UEEA1333

Analogue Electronics

Topic 6

Regulators

Jan 2020

1
 Power Transistors
• Used in power amplifiers and voltage regulators
– Required to conduct large currents (amperes) and
withstand high power dissipation (> few watts)
• Important specifications of power transistors:
– Max. rated current, max. rated voltage, max. rated power,
max. junction temperature, thermal resistance, e.g.:

Parameter Small-signal Power BJT Power

(Maximum ratings) BJT (2N3055) BJT
(2N2222A) (2N6078)
VCE(max) 40 V 60 V 250 V
IC(max) 0.8 A 15 A 7A
PD(max) at T = 25 °C 1.2 W 115 W 45 W
2
 Safe operating area (SOA)

• A BJT should be operated in the SOA to prevent damage

* For safety margin, select transistor with larger maximum
3
ratings than the maximum values from the circuit
 Power dissipation
• Instantaneous power dissipation:
pQ = vCE iC + vBE iB
≈ vCE iC since iB << iC
• Average power dissipation:
T
1
PQ = ∫ vCE iC dt
T 0
• If we assume DC quantities, power dissipation is
related to VCE and IC:
PT = VCE I C
4
 Junction temperature, TJ
• Power transistors dissipate large amount of power in
their collector-base junctions.
– The dissipated power is converted into heat, which raises
the junction temperature.
– The junction temperature must not be allowed to exceed the
specified maximum TJ,max, otherwise the transistor could
suffer permanent damage
– For silicon devices TJ,max is in the range from 150° C to
200° C (specified in data sheet).
– Special packaging for power transistor required

junction

5
 Thermal resistance
• Thermal resistance of an element is defined as:
T2 − T1
θ 21 = [unit : °C/W]
P
where T2 − T1 = temperature difference
across the element
T
P = thermal power dissipated
P θ
by the element
Ohm' s law analogy : θ ≡ R, T ≡ V , P ≡ I
6
Transistor in free air (no heat sink)
• the heat dissipated in the transistor junction will be
conducted away from the junction to the transistor
case, and from the case to the surrounding
environment (ambient).

junction

case
θJA = θJC + θCA
ambience 7
 θJA = θJC + θCA
where
θJA = thermal resistance between junction and ambience
θJC = thermal resistance between junction and transistor case
θCA = thermal resistance between case and ambience

• θJC depends on the device design and packaging. It can be

reduced by encapsulating in a relatively large metal case.

θJA = θJC +θCA = (TJ – TA )/ PD 8

 Transistor with heat sink
• θCA can be reduced below its free air value by improving
heat transfer from the case to ambience
• A common method is to bolt the transistor to a heat sink
(an extended metal surface)

heatsink

transistor

9
• Heat can easily be conducted from the transistor case to the
heat sink, whereby the thermal resistance between case and
sink θCS can be made small by coating the mating surfaces of
the transistor and sink with a thermally conducting compound
• Also the heat is effectively transferred from sink to the
ambience, resulting in a low thermal resistance between sink
and ambience θSA

junction

ambience
case

sink 10
Let
θ CS = thermal resistance between case and heat sink
θ SA = thermal resistance between case and ambient
PD = power dissipated in the transistor

∴TJ − TA = PD (θ JC + θ CS + θSA )
Example: Consider a power MOSFET.
• Determine the maximum power dissipation
with and without heat sink.
• When heat sink is used, find temperature of the
transistor case and heat sink at maximum
power dissipation.
Given the following:
θ JC = 1.75 °C/W θ CS = 1 °C/W
θ SA = 5 °C/W θ CA = 50 °C/W
TA = 30 °C TJ ,max = 150 °C
12
Solution :
Without heat sink :
TJ ,max − TA 150 − 30
PD ,max = = = 2.32 W
θ JC + θ CA 1.75 + 50

With heat sink :

