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Contents
Articles
Organometallic chemistry 1
Trimethylaluminium 5
Light-emitting diode 7
References
Article Sources and Contributors 31
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 32
Article Licenses
License 33
Organometallic chemistry
Organometallic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds
containing bonds between carbon and a metal.[1] [2] Since many
compounds without such bonds are chemically similar, an
alternative may be compounds containing metal-element bonds of
a largely covalent character. Organometallic chemistry combines
aspects of inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry.
Organometallic compounds
Organometallic compounds are distinguished by the prefix
"organo-" e.g. organopalladium compounds. Examples of such
organometallic compounds include all Gilman reagents, which
contain lithium and copper. Tetracarbonyl nickel, and ferrocene
are examples of organometallic compounds containing transition
metals. Other examples include organomagnesium compounds like n-Butyllithium, an organometallic compound. Four
lithium atoms are shown in purple in a tetrahedron, and
iodo(methyl)magnesium MeMgI, diethylmagnesium (Et2Mg), and
each lithium atom is bound to a butyl group (carbon is
all Grignard reagents; organolithium compounds such as black, hydrogen is white).
butyllithium (BuLi), organozinc compounds such as
chloro(ethoxycarbonylmethyl)zinc (ClZnCH2C(=O)OEt); and organocopper compounds such as lithium
dimethylcuprate (Li+[CuMe2]–).
The term "metalorganics" usually refers to metal-containing compounds lacking direct metal-carbon bonds but
which contain organic ligands. Metal beta-diketonates, alkoxides, and dialkylamides are representative members of
this class.
In addition to the traditional metals, lanthanides, actinides, and semimetals, elements such as boron, silicon, arsenic,
and selenium are considered to form organometallic compounds, e.g. organoborane compounds such as
triethylborane (Et3B).
Coordination compounds with organic ligands

Many complexes feature coordination bonds between a metal and organic ligands. The organic ligands often bind the
metal through a heteroatom such as oxygen or nitrogen, in which case such compounds are considered coordination
compounds. However, if any of the ligands form a direct M-C bond, then complex is usually considered to be
organometallic, e.g., [(C6H6)Ru(H2O)3]2+. Furthermore, many lipophilic compounds such as metal acetylacetonates
and metal alkoxides are called "metalorganics."
Many organic coordination compounds occur naturally. For example, hemoglobin and myoglobin contain an iron
center coordinated to the nitrogen atoms of a porphyrin ring; magnesium is the center of a chlorin ring in
chlorophyll. The field of such inorganic compounds is known as bioinorganic chemistry. In contrast to these
coordination compounds, methylcobalamin (a form of Vitamin B12), with a cobalt-methyl bond, is a true
organometallic complex, one of the few known in biology. This subset of complexes are often discussed within the
subfield of bioorganometallic chemistry. Illustrative of the many functions of the B12-dependent enzymes, the MTR
enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from a nitrogen on N5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate to the sulfur of
homocysteine to produce methionine.
The status of compounds in which the canonical anion has a delocalized structure in which the negative charge is
shared with an atom more electronegative than carbon, as in enolates, may vary with the nature of the anionic
moiety, the metal ion, and possibly the medium; in the absence of direct structural evidence for a carbon–metal
bond, such compounds are not considered to be organometallic.
Structure and properties

