combined global electricity production from wind, solar, biomass and geothermal power, which
together provided 2% of global final energy consumption in 2014. [257]
In addition, there were approximately 140 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion in operation, powered
by about 180 reactors.[258][259]
Nuclear power's share of global electricity production has fallen from 16.5% in 1997 to about 10% in
2017, in large part because the economics of nuclear power have become more difficult. [260]
Regional differences in the use of nuclear power are large. The United States produces the most
nuclear energy in the world, with nuclear power providing 19% of the electricity it consumes, while
France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors – 72% as of 2018.
[64]
 In the European Union as a whole nuclear power provides 25% of the electricity as of 2017.
[261]
 Nuclear power is the single largest low-carbon electricity source in the United States, [262] and accounts
for two-thirds of the European Union's low-carbon electricity.[263] Nuclear energy policy differs among
European Union countries, and some, such as Austria, Estonia, Ireland and Italy, have no active nuclear
power stations.
Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreakers) ships use nuclear marine propulsion.[264] A
few space vehicles have been launched using nuclear reactors: 33 reactors belong to the
Soviet RORSAT series and one was the American SNAP-10A.
International research is continuing into additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen production (in
support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea water, and for use in district heating systems.[265]

Use in space

The Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG), used in several space missions such as

the Curiosity Mars rover

Main article: Nuclear power in space

Both fission and fusion appear promising for space propulsion applications, generating higher mission
velocities with less reaction mass. This is due to the much higher energy density of nuclear reactions:
some 7 orders of magnitude (10,000,000 times) more energetic than the chemical reactions which
power the current generation of rockets.
Radioactive decay has been used on a relatively small scale (few kW), mostly to power space
missions and experiments by using radioisotope thermoelectric generators such as those developed
at Idaho National Laboratory.

Economics
Main articles: Economics of nuclear power plants, List of companies in the nuclear sector, and cost of
electricity by source

The Ikata Nuclear Power Plant, a pressurized water reactor that cools by utilizing a secondary coolant heat
exchanger with a large body of water, an alternative cooling approach to large cooling towers.

The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, since there are diverging views
on this topic, and multibillion-dollar investments depend on the choice of an energy source. Nuclear
power plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low fuel costs. Comparison with
other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about construction timescales
and capital financing for nuclear plants as well as the future costs of fossil fuels and renewables as well
as for energy storage solutions for intermittent power sources. On the other hand, measures
to mitigate global warming, such as a carbon tax or carbon emissions trading, may favor the economics
of nuclear power.[266][267]
Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must also take into account who bears the risks of future
uncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power plants have been developed by state-
owned or regulated electric utility monopolies[268] Many countries have now liberalized the electricity
market where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are
recovered, are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a
significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power plants. [269]
Nuclear power plants, though capable of some grid-load following, are typically run as much as possible
to keep the cost of the generated electrical energy as low as possible, supplying mostly base-
load electricity.[270]
Peer reviewed analyses of the available cost trends of nuclear power, since its inception, show large
disparity by nation, design, build rate and the establishment of familiarity in expertise. The two nations of
which data were available, which have produced reactors at a lower cost trend than prior facilities in the
2000s were India and S.Korea. [271] In the history of civilian reactor power, certain designs lent
considerable early positive economics, over competitors, such as the CANDU which alongside, at one
time, much higher realized capacity factor/reliability when compared to Gen II LWRs up to about the
1990s,[272] at a time when LWRs in the U.S began to utilize improved enrichment, permitting longer
operation times without stoppages, the CANDU design had allowed Canada to also forego uranium
enrichment facilities and due to the on-line refueling reactor design, the larger set of PHWRs of which
the CANDU design is a part, continue to hold many world record positions for longest continual
electricity generation, without stoppage, routinely close to and over 800 days, before maintenance
checks.[273] The specific record as of 2019 is held by a PHWR at Kaiga Atomic Power Station, generating
electricity at the nameplate rating continuously for 962 days.[274]
The PHWR fleet of India, in analysis by M.V. Ramana, were constructed, fuelled and continue to
operate, close to the price of Indian coal power stations, [275] As of 2015, only the indigenously financed
and constructed S.Korean OPR-1000 fleet, were completed at a similar price.[271]
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster is expected to increase the costs of operating and
new LWR power stations, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and
elevated design basis threats.[276][277]

Accidents, attacks and safety

See also: Nuclear safety and security and Nuclear reactor safety system

Reactor decay heat as a fraction of full power after the reactor shutdown, using two different correlations. To
remove the decay heat, reactors need cooling after the shutdown of the fission reactions. A loss of the ability to
remove decay heat caused the Fukushima accident.