TJ ,max − TA 150 − 30
PD ,max = = = 15.5 W
θ JC + θ CS + θ SA 1.75 + 1 + 5

TS − TA = PD ,maxθ SA
∴TS = 30 + 15.5(5) = 107.5 °C
TC − TA = PD ,max (θ CS + θ SA )
∴TC = 30 + 15.5(1 + 5) = 123 °C
13
 Maximum power dissipation
• The derating curve shows the maximum power that can be
dissipated at a given ambient temperature.
• PD0 is defined as the maximum power dissipation at a
particular ambient temperature TA0 (usually 250C).
• for operation above TA0, the maximum power dissipation is
less than PD0
PDmax = PD0
PDmax = ( TJmax – TA)/ θJA
derating curve

14
Example: A BJT is specified to have maximum power dissipation
PD0 = 2 W at an ambient temperature TA0 of 25 °C, and a
maximum junction temperature TJmax of 150 °C. Find :
(a) the thermal resistance θJA
(b) the maximum power that can be safely dissipated at an
ambient temperature of 50 °C.
(c) the junction temperature if the device is operating at TA= 25 °C
and is dissipating 1W.

Solution:
TJ max − TA0 150 − 25
a) θ JA = = = 62.5 o C/W
PD 0 2
TJ max − TA 150 − 50
b) PD max = = = 1.6 W
θ JA 62.5

c) TJ = TA + θ JA PD = 25 + 62.5 × 1 = 87.5 o C 15
• The device manufacturer may also supply a derating
curve for PDmax versus the case temperature TC
• Rated power PD,rated is the power at which the device
reaches maximum temperature while the case
temperature remains at room temperature i.e. TC0 =
250C (usually)

Rated power
PD,rated
16
• But maintaining the case temperature at the room
temperature requires thermal resistance θCA to be zero
(using an infinite heat sink), which is impossible.
Therefore, the maximum rated power is something that
cannot be achieved: PD,max < PD,rated
• For TC0 ≤ TC≤ TJmax , the maximum safe power
dissipation is given by: PDmax = ( TJmax – TC)/ θJC

Impossible!
17
• Example: Determine the maximum safe power dissipation for a
BJT with a rated power PD,rated = 20 W and TJ,max = 175 °C.
The transistor is mounted on a heat sink with the parameters
θCS = 1 °C/W and θSA = 5 °C/W. Assume ambient temperature
is 25 °C.

• Solution:

TJ ,max − TC 0 175 − 25
θ JC = = = 7.5 °C/W
PD ,rated 20
TJ ,max − TA 175 − 25
PD ,max = = = 11.1 W
θ JC + θ CS + θ SA 7.5 + 1 + 5

18
• Example: A BJT is specified to have TJmax = 150 oC and to be
capable of dissipating maximum power as follows:
40 W at TC = 25 oC
2 W at TA = 25 oC
Above 25 oC, the maximum power dissipation is to be derated
linearly with θJC = 3.12 oC/W and θJA = 62.5 oC/W. Find the
following:
(a) The maximum power that can be dissipated safely by this
transistor when operated in free air at TA = 50oC.
(b) The maximum power that can be dissipated safely by this
transistor when operated at an ambient temperature of 50oC, but
with a heat sink for which θCS = 0.5oC/W and θSA = 4oC/W. Find
the temperature of the case and of the heat sink.
(c) The maximum power that can be dissipated safely if an
infinite heat sink is used and TA = 50oC.

19
 TJ max − TA 150 − 50
(a) PD max = = = 1.6 W
θ JA 62.5

(b) With a heat sink,

θ JA = θ JC + θ CS + θ SA
= 3.12 + 0.5 + 4 = 7.62 o C/W
150 − 50
PD max = = 13.1 W
7.62