The metal-carbon bond in organometallic compounds is generally of character intermediate between ionic and
covalent. Primarily ionic metal-carbon bonds are encountered either when the metal is very electropositive (as in the
case of the alkali metals) or when the carbon-containing ligand exists as a stable carbanion. Carbanions can be
stabilized by resonance (as in the case of the aromatic cyclopentadienyl anion) or by the presence of
electron-withdrawing substituents (as in the case of the triphenylmethyl anion). Hence, the bonding in compounds
like sodium acetylide and triphenylmethylpotassium is primarily ionic. On the other hand, the ionic character of
metal-carbon bonds in the organometallic compounds of transition metals, poor metals, and metalloids tends to be
intermediate, owing to the middle-of-the-road electronegativity of such metals.
Organometallic compounds with bonds that have characters in between ionic and covalent are very important in
industry, as they are both relatively stable in solutions and relatively ionic to undergo reactions. Two important
classes are organolithium and Grignard reagents. In certain organometallic compounds such as ferrocene or
dibenzenechromium, the pi orbitals of the organic moiety ligate the metal.
Applications
Organometallics find practical uses in stoichiometric and catalytic processes, especially processes involving carbon
monoxide and alkene-derived polymers. All the world's polyethylene and polypropylene are produced via
organometallic catalysts, usually heterogeneously via Ziegler-Natta catalysis. Acetic acid is produced via metal
carbonyl catalysts in the Monsanto process and Cativa process. Most synthetic aldehydes are produced via
hydroformylation. The bulk of the synthetic alcohols, at least those larger than ethanol, are produced by
hydrogenation of hydroformylation derived aldehydes. Similarly, the Wacker process is used in the oxidation of
ethylene to acetaldehyde.
Organolithium, organomagnesium, and organoaluminium compounds are highly basic and highly reducing. They
catalyze many polymerization reactions, but are also useful stoichiometrically.
III-V semiconductors are produced from trimethylgallium, trimethylindium, trimethylaluminum and related nitrogen
/ phosphorus / arsenic / antimony compounds. These volatile compounds are decomposed along with ammonia,
arsine, phosphine and related hydrides on a heated substrate via metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) process
for applications such as light emitting diodes (LEDs).
Organometallic compounds may be found in the environment and some, such as organo-lead and organo mercury
compounds are a toxic hazard.[3]
Concepts and techniques

As in other areas of chemistry, electron counting is useful for organizing organometallic chemistry. The 18-electron
rule is helpful in predicting the stabilities of metal carbonyls and related compounds. Chemical bonding and
reactivity in organometallic compounds is often discussed from the perspective of the isolobal principle.
NMR and infrared spectroscopy are common techniques used to determine structure. The dynamic properties of
organometallic compounds is often probed with variable-temperature NMR and chemical kinetics.
Organometallic compounds undergo several important reactions:
• oxidative addition and reductive elimination
• transmetalation
• carbometalation
• Hydrometalation
• electron transfer
• beta-hydride elimination
• organometallic substitution reaction
• carbon-hydrogen bond activation
• cyclometalation
• Migratory insertion
History
Early developments in organometallic chemistry include Louis Claude Cadet’s synthesis of methyl arsenic
compounds related to cacodyl, William Christopher Zeise's platinum-ethylene complex, Edward Frankland’s
discovery of dimethyl zinc, Ludwig Mond’s discovery of Ni(CO)4, and Victor Grignard’s organomagnesium
compounds. The abundant and diverse products from coal and petroleum led to Ziegler-Natta, Fischer-Tropsch,
hydroformylation catalysis which employ CO, H2, and alkenes as feedstocks and ligands.
Tetraethyllead previously was combined with gasoline as an antiknock agent. Due to lead's toxicity it is no longer
used, its replacements being other organometallic compounds such as ferrocene and methylcyclopentadienyl
manganese tricarbonyl (MMT).
Recognition of organometallic chemistry as a distinct subfield culminated in the Nobel Prizes to Ernst Fischer and
Geoffrey Wilkinson for work on metallocenes. In 2005, Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock
shared the Nobel Prize for metal-catalyzed olefin metathesis.
Organometallic chemistry timeline