Nuclear reactors have three unique characteristics that affect their safety, as compared to other power
plants. Firstly, intensely radioactive materials are present in a nuclear reactor. Their release to the
environment could be hazardous. Secondly, the fission products, which make up most of the intensely
radioactive substances in the reactor, continue to generate a significant amount of decay heat even
after the fission chain reaction has stopped. If the heat cannot be removed from the reactor, the fuel
rods may overheat and release radioactive materials. Thirdly, a rapid increase of the reactor power is
possible if the chain reaction cannot be controlled in certain reactor designs. These three characteristics
have to be taken into account when designing nuclear reactors.[278]
Reactors are designed so that an uncontrolled increase of the reactor power is prevented by natural
feedback mechanisms: if the temperature or the amount of steam in the reactor increases, the fission
rate inherently decreases by designing in a negative void coefficient of reactivity. The chain reaction can
also be manually stopped by inserting control rods into the reactor core. Emergency core cooling
systems (ECCS) can remove the decay heat from the reactor if normal cooling systems fail. [279] If the
ECCS fails, multiple physical barriers limit the release of radioactive materials to the environment even
in the case of an accident. The last physical barrier is the large containment building.[278] Approximately
120 reactors,[280] such as all those in Switzerland prior to and all reactors in Japan after the Fukushima
accident, incorporate Filtered Containment Venting Systems, onto the containment structure, which are
designed to relieve the containment pressure during an accident by releasing gases to the environment
while retaining most of the fission products in the filter structures. [281]

Accidents

Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the world's worst nuclear accident since 1986, 50,000
households were displaced after radiation leaked into the air, soil and sea.[282] Radiation checks led to bans of some
shipments of vegetables and fish.[283]

See also: Energy accidents, Nuclear and radiation accidents, and Lists of nuclear disasters and
radioactive incidents
Some serious nuclear and radiation accidents have occurred. The severity of nuclear accidents is
generally classified using the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) introduced by the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The scale ranks anomalous events or accidents on a scale from 0 (a
deviation from normal operation that poses no safety risk) to 7 (a major accident with widespread
effects). There have been 3 accidents of level 5 or higher in the civilian nuclear power industry, two of
which, the Chernobyl accident and the Fukushima accident, are ranked at level 7.
The Chernobyl accident in 1986 caused approximately 50 deaths from direct and indirect effects, and
some temporary serious injuries.[284] The future predicted mortality from cancer increases, is usually
estimated at some 4000 in the decades to come.[285][286][287] A higher number of the routinely
treatable Thyroid cancer, set to be the only type of causal cancer, will likely be seen in future large
studies.[288]
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident was caused by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami. The
accident has not caused any radiation-related deaths, but resulted in radioactive contamination of
surrounding areas. The difficult Fukushima disaster cleanup will take 40 or more years, and is expected
to cost tens of billions of dollars.[289][290] The Three Mile Island accident in 1979 was a smaller scale
accident, rated at INES level 5. There were no direct or indirect deaths caused by the accident. [291]
According to Benjamin K. Sovacool, fission energy accidents ranked first among energy sources in
terms of their total economic cost, accounting for 41 percent of all property damage attributed to energy
accidents.[292] Another analysis presented in the international journal Human and Ecological Risk
Assessment found that coal, oil, Liquid petroleum gas and hydroelectric accidents (primarily due to
the Banqiao dam burst) have resulted in greater economic impacts than nuclear power accidents.
[293]
 Comparing Nuclear's latent cancer deaths, such as cancer with other energy
sources immediate deaths per unit of energy generated(GWeyr). This study does not include Fossil fuel
related cancer and other indirect deaths created by the use of fossil fuel consumption in its "severe
accident", an accident with more than 5 fatalities, classification.</ref>
Nuclear power works under an insurance framework that limits or structures accident liabilities in
accordance with the Paris convention on nuclear third-party liability, the Brussels supplementary
convention, the Vienna convention on civil liability for nuclear damage[294] and the Price-Anderson Act in
the United States. It is often argued that this potential shortfall in liability represents an external cost not
included in the cost of nuclear electricity; but the cost is small, amounting to about 0.1% of the levelized
cost of electricity, according to a CBO study.[295] These beyond-regular-insurance costs for worst-case
scenarios are not unique to nuclear power, as hydroelectric power plants are similarly not fully insured
against a catastrophic event such as the Banqiao Dam disaster, where 11 million people lost their
homes and from 30,000 to 200,000 people died, or large dam failures in general. As private insurers
base dam insurance premiums on limited scenarios, major disaster insurance in this sector is likewise
provided by the state.[296]

