EMPIRICAL MODEL

EMPIRICAL MODEL BUILDING PROCEDURE

A priori knowledge Start

Experimental Design
Not just
process
control Plant Experimentation

Determine Model Structure

Parameter Estimation

Diagnostic Evaluation
Alternative
data Model Verification

Complete
 Method to estimate parameter
in Empirical model

■ Statistic (Linear regression or nonlinear

regression)
■ Graphical Method (Process Reaction Curve)
– First method (slope method)
– Second method  use specific point

These method can be used to build empirical

model for:
• First Order system
• FOPTD
• Second order system or SOPTD
 Simple Linear Regression
• As an illustrative example, consider a simple linear model
between an output variable y and input variable u,
y  β1  β 2u  ε
where β1 and β2 are the unknown model parameters to be
Chapter 7

estimated and e is a random error.

• Predictions of y can be made from the regression model,

𝑦 = β1 + β2 𝑢 (7−3)
where 𝛽1 and 𝛽2 denote the estimated values of b1 and b2,
and 𝑦 denotes the predicted value of y.
• Let Y denote the measured value of y. Each pair of (ui, Yi)
observations satisfies:
𝑌𝑖 = β1 + β2 𝑢𝑖 + ε𝑖 (7−1)
 The Least Squares Approach
• The least squares method is widely used to calculate the
values of b1 and b2 that minimize the sum of the squares of
the errors (SSE) for an arbitrary number of data points, N:
𝑁

𝑆𝑆𝐸 = 𝑒𝑖2
𝑖=1
where the 𝑖−th residual, 𝑒𝑖 , is defined as,
𝑒𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖

𝑁 𝑁
2
𝑆𝑆𝐸 = e2𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖 − β1 − β2 𝑢𝑖 (7−2)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
 The Least Squares Approach (continued)
• The least squares solution that minimizes the sum of
squared errors, SSE, is given by:
𝑆𝑢𝑢 𝑆𝑦 − 𝑆𝑢𝑦 𝑆𝑢
β1 = (7−5)
𝑁𝑆𝑢𝑢 − 𝑆𝑢 2

𝑁𝑆𝑢𝑦 − 𝑆𝑢 𝑆𝑦
β2 = (7−6)
𝑁𝑆𝑢𝑢 − 𝑆𝑢 2

where:
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝑆𝑢 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑆𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑖2 𝑆𝑦 = 𝑌𝑖 𝑆𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑌𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
 NonLinear Regression

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 )

Linearization
Chapter 7

𝑦 𝑡 𝑡
ln 1 − =− (7−13)
𝐾𝑀 𝜏

• The slope is given by:

1
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −
τ

As an alternative to nonlinear regression, graphical method can

be used quickly to find approximate values of time constant
 Graphical Method

• Simple transfer function models can be obtained graphically from

step response data.
• A plot of the output response of a process to a step change in input
is sometimes referred to as a process reaction curve.

Process reaction curve - The simplest and most often used

method. Gives nice visual interpretation as well.
The PRC method involves 4 actions:
1. Allow the process to reach steady state.
2. Introduce a single step change in the input variable.
3. Collect input and output response data until the process again
reaches steady state.
4. Perform the graphical process reaction curve calculations.
 First Order Models

𝑌 𝑠 𝐾
• The response of a first-order model, = , to
𝑋 𝑠 𝜏𝑠+1
a step change of magnitude M is:

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 )

• The initial slope is given by:

𝑑 𝑦 1
= (7−15)
𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝑀 𝑡=0 τ

• The gain can be calculated from the steady-state changes

in u and y:
Δ𝑦 Δ𝑦
𝐾= =
Δ𝑢 𝑀
 First Order Models

Figure 7.3 Step response of a first-order system and graphical

constructions used to estimate the time constant, τ.
Example 1
■ Figure below shows the response of the temperature T in a CSTR
to a step change in feed flow rate w from 120 to 125 kg/min.
Find an approximate first-order model for the process and these
operating conditions.

Δ𝑇 160 − 140
𝐾= =
Δ𝑤 125 − 120
𝑜𝐶
=4
𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛

τ = 5 min

𝑇′ 𝑠 4
=
𝑤′ 𝑠 5𝑠 + 1
Exercise
■ A single –tank process has been operating for a long period of time
with the inlet flow rate q𝑖 = 30.4 𝑓𝑡3/𝑚𝑖𝑛. After the operator
increase the flow rate suddenly by 10%, the liquid level in the tank
changes as shown in below table. Assuming that the process
dynamics can be described by a first order model, calculate the
steady state gain and time constant using 2 graphical method:

a) From the time required for

Time, Height, Time, Height,
min (𝒖𝒊 ) ft (𝑌𝑖 ) min (𝒖𝒊 ) ft (𝑌𝑖 )
the output to reach 63.2%
of the total change.
0.0 5.50 1.4 6.37
b) From the initial slope of
0.2 5.75 1.6 6.40
the response curve
0.4 5.93 1.8 6.43
0.6 6.07 2.0 6.45
0.8 6.18 3.0 6.50
1.0 6.26 4.0 6.51
1.2 6.32 5.0 6.52
 Solution
6.60

6.40

6.20

0.632
6.00

5.80

5.60

5.40
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
τ
 Solution
6.60
slope
6.40

6.20

6.00

5.80

5.60

5.40
0.0 1.0 2.0 Slope
3.0 at t=0
4.0 5.0 6.0
Drawback of First order model:

■ The true process model neither first order nor linear.

Only the simplest processes exhibit such ideal dynamics.
■ The output data are usually corrupted with noise.
■ Another process input (disturbance) may change during
the duration of step test.
■ It can be difficult to generate a perfect step input

In order to account for high order dynamics, a time delay

term can be included. This modification can improve the
agreement between model and experimental response.
END