• 1760 Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt investigates inks based on Cobalt salts and isolates Cacodyl from cobalt
mineral containing arsenic
• 1827 Zeise's salt is the first platinum / olefin complex
• 1863 Charles Friedel and James Crafts prepare organochlorosilanes
• 1890 Ludwig Mond discovers Nickel carbonyl
• 1899 Introduction of Grignard reaction
• 1900 Paul Sabatier works on hydrogenation organic compounds with metal catalysts. Hydrogenation of fats kicks
off advances in food industry, see margarine
• 1909 Paul Ehrlich introduces Salvarsan for the treatment of syphilis, an early arsenic based organometallic
compound
• 1912 Nobel Prize Victor Grignard and Paul Sabatier
• 1930 Henry Gilman works on lithium cuprates, see Gilman reagent
• 1951 Ferrocene is discovered
• 1963 Nobel prize for Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta on Ziegler-Natta catalyst
• 1965 Discovery of cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl
• 1968 Heck reaction
• 1973 Nobel prize Geoffrey Wilkinson and Ernst Otto Fischer on sandwich compounds
• 2005 Nobel prize Yves Chauvin, Robert Grubbs, and Richard Schrock on metal-catalyzed alkene metathesis
Organometallics
• Period 2 elements: organolithium chemistry, organoberyllium chemistry, organoborane chemistry,
• Period 3 elements: organomagnesium chemistry, organoaluminum chemistry, organosilicon chemistry
• Period 4 elements: organotitanium chemistry, organochromium chemistry, organomanganese chemistry
organoiron chemistry, organocobalt chemistry organonickel chemistry, organocopper chemistry, organozinc
chemistry, organogallium chemistry, organogermanium chemistry
• Period 5 elements: organopalladium chemistry, organosilver chemistry, organocadmium chemistry, organoindium
chemistry, organotin chemistry
• Period 6 elements: organolanthanide chemistry, organoosmium chemistry, organoiridium chemistry,
organoplatinum chemistry, organogold chemistry, organomercury chemistry, organothallium chemistry,
organolead chemistry
See also
• Chelation
• Bioorganometallic chemistry
• Green-Davies-Mingos rules
References
[1] Robert H. Crabtree (2005). The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals (http:/ / www. wiley. com/ WileyCDA/ WileyTitle/
productCd-0471662569. html). Wiley. pp. 560. ISBN 978-0-471-66256-3. .
[2] Toreki, R. (2003-11-20). "Organometallics Defined" (http:/ / www. ilpi. com/ organomet/ organometallics. html). Interactive Learning
Paradigms Incorporated. .
[3] Sigel, A.; Sigel, H; Sigel, R.K.O (Editors) (2010). Organometallics in environment and toxicology. Metal ions in life sciences. 7. Cambridge:
RSC Publishing. ISBN SBN 978-1-84755-177-1.
External links
• MIT OpenCourseWare: Organometallic Chemistry (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Chemistry/5-44Fall-2004/
CourseHome/index.htm)
• Rob Toreki's Organometallic HyperTextbook (http://www.ilpi.com/organomet/)
• web listing of US chemists who specialize in organometallic chemistry (http://www.organometallics.net/)
Trimethylaluminium
Trimethylaluminium
Identifiers
CAS number [1]

75-24-1
PubChem [2]
16682925
ChemSpider [3]
10606585
Properties
Molecular formula C6H18Al2
Molar mass 144.18 g/mol
Appearance Colorless liquid
Density 0.752 g/mL
Melting point 15 °C
Boiling point 125 °C
Hazards
Main hazards Pyrophoric

[4]
(what is this?) (verify)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Trimethylaluminium is the chemical compound with the formula Al2(CH3)6, abbreviated as Al2Me6, (AlMe3)2 or
the abbreviation TMA. This pyrophoric, colorless liquid is an industrially important organoaluminium compound. It
evolves white smoke (aluminium oxides) when the vapor is released into the air.
Structure and bonding

Al2Me6 exists as a dimer, analogous in structure and bonding to diborane. As with diborane, the metalloids are
connected by a 3-center-2-electron bond: the shared methyl groups bridge between the two aluminium atoms. The
Al-C(terminal) and Al-C(bridging) distances are 1.97 and 2.14 Å, respectively.[5] The carbon atoms of the bridging
methyl groups are each surrounded by five neighbors: three hydrogen atoms and two aluminium atoms. The methyl
groups interchange readily intramolecularly and intermolecularly.
3-Centered-2-electron bonds are an utterance of "electron-deficient" molecules and tend to reactions with Lewis
bases that would give products consisting of 2-centered-2-electron bonds. For example upon treatment with amines
gives adducts R3N-AlMe3. Another reaction that gives products that follow the octet rule is the reaction of Al2Me6
with aluminium trichloride to give (AlMe2Cl)2.
The species AlMe3, which would feature an aluminium atom bonded to three methyl groups is unknown. VSEPR
Theory predicts that such a molecule would have idealized threefold symmetry, as observed in BMe3.
Synthesis and applications

TMA is prepared via a two-step process that can be summarized as follows:
2 Al + 6 CH3Cl + 6 Na → Al2(CH3)6 + 6 NaCl
TMA is mainly used for the production of methylaluminoxane, an activator for Ziegler-Natta catalysts for olefin
polymerisation. TMA is also employed as a methylation agent. Tebbe's reagent, which is used for the methylenation
of esters and ketones, is prepared from TMA. TMA is often released from sounding rockets as a tracer in studies of
upper atmospheric wind patterns.
TMA is also used in semiconductor fabrication to grow thin film, high-k dielectrics such as Al2O3 via the processes
of Chemical Vapor Deposition or Atomic Layer Deposition.
TMA forms a complex with the tertiary amine DABCO, which is safer to handle than TMA itself.[6]
In combination with Cp2ZrCl2 (zirconocene dichloride), the (CH3)2Al-CH3 adds "across" alkynes to give vinyl
aluminium species that are useful in organic synthesis in a reaction known as carboalumination.[7]
Semiconductor grade TMA