Safety

Deaths per TWh per energy source in the European Union

In terms of lives lost per unit of energy generated, nuclear power has caused fewer accidental deaths
per unit of energy generated than all other major sources of energy generation. Energy produced by
coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydropower has caused more deaths per unit of energy generated due
to air pollution and energy accidents. This is found when comparing the immediate deaths from other
energy sources to both the immediate nuclear related deaths from accidents [297] and also including the
latent, or predicted, indirect cancer deaths from nuclear energy accidents.[298] When the combined
immediate and indirect fatalities from nuclear power and all fossil fuels are compared, including fatalities
resulting from the mining of the necessary natural resources to power generation and to air pollution,
  the use of nuclear power has been calculated to have prevented about 1.8 million deaths between
[9]

1971 and 2009, by reducing the proportion of energy that would otherwise have been generated by
fossil fuels, and is projected to continue to do so.[299][10] Following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, it
has been estimated that if Japan had never adopted nuclear power, accidents and pollution from coal or
gas plants would have caused more lost years of life. [300]
Forced evacuation from a nuclear accident may lead to social isolation, anxiety, depression,
psychosomatic medical problems, reckless behavior, even suicide. Such was the outcome of the
1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster in Ukraine. A comprehensive 2005 study concluded that "the mental
health impact of Chernobyl is the largest public health problem unleashed by the accident to date".
[301]
 Frank N. von Hippel, an American scientist, commented on the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster,
saying that a disproportionate radiophobia, or "fear of ionizing radiation could have long-term
psychological effects on a large portion of the population in the contaminated areas". [302] A 2015 report
in Lancet explained that serious impacts of nuclear accidents were often not directly attributable to
radiation exposure, but rather social and psychological effects. Evacuation and long-term displacement
of affected populations created problems for many people, especially the elderly and hospital patients.
[303]
 In January 2015, the number of Fukushima evacuees was around 119,000, compared with a peak of
around 164,000 in June 2012. [304]

Attacks and sabotage

Main articles: Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack, Nuclear terrorism, and Nuclear safety in the
United States
Terrorists could target nuclear power plants in an attempt to release radioactive contamination into the
community. The United States 9/11 Commission has said that nuclear power plants were potential
targets originally considered for the September 11, 2001 attacks. An attack on a reactor's spent fuel
pool could also be serious, as these pools are less protected than the reactor core. The release of
radioactivity could lead to thousands of near-term deaths and greater numbers of long-term fatalities. [305]
In the United States, the NRC carries out "Force on Force" (FOF) exercises at all nuclear power plant
sites at least once every three years.[305] In the United States, plants are surrounded by a double row of
tall fences which are electronically monitored. The plant grounds are patrolled by a sizeable force of
armed guards.[306]
Insider sabotage is also a threat because insiders can observe and work around security measures.
Successful insider crimes depended on the perpetrators' observation and knowledge of security
vulnerabilities.[307] A fire caused 5–10 million dollars worth of damage to New York's Indian Point Energy
Center in 1971.[308] The arsonist turned out to be a plant maintenance worker. [309] Some reactors overseas
have also reported varying levels of sabotage by workers.[310][unreliable source?]

Nuclear proliferation
Further information: Nuclear proliferation
See also: Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement

United States and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2006. The Megatons to Megawatts

Program was the main driving force behind the sharp reduction in the quantity of nuclear weapons worldwide since
the cold war ended.[311][312] However, without an increase in nuclear reactors and greater demand for fissile fuel, the
cost of dismantling has dissuaded Russia from continuing their disarmament.