(c) An infinite heat sink would cause TC = TA. The

infinite heat sink has θCA = 0 .
TJ max − TA 150 − 50
PD max = = = 32 W
θ JC 3.12
20
 Voltage regulators
• DC voltage can be obtained from AC as shown:
AC
line To
load

ripples

21
• The supply above is unregulated
– There are 100 or 120-Hz ripples which becomes
more obvious when the load current increases
– variation in AC line voltage will affect the output
voltage
– Temperature and load current affects value of
diode voltage drop
• A regulated voltage will provide constant
output voltage over a wide range of loads,
temperature and line voltage
V
Ideal:
t 22
 Load or voltage regulation
• Measures the regulator’s ability to maintain the
output voltage when the output load (current) changes
• Percent load or voltage regulation: Output
voltage
VNL − VFL
VR = × 100% VNL
VFL VFL
where VFL = full load voltage
VNL = no load voltage
Load
I FL current
• For ideal power supply, VR = 0%
Full load current
23
 Line regulation
• Measures how sensitive the output is to changes in the line
(input) voltage
(∆Vo / Vo )
LR = ×100%
∆Vi
where (∆Vo / V ) = percent change in output voltage
∆V = change in input voltage
* assume load is constant

24
 Voltage regulator
• Voltage regulator is a circuit used to maintain
the output voltage of a power supply as
constant as possible, regardless of load current,
line voltage and temperature changes.
• It monitors output voltage and generates
feedback that automatically increases or
decreases the supply voltage to compensate for
the change in the output.
• May be classified as series or shunt regulator.
25
 Zener diode as voltage reference
• A simple voltage regulator consists of a resistor
and zener diode
– Zener diode is operated in reverse breakdown region
(reverse current > IZK ).
– The zener voltage remains almost constant at VZK as
the reverse current varies.
– However, at large load currents, regulation is poor.
But it can be used as a voltage reference to provide
an almost constant reference voltage in regulator
circuits.
26
VZK IZK

27
 IL

IS

IZ

• As long as the reverse current magnitude is above IZK,

the zener voltage is almost constant at VZK. So, input
current is kept almost constant.
– If load current increases, zener current decreases, and vice
versa
• This circuit is a shunt regulator – the regulating device
(zener diode) is parallel with the load.
28
 Series pass transistor regulator

PT

• Zener is used as reference voltage. It is reverse

biased with current supplied through R
29
• VS is unregulated but must remain sufficiently large,
and R must be sufficiently small, to keep the diode in
reverse breakdown
• Thus VZ is essentially constant: VO = VZ - VBE
• If Vo decreases, VBE increases, causing transistor to
conduct more, i.e. IB, increases (IZ decreases since IR is
constant)
VS −VZ
IR = = IB + IZ
R
• Thus IC increases, so load current increases, which
increases VO

30
• The maximum power dissipation of the
transistor is given by:

PT (max) = VCE I C (max) = (VS − VO ) I FL

where IFL is the full load current
and assume IC ≈ IE

• The power is dissipated as heat which has to

be transferred away, otherwise the transistor’s
temperature will rise and may overheat.
• PT(max) should be less than PD(max) 31
• Example: The voltage from an unregulated
power supply may vary from 12 V (full load)
to 16 V (no load). A power transistor with a
maximum rating of 1 A is to be used as the
pass transistor of a 9 V regulator. The
minimum hfe of the transistor is 25. The
required maximum load current is 500 mA.
Design the series voltage regulator, given the
zener knee current is 10 mA and the base-
emitter voltage of the transistor is 0.7 V.
Determine the maximum power dissipation of
the transistor.

32
 500 mA
_ 9V
+
VO = VZ − VBE
+
⇒ VZ = 9.7 V
_

At full load, the base current is at its maximum,

the zener current is at its minimum which
must at least equal 10 mA.
I C (max) I L (max) 500m
I B (max) = ≈ = = 20 mA
hFE hFE 25m
I R = I ZK + I B (max) = 30 mA 33
 12 V 500 mA
9V

9.7 V

At full load, supply voltage is 12 V

VS (min) − VZ 12 − 9.7
∴R = = = 76.7 Ω
IR 0.03
PT (max) = VCE I C = (VS − VO ) I FL = (12 − 0.9)0.5 = 1.5 W
34
 VO = VZ − VBE