TMA is the preferred metalorganic source for metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE) of
aluminium-containing compound semiconductors, such as AlAs, AlN, AlP, AlSb, AlGaAs, AlInGaAs, AlInGaP,
AlGaN, AlInGaN, AlInGaNP etc. Criteria for TMA quality focus on (a) elemental impurites, (b) oxygenated and
organic impurities.
References
[1] http:/ / www. commonchemistry. org/ ChemicalDetail. aspx?ref=75-24-1
[2] http:/ / pubchem. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ summary/ summary. cgi?cid=16682925
[3] http:/ / www. chemspider. com/ 10606585
[4] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ %3Atrimethylaluminium?diff=cur& oldid=399168981
[5] Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
[6] Biswas, K.; Prieto, O.; Goldsmith, P. J.Woodward, S. (2005). "Remarkably Stable (Me3Al)2DABCO and Stereoselective Nickel-Catalyzed
AlR3 (R = Me, Et) Additions to Aldehydes". Angewandte Chemie International Edition 44 (15): 2232–2234. doi:10.1002/anie.200462569.
PMID 15768433.
[7] Negishi, E.; Matsushita, H., "Palladium-Catalyzed Synthesis of 1,4-Dienes by Allylation of Alkenyalane: α-Farnesene
[1,3,6,10-Dodecatetraene, 3,7,11-trimethyl-]" (http:/ / www. orgsyn. org/ orgsyn/ orgsyn/ prepContent. asp?prep=cv7p0245), Org. Synth., ;
Coll. Vol. 7: 245
External links
• Informative commercial link to Trimethylaluminum and other metalorganics. (http://electronicmaterials.
rohmhaas.com/products/Default.asp?product=Trimethylaluminum)
• Interactive Vapor Pressure Chart for metalorganics (http://electronicmaterials.rohmhaas.com/businesses/
micro/metalorganics/vapor.asp?caid=291).
Light-emitting diode
Light-emitting diode
Red, green and blue LEDs of the 5mm type

Type Passive, optoelectronic
Working principle Electroluminescence
Invented Nick Holonyak Jr. (1962)
Electronic symbol
Pin configuration Anode and Cathode
A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced

/ˌɛl iː ˈdiː/, L-E-D[1] ) is a semiconductor
light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices, and are increasingly
used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962,[2] early LEDs
emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible,
ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward

biased (switched on), electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy gap of
the semiconductor. An LED is often small in
area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated
optical components may be used to shape its Parts of an LED
radiation pattern.[3] LEDs present many
advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer
lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and

greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room
lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and
heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as
replacements for aviation lighting, automotive lighting (particularly
brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in traffic signals.
The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching LED spotlight using 38 individual diodes for
speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video mains voltage power
displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates
are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of
many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
History
Discoveries and early devices