Many technologies and materials associated with the creation of a nuclear power program have a dual-
use capability, in that they can be used to make nuclear weapons if a country chooses to do so. When
this happens a nuclear power program can become a route leading to a nuclear weapon or a public
annex to a "secret" weapons program. The concern over Iran's nuclear activities is a case in point.[313]
As of April 2012 there were thirty one countries that have civil nuclear power plants,[314] of which nine
have nuclear weapons, with the vast majority of these nuclear weapons states having first produced
weapons, before commercial fission electricity stations. Moreover, the re-purposing of civilian nuclear
industries for military purposes would be a breach of the Non-proliferation treaty, to which 190 countries
adhere.
A fundamental goal for global security is to minimize the nuclear proliferation risks associated with the
expansion of nuclear power.[313] The Global Nuclear Energy Partnership was an international effort to
create a distribution network in which developing countries in need of energy would receive nuclear
fuel at a discounted rate, in exchange for that nation agreeing to forgo their own indigenous develop of a
uranium enrichment program. The France-based Eurodif/European Gaseous Diffusion Uranium
Enrichment Consortium is a program that successfully implemented this concept, with Spain and other
countries without enrichment facilities buying a share of the fuel produced at the French controlled
enrichment facility, but without a transfer of technology. [315] Iran was an early participant from 1974, and
remains a shareholder of Eurodif via Sofidif.
A 2009 United Nations report said that:
the revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium
enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as
these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons. [316]
On the other hand, power reactors can also reduce nuclear weapons arsenals when military grade
nuclear materials are reprocessed to be used as fuel in nuclear power plants. The Megatons to
Megawatts Program, the brainchild of Thomas Neff of MIT,[317][318] is the single most successful non-
proliferation program to date.[311] Up to 2005, the Megatons to Megawatts Program had processed $8
billion of high enriched, weapons grade uranium into low enriched uranium suitable as nuclear fuel for
commercial fission reactors by diluting it with natural uranium. This corresponds to the elimination of
10,000 nuclear weapons.[319] For approximately two decades, this material generated nearly 10 percent
of all the electricity consumed in the United States (about half of all U.S. nuclear electricity generated)
with a total of around 7 trillion kilowatt-hours of electricity produced.[320] Enough energy to energize the
entire United States electric grid for about two years.[317] In total it is estimated to have cost $17 billion, a
"bargain for US ratepayers", with Russia profiting $12 billion from the deal. [320] Much needed profit for
the Russian nuclear oversight industry, which after the collapse of the Soviet economy, had difficulties
paying for the maintenance and security of the Russian Federations highly enriched uranium and
warheads.[317]
The Megatons to Megawatts Program was hailed as a major success by anti-nuclear weapon advocates
as it has largely been the driving force behind the sharp reduction in the quantity of nuclear weapons
worldwide since the cold war ended. [311] However without an increase in nuclear reactors and greater
demand for fissile fuel, the cost of dismantling and down blending has dissuaded Russia from continuing
their disarmament. As of 2013 Russia appears to not be interested in extending the program. [321]

Environmental impact
Main article: Environmental impact of nuclear power

Carbon emissions
See also: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources
Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies, median values calculated by IPCC[322]

Nuclear power is one of the leading low carbon power generation methods of producing electricity, and
in terms of total life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy generated, has emission values
comparable to or lower than renewable energy.[323][324] A 2014 analysis of the carbon footprint literature by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that the embodied total life-
cycle emission intensity of fission electricity has a median value of 12 g CO
2eq/kWh, which is the lowest out of all commercial baseload energy sources.[322][325] This is contrasted
with coal and natural gas at 820 and 490 g CO
2 eq/kWh.[322][325] From the beginning of its commercialization in the 1970s, nuclear power has prevented
the emission of about 64 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent that would have otherwise resulted
from the burning of fossil fuels in thermal power stations.[10]
Radiation
See also: Linear no threshold model
The variation in a person's absorbed natural background radiation, averages 2.4 mSv/a globally but
frequently varies between 1 mSv/a and 13 mSv/a depending in most part on the geology a person
resides upon.[326] According to the United Nations (UNSCEAR), regular NPP/nuclear power plant
operations including the nuclear fuel cycle, increases this amount to 0.0002 millisieverts (mSv) per year
of public exposure as a global average.[326] The average dose from operating NPPs to the local
populations around them is less than 0.0001 mSv/a.[326] The average dose to those living within 50 miles
of a coal power plant is over three times this dose, 0.0003 mSv/a.[327]
As of a 2008 report, Chernobyl resulted in the most affected surrounding populations and male recovery
personnel receiving an average initial 50 to 100 mSv over a few hours to weeks, while the remaining
global legacy of the worst nuclear power plant accident in average exposure is 0.002 mSv/a and is
continually dropping at the decaying rate, from the initial high of 0.04 mSv per person averaged over the
entire populace of the Northern Hemisphere in the year of the accident in 1986. [326]