• In the series pass transistor regulator, if Vo

decreases, VBE increases, causing IB to increase,
so that IC increases. IZ will decrease.
• Since IB = IC / hfe, for the same magnitude of
change in IL, the change in IB can be minimized
if hfe is larger to minimize change in IZ 35
Darlington pass-transistor regulator
_

_+
+

+
_

• Darlington pair transistor has large hfe

VO = VZ − VBE1 − VBE 2 = VZ − 2VBE

36
 Darlington transistor
• Darlington transistor combines two bipolar transistors
(Darlington pair) in a single device. This gives it high
current gain hfe
– It also takes up less space than using two discrete
transistors

I C1 = I B 2 = β1 I B1
I C 2 = β2 I B 2 = β2 β1 I B1 = βD I B1

37
 Two-transistor series regulator

VO ↓ VB2 ↓ VBE2 ↓ Vo = VZ + VBE 2 +

R1
Vo
R1 + R2
IB2 ↓ IC2 ↓ VR3 ↓
 R1 
VB1 ↑ IC1 ↑ VO ↑ ∴Vo = (VZ + VBE 2 )1 + 
 R2  38
 Output short circuit protection
• If high load current flows due to output short
circuit or overload, it may damage the pass
transistor and other power supply components
such as transformer and rectifier diodes
• Two types of protection scheme:
– Current limiting
– Foldback limiting

39
 _ 0V
+

0V

• For example, if the regulator above is shorted at the

load, Q2 is OFF because the base voltage is 0.
• All the current through R3 flows to the base of Q1, so
the collector current becomes very large
• Power dissipation of the transistor Q1 becomes very
large
40
• Example: Consider the series regulator above.
Given that VS = 12 V, Q1 has a hFE = 100 and R3 = 1
kΩ. Determine the power dissipation of Q1 if the
load is short-circuited.

VS − VBE 12 − 0.7
IB = = = 11.3 mA
R3 1000
I C = hFE I B = 100(11.3m) = 1.13 A
PT = I CVCE = 1.13(12) = 13.6 W

41
 Current limiting
• This is a form of short circuit or overload protection,
whereby the circuit limits the current that can be
drawn from the supply to a certain maximum value.
• A simple protection scheme is to use a fuse or fusible
resistor connected in series at the input of the
regulator. When abnormally large load current flows,
the fuse will break, thereby preventing further flow of
current.
• A common scheme is using diodes or transistor to
limit the pass transistor current to a maximum value,
hence limiting the load current
42
 I PT

• Under normal condition, D1 and D2 is off

• When load current is large enough, the voltage drop
across RCS turns on both diodes
43
• When output is regulated
(D1 and D2 is off) :
I PT = I R1 + I L
where I PT = I E1 ≈ I C1
I PT ≈ I L since I L >> I R1
VD
I PT (max) ≈ I L (max) = using KVL at the diodes loop
RCS
assuming VD = VBE1 = VD1 = VD 2
VD
Required value of RCS: RCS =
I L (max)
• When load is shorted, the load current becomes
VS − 2VD
I L ( SC ) = I PT (max) +
R3
Current through Q1 Current Through
Diodes

0V

45
 I PT

• Under normal condition, Q3 is off

• When load current is large enough, the voltage drop
across RCS turns on Q3 and shunt away the base
current of Q1
46
 VBE 3
• Required value of RCS: RCS =
I L (max)

• Under short circuit condition:

VS − VBE1 − VBE 3
I L ( SC ) = I PT (max) +
R3

47
• Example: The unregulated power supply shown above has a
voltage of 12 V at full load condition. The current limiting
circuit is to operate when the pass transistor current exceeds
100mA. Given R = 1kΩ, R3 = 680Ω and VZ = 3.3V. For a
regulated output voltage of 5V, determine
(a) ratio of R1 to R2
(b) required value for RCS
(c) load current when the output terminals are short-circuited
(d) power dissipation in the pass transistor