Electroluminescence was discovered in 1907 by the British
experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon
carbide and a cat's-whisker detector.[4] [5] Russian Oleg Vladimirovich
Losev independently reported on the creation of an LED in 1927.[6] [7]
His research was distributed in Russian, German and British scientific
journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several
decades.[8] [9] Rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America
reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other
semiconductor alloys in 1955.[10] Braunstein observed infrared Orange electroluminescence from a point contact
on a crystal of SiC recreates H. J. Round's
emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium
original experiment from 1907.
antimonide (GaSb), GaAs, indium phosphide (InP), and
silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77 kelvin.
In 1961, American experimenters Robert Biard and Gary Pittman working at Texas Instruments,[11] found that GaAs
emitted infrared radiation when electric current was applied and received the patent for the infrared LED.
The first practical visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak Jr., while working at
General Electric Company.[2] Holonyak is seen as the "father of the light-emitting diode".[12] M. George Craford,[13]
a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and
red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972.[14] In 1976, T.P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high
efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted
to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.[15]
Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of US $200 per unit, and so had little
practical use.[16] The Monsanto Company was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using gallium
arsenide phosphide in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators.[16] Hewlett Packard (HP) introduced LEDs
in 1968, initially using GaAsP supplied by Monsanto. The technology proved to have major uses for alphanumeric
displays and was integrated into HP's early handheld calculators. In the 1970s commercially successful LED devices
at under five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound
semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process invented by Dr. Jean Hoerni at Fairchild Semiconductor.[17]
The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled the team at
Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions. These methods
continue to be used by LED producers.[18]
Practical use
The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in
seven-segment displays,[19] first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later
in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list of signal uses). These red LEDs
were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in
calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors grew
widely available and also appeared in appliances and equipment. As LED materials technology grew more advanced,
light output rose, while maintaining efficiency and reliability at acceptable levels. The invention and development of
the high power white light LED led to use for illumination[20] [21] (see list of illumination applications). Most LEDs
were made in the very common 5 mm T1¾ and 3 mm T1 packages, but with rising power output, it has grown
increasingly necessary to shed excess heat to maintain reliability,[22] so more complex packages have been adapted
for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for state-of-the-art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.
Continuing development
The first high-brightness blue LED was
demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia
Corporation and was based on InGaN
borrowing on critical developments in GaN
nucleation on sapphire substrates and the
demonstration of p-type doping of GaN
which were developed by Isamu Akasaki
and H. Amano in Nagoya. In 1995, Alberto
Barbieri at the Cardiff University
Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency
and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and
demonstrated a very impressive result by
using a transparent contact made of indium
tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs) LED. Illustration of Haitz's Law. Light output per LED as a function of production year,
The existence of blue LEDs and high note the logarithmic scale on the vertical axis.
efficiency LEDs quickly led to the
development of the first white LED, which employed a Y3Al5O12:Ce, or "YAG", phosphor coating to mix yellow
(down-converted) light with blue to produce light that appears white. Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium
Technology Prize for his invention.[23]
The development of LED technology has caused their efficiency and light output to rise exponentially, with a
doubling occurring about every 36 months since the 1960s, in a way similar to Moore's law. The advances are
generally attributed to the parallel development of other semiconductor technologies and advances in optics and
material science. This trend is normally called Haitz's Law after Dr. Roland Haitz. [24]
In February 2008, 300 lumens of visible light per watt luminous efficacy (not per electrical watt) and warm-light
emission was achieved by using nanocrystals.[25]
In 2009, a process for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon has been reported. Epitaxy costs could be
reduced by up to 90% using six-inch silicon wafers instead of two-inch sapphire wafers.[26]
Technology
Physics
Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a
chip of semiconducting material doped with
impurities to create a p-n junction. As in
other diodes, current flows easily from the
p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode,
but not in the reverse direction.
Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow
into the junction from electrodes with
different voltages. When an electron meets a
hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and
releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and

The inner workings of an LED
thus its color, depends on the band gap
energy of the materials forming the p-n
junction. In silicon or germanium diodes,
the electrons and holes recombine by a
non-radiative transition which produces no
optical emission, because these are indirect
band gap materials. The materials used for
the LED have a direct band gap with
energies corresponding to near-infrared,
visible or near-ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and

red devices made with gallium arsenide.
Advances in materials science have enabled
I-V diagram for a diode. An LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltage is
making devices with ever-shorter
exceeded. Typical on voltages are 2–3 volts
wavelengths, emitting light in a variety of
colors.
LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface.
P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use
sapphire substrate.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much light will be
reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is an important
aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development.
Refractive Index
Bare uncoated semiconductors such as
silicon exhibit a very high refractive index
relative to open air, which prevents passage
of photons at sharp angles relative to the
air-contacting surface of the semiconductor.
This property affects both the light-emission
efficiency of LEDs as well as the
light-absorption efficiency of photovoltaic
cells. The refractive index of silicon is 4.24,
Idealized example of light emission cones in a semiconductor, for a single
while air is 1.00002926[28]
point-source emission zone. The left illustration is for a fully translucent wafer,
Generally a flat-surfaced uncoated LED while the right illustration shows the half-cones formed when the bottom layer is
fully opaque. The light is actually emitted equally in all directions from the
semiconductor chip will only emit light
point-source, so the areas between the cones shows the large amount of trapped
perpendicular to the semiconductor's [27]
light energy that is wasted as heat.
surface, and a few degrees to the side, in a
cone shape referred to as the light cone,
cone of light,[29] or the escape cone.[27] The
maximum angle of incidence is referred to
as the critical angle. When this angle is
exceeded photons no longer penetrate the
semiconductor, but are instead reflected
both internally inside the semiconductor
crystal, and externally off the surface of the
crystal as if it were a mirror.[27]
Internal reflections can escape through other