Renewable energy and nuclear power

See also: Renewable energy debate, Environmental impact of wind power §  Pollution & effects on the
grid, and Hydroelectricity §  Comparison and interactions with other methods of power generation
Slowing global warming requires a transition to a low-carbon economy, mainly by burning far less fossil
fuel. Limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees C is technically possible if no new fossil fuel power plants
are built from 2019.[328] This has generated considerable interest and dispute in determining the best path
forward to rapidly replace fossil-based fuels in the global energy mix,[329][330] with intense academic
debate.[331][332] Sometimes the IEA says that countries without nuclear should develop it as well as their
renewable power.[333]

World total primary energy consumption, energy for heating, transport, electricity, by source in 2015 was 87% fossil
fueled.[334] In the period of 1999 to 2015, this fossil fuel percentage has remained at 87%. [335][336]

  Coal (30%)
  Natural Gas (24%)
  Hydro (Renewables) (7%)
  Nuclear (4%)
  Oil (33%)
  Others (Renewables) (2%)

In developed nations the economically feasible geography for new hydropower is lacking, with every
geographically suitable area largely already exploited. [337] Proponents of wind and solar energy claim
these resources alone could eliminate the need for nuclear power. [332][338]

A nuclear powered aircraft carrier undergoing jet-fuel replenishment at sea operations by replenishment oilers.

The Naval Research Laboratory team led by Heather Willauer has developed a process that is designed to use the
ample electrical power onboard carriers for alternative in-situ synthesis of jet-fuel by extracting carbon dioxide and
hydrogen in seawater and recombining the two into long chain hydrocarbon liquids.[339] It is estimated that carbon
neutral jet fuel for the Navy and Marine aviation could be synthesized from seawater in quantities up to
100,000 US gal (380,000 L) per day, at a cost of three to six U.S. dollars per gallon. [340][341][342][343] The U.S. Navy is
expected to deploy the technology some time in the 2020s.[344]