Answer:
R1
a) VO = (VZ + VBE 2 )(1 + )
R2
R1 R1
5 = (3.3 + 0.7)(1 + ) ⇒ = 1/ 4
R2 R2 48
 VBE 3 0.7
b) RCS = = =7Ω
I L (max) 100m
VS − VBE1 − VBE 2
c) I L ( SC ) = I PT (max) +
R3
12 − 0.7 − 0.7
= 0.1 + = 115.6 m
680
d)
when I C1 = I PT (max) = 0.1 A
VCE1 = 12 - 0.7 - 5 = 6.3 V
PD1 = VCE1 I C1 = 0.63 W
if V0 = 0, VCE1 = 12 - 0.7 = 11.3 V
PD1 = VCE1 I C1 = 11.3(0.1) = 1.13 W 49
 Foldback limiting
• Disadvantage of current limiting - a large current continues to
flow, thus power dissipation of the pass transistor is high
• Foldback limiting reduces both output current and output
voltage
• The decrease in output voltage is sensed and used to decrease
the amount of current that can flow to the load

50
 Overvoltage protection
• Provides protection against input over-voltage condition
• If the supply voltage is too high, the power dissipated at the
pass transistor of the voltage regulator may be too excessive,
as VCE becomes larger
• A common scheme is using SCR (thyristor), which turns on
when its gate voltage exceeds a certain trigger value :

51
• Under normal operation, the zener diode is
OFF, SCR is OFF (no current flows)
• When VS > VZ, the zener diode start to
conducts
• The voltage across RG will turn on the SCR
when it is larger than the trigger voltage (0.7V)
• VS is short-circuited by the SCR and the
voltage regulator is protected
• The SCR will continue to conduct until the
unregulated power supply fuses opens and
current stops flowing
52
 Shunt transistor regulator
• Control transistor is parallel with the load
– it maintains constant load voltage by shunting
more or less current from the load

VZ is constant
If Vo ↓, VB2 ↓ IC2 ↓IC1 ↓ IL ↑ VO ↑ 53
 Regulator efficiency
• Let the output power to the load Pout = VOIL
and the input power Pin= VSIS
Pout VO I L
Efficiency = ×100% = ×100%
Pin VS I S

• The difference between Pout and Pin is Preg, the power

wasted in the regulator components
• Generally speaking, series and shunt regulators have
poor efficiency (shunt being worse)
54
 Switching regulators
• Switching regulators have much better efficiency than
series or shunt regulators
• In series or shunt regulators, the control transistor is
operated in its active region (always on)
• In switching regulator, control transistor is switched
on and off at a rapid rate
– Transistor is either in saturation or cutoff most of the time
• The disadvantage is the high-frequency switching of
heavy currents create strong EM fields, causing
electronic interference to surrounding

55
• Below explains the concept of a switching regulator
– A pulse-width modulator (PWM) outputs control pulses to
switch on/off transistor.
– Pulse width that is proportional to input voltage
– Duty cycle is defined as THI/T, where THI is the total time
during the period T that the waveform is high
– Dc value of pulse train, and hence output voltage, is
proportional to the duty cycle

56
 Appendix- revision
• Current law
At any node in an electrical circuit, the sum
of currents flowing into that node is equal to the
sum of currents flowing out of that node
• Voltage law
The directed sum of the electrical potential
differences (voltage) around any closed network
is zero, or, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop
is equivalent to the sum of the potential drops in
that loop
 Transistor

• Take note the current and voltage drop

 Modes of operation
• Forward-Active
– B-E junction is forward biased
– B-C junction is reverse biased
• Saturation
– B-E and B-C junctions are forward biased
• Cut-Off
– B-E and B-C junctions are reverse biased
• Inverse-Active (or Reverse-Active)
– B-E junction is reverse biased
– B-C junction is forward biased
 Forward active equations

I E = I B + IC
β = common-emitter current gain
I C = βI B (ranges from 20-500; increases
with temperature)
I C = αI E α = common-base current gain
(ranges from 0.95 – 0.99)
β
α=
1+ β