Some analysts argue that conventional renewable energy sources, wind and solar do not offer the
scalability necessary for a large scale decarbonization of the electric grid, mainly due to intermittency-
related considerations.[345][346][347] Along with other commentators who have questioned the links between
the anti-nuclear movement and the fossil fuel industry. [348][349][350][351] These commentators point, in support
of the assessment, to the expansion of the coal burning Lippendorf Power Station in Germany and in
2015 the opening of a large, 1730 MW coal burning power station in Moorburg, the only such coal
burning facility of its kind to commence operations, in Western Europe in the 2010s. [352][353][354] Germany is
likely to miss its 2020 emission reduction target. [355]
Several studies suggest that it might be theoretically possible to cover a majority of world energy
generation with new renewable sources. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has
said that if governments were supportive, renewable energy supply could account for close to 80% of
the world's energy use by 2050.[356]
Analysis in 2015 by professor and chair of Environmental Sustainability Barry W. Brook and his
colleagues on the topic of replacing fossil fuels entirely, from the electric grid of the world, has
determined that at the historically modest and proven-rate at which nuclear energy was added to and
replaced fossil fuels in France and Sweden during each nation's building programs in the 1980s, nuclear
energy could displace or remove fossil fuels from the electric grid completely within 10 years, "allow[ing]
the world to meet the most stringent greenhouse-gas mitigation targets". [357][358]
In a similar analysis, Brook had earlier determined that 50% of all global energy, that is not solely
electricity, but transportation synthetic fuels etc. could be generated within approximately 30 years, if the
global nuclear fission build rate was identical to each of these nation's already proven installation rates
in units of installed nameplate capacity, GW per year, per unit of global GDP (GW/year/$).[359] This is in
contrast to the conceptual studies for a 100% renewable energy world, which would require an orders of
magnitude more costly global investment per year, which has no historical precedent, [360] along with far
greater land that would have to be devoted to the wind, wave and solar projects, and the inherent
assumption that humanity will use less, and not more, energy in the future. [359][360][361] As Brook notes, the
"principal limitations on nuclear fission are not technical, economic or fuel-related, but are instead linked
to complex issues of societal acceptance, fiscal and political inertia, and inadequate critical evaluation of
the real-world constraints facing [the other] low-carbon alternatives." [359]
In some places which aim to phase out fossil fuels in favor of low carbon power, such as Britain,
seasonal energy storage is difficult to provide, so having renewables supply over 60% of electricity
might be expensive. As of 2019 whether interconnectors or new nuclear would be more expensive than
taking renewables over 60% is still being researched and debated. [362] Britain's older gas-cooled nuclear
reactors are not flexible to balance demand, wind and solar, but the island's newer water-cooled
reactors should have similar flexibility to fossil fueled power plants. [dubious  –  discuss] According to the operator
from 2025 the British electricity grid may spend periods zero-carbon, with only renewables and nuclear.
[363]
 However actually supplying the electricity grid only from nuclear and renewables may be done
together with interconnected countries, such as France in the case of Britain. [364]
Nuclear power is comparable to, and in some cases lower, than many renewable energy sources in
terms of lives lost per unit of electricity delivered. [9][297][365] However, as opposed to renewable energy,
conventional designs for nuclear reactors produce a smaller volume of manufacture and operations
related waste, most notably, the intensely radioactive spent fuel that needs to be stored or reprocessed.
[366]
 A nuclear plant also needs to be disassembled and removed and much of the disassembled nuclear
plant needs to be stored as low level nuclear waste for a few decades. [367]
In an EU wide 2018 assessment of progress in reducing greenhouse gas emissions per capita, France
and Sweden were the only two large industrialized nations within the EU to receive a positive rating, as
every other country received a "poor" to "very poor" grade. [368]
A 2018 analysis by MIT argued that, to be much more cost-effective as they approach
deep decarbonization, electricity systems should integrate baseload low carbon resources, such as
nuclear, with renewables, storage and demand response. [369]
Nuclear power stations require approximately one square kilometer of land per typical reactor.[370][371]
[372]
 Environmentalists and conservationists have begun to question the global renewable energy
expansion proposals, as they are opposed to the frequently controversial use of once forested land to
situate renewable energy systems.[373] Seventy five academic conservationists signed a letter,
[374]
 suggesting a more effective policy to mitigate climate change involving the reforestation of this land
proposed for renewable energy production, to its prior natural landscape, by means of the native trees
that previously inhabited it, in tandem with the lower land use footprint of nuclear energy, as the path to
assure both the commitment to carbon emission reductions and to succeed with
landscape rewilding programs that are part of the global native species protection and re-
introduction initiatives.[375][376][377]
These scientists argue that government commitments to increase renewable energy usage while
simultaneously making commitments to expand areas of biological conservation, are two competing
land use outcomes, in opposition to one another, that are increasingly coming into conflict. With the
existing protected areas for conservation at present regarded as insufficient to
safeguard biodiversity "the conflict for space between energy production and habitat will remain one of
the key future conservation issues to resolve." [375][376]

Debate on nuclear power

Main article: Nuclear power debate
See also: Nuclear energy policy, Pro-nuclear movement, and Anti-nuclear movement

Anti-nuclear protest near nuclear waste disposal centre at Gorleben in northern Germany

The nuclear power debate concerns the controversy[378][379][71] which has surrounded the deployment and
use of nuclear fission reactors to generate electricity from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes. The debate
about nuclear power peaked during the 1970s and 1980s, when it "reached an intensity unprecedented
in the history of technology controversies", in some countries. [72][380][page  needed]
Proponents of nuclear energy regard it as a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon
emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on imported energy sources.[381][382]
[383]
 M. King Hubbert, who popularized the concept of peak oil, saw oil as a resource that would run out
and considered nuclear energy its replacement. [384] Proponents also claim that the present quantity of
nuclear waste is small and can be reduced through the latest technology of newer reactors, and that the
operational safety record of fission-electricity is unparalleled. [385]
Opponents believe that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment [386][387] such as
the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation and terrorism. [388][389] They also contend that reactors are
complex machines where many things can and have gone wrong. [390][391] In years past, they also argued
that when all the energy-intensive stages of the nuclear fuel chain are considered, from uranium mining
to nuclear decommissioning, nuclear power is neither a low-carbon nor an economical electricity source.
[392][393][394]

Arguments of economics and safety are used by both sides of the debate.

Research
Advanced fission reactor designs
Main article: Generation IV reactor

Generation IV roadmap from Argonne National Laboratory

Current fission reactors in operation around the world are second or third generation systems, with most
of the first-generation systems having been already retired. Research into advanced generation IV
reactor types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight
technology goals, including to improve economics, safety, proliferation resistance, natural resource
utilization and the ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the production of electricity. Most of these
reactors differ significantly from current operating light water reactors, and are expected to be available
for commercial construction after 2030.[395]

Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission

Main article: Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid
Hybrid nuclear power is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear
fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by Hans
Bethe during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to delays
in the realization of pure fusion. When a sustained nuclear fusion power plant is built, it has the potential
to be capable of extracting all the fission energy that remains in spent fission fuel, reducing the volume
of nuclear waste by orders of magnitude, and more importantly, eliminating all actinides present in the
spent fuel, substances which cause security concerns.[396]

Nuclear fusion
 Schematic of the ITER tokamak under construction in France.

Main articles: Nuclear fusion and Fusion power

Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission.
[397][398]
 These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be
created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under
theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.
Several experimental nuclear fusion reactors and facilities exist. The largest and most ambitious
international nuclear fusion project currently in progress is ITER, a large tokamak under construction in
France. ITER is planned to pave the way for commercial fusion power by demonstrating self-sustained
nuclear fusion reactions with positive energy gain. Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but
the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin
operations until the year 2027–11 years after initially anticipated. [399] A follow on commercial nuclear
fusion power station, DEMO, has been proposed.[400][401] There are also suggestions for a power plant
based upon a different fusion approach, that of an inertial fusion power plant.
Fusion powered electricity generation was initially believed to be readily achievable, as fission-electric
power had been. However, the extreme requirements for continuous reactions and plasma
containment led to projections being extended by several decades. In 2010, more than 60 years after
the first attempts, commercial power production was still believed to be unlikely before 2050. [400]

See also

 Nuclear technology portal

 Energy portal

 Atomic battery
 Hot spring#Sources of heat
 List of nuclear power stations
 List of nuclear reactors
 Nuclear power by country
 Nuclear weapons debate
 Thorium-based nuclear power
 Uranium mining debate
 World energy consumption
 Molten salt reactor
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Further reading
Wikiversity quizzes on
nuclear power
See also: List of books about nuclear issues and List of films about nuclear issues

 AEC Atom Information Booklets, Both series, "Understanding the Atom" and "The World of the
Atom". A total of 75 booklets published by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in the 1960s
and 1970s, Authored by scientists and taken together, the booklets comprise the history of nuclear
science and its applications at the time.
 Armstrong, Robert C., Catherine Wolfram, Robert Gross, Nathan S. Lewis, and M.V. Ramana et
al. The Frontiers of Energy, Nature Energy, Vol 1, 11 January 2016.
 Clarfield, Gerald H. and William M. Wiecek (1984). Nuclear America: Military and Civilian
Nuclear Power in the United States 1940–1980, Harper & Row.
 Cooke, Stephanie (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc.
 Cravens, Gwyneth (2007). Power to Save the World: the Truth about Nuclear Energy. New
York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-26656-9.
 Elliott, David (2007). Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable
Energy Future?, Palgrave.
  Ferguson, Charles D., (2007). Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks Council on Foreign
Relations.
 Garwin, Richard L. and Charpak, Georges (2001) Megawatts and Megatons A Turning Point in
the Nuclear Age?, Knopf.
 Herbst, Alan M. and George W. Hopley (2007). Nuclear Energy Now: Why the Time has come
for the World's Most Misunderstood Energy Source, Wiley.
 Mahaffey, James (2015). Atomic accidents: a history of nuclear meltdowns and disasters : from
the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima. Pegasus Books. ISBN 978-1-60598-680-7.
 Schneider, Mycle, Steve Thomas, Antony Froggatt, Doug Koplow (2016). The World Nuclear
Industry Status Report: World Nuclear Industry Status as of 1 January 2016.
 Walker, J. Samuel (1992). Containing the Atom: Nuclear Regulation in a Changing Environment,
1993–1971, Berkeley: University of California Press.
 Weart, Spencer R. The Rise of Nuclear Fear. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
2012. ISBN 0-674-05233-1

External links
Nuclear powerat Wikipedia's sister projects

 Definitions from Wiktionary

 Media from Wikimedia Commons

 News from Wikinews

 Quotations from Wikiquote

 Texts from Wikisource

 Textbooks from Wikibooks

 Resources from Wikiversity

 U.S. Energy Information Administration

 Nuclear Fuel Cycle Cost Calculator