crystalline faces, if the incidence angle is
low enough and the crystal is sufficiently
transparent to not re-absorb the photon
emission. But for a simple square LED with
90-degree angled surfaces on all sides, the
faces all act as equal angle mirrors. In this
case the light can not escape and is lost as
waste heat in the crystal.[27] The light emission cones of a real LED wafer are far more complex than a single
point-source light emission. Typically the light emission zone is a 2D plane
A convoluted chip surface with angled between the wafers. Across this 2D plane, there is effectively a separate set of
emission cones for every atom.Drawing the billions of overlapping cones is
facets similar to a jewel or fresnel lens can
impossible, so this is a simplified diagram showing the extents of all the emission
increase light output by allowing light to be cones combined. The larger side cones are clipped to show the interior features and
emitted perpendicular to the chip surface reduce image complexity; they would extend to the opposite edges of the 2D
while far to the sides of the photon emission emission plane.
point.[30]
The ideal shape of a semiconductor with maximum light output would be a microsphere with the photon emission
occurring at the exact center, with electrodes penetrating to the center to contact at the emission point. All light rays
emanating from the center would be perpendicular to the entire surface of the sphere, resulting in no internal
reflections. A hemispherical semiconductor would also work, with the flat back-surface serving as a mirror to
back-scattered photons.[31]
Transition coatings
Many LED semiconductor chips are potted in clear or colored molded plastic shells. The plastic shell has three
purposes:
1. Mounting the semiconductor chip in devices is easier to accomplish.
2. The tiny fragile electrical wiring is physically supported and protected from damage
3. The plastic acts as a refractive intermediary between the relatively high-index semiconductor and low-index open
air.[32]
The third feature helps to boost the light emission from the semiconductor by acting as a diffusing lens, allowing
light to be emitted at a much higher angle of incidence from the light cone, than the bare chip is able to emit alone.
Efficiency and operational parameters

Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30–60 milliwatts [mW] of electrical power.
Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt [W]. These LEDs
used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were
mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die.
One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as measured by its light output per unit
power input. White LEDs quickly matched and overtook the efficiency of standard incandescent lighting systems. In
2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with a luminous efficacy of 18–22 lumens per watt [lm/W]. For
comparison, a conventional 60–100 W incandescent lightbulb emits around 15 lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights
emit up to 100 lm/W. A recurring problem is that efficiency falls sharply with rising current. This effect is known as
droop and effectively limits the light output of a given LED, raising heating more than light output for higher
current.[33] [34] [35]
In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the company Cree Inc. to provide 24 mW at 20
milliamperes [mA]. This produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA, becoming the
brightest white LED commercially available at the time, and more than four times as efficient as standard
incandescents. In 2006, they demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at
20 mA. Also, Seoul Semiconductor plans for 135 lm/W by 2007 and 145 lm/W by 2008,[36] which would be nearing
an order of magnitude improvement over standard incandescents and better than even standard fluorescents. Nichia
Corporation has developed a white LED with luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA.[37]
Practical general lighting needs high-power LEDs, of one watt or more. Typical operating currents for such devices
begin at 350 mA.
Note that these efficiencies are for the LED chip only, held at low temperature in a lab. Lighting works at higher
temperature and with drive circuit losses, so efficiencies are much lower. United States Department of Energy
(DOE) testing of commercial LED lamps designed to replace incandescent lamps or CFLs showed that average
efficacy was still about 46 lm/W in 2009 (tested performance ranged from 17 lm/W to 79 lm/W).[38]
Cree issued a press release on February 3, 2010 about a laboratory prototype LED achieving 208 lumens per watt at
room temperature. The correlated color temperature was reported to be 4579 K.[39]
Lifetime and failure

Solid state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low currents and at low
temperatures. Many of the LEDs made in the 1970s and 1980s are still in service today. Typical lifetimes quoted are
25,000 to 100,000 hours but heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly. [40]
The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output and loss of
efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. Early red LEDs were notable for their short lifetime.
With the development of high-power LEDs the devices are subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher
current densities than traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light output
degradation. To quantitatively classify lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use the terms L75
and L50 which is the time it will take a given LED to reach 75% and 50% light output respectively.[41]
Like other lighting devices, LED performance is temperature dependent. Most manufacturers’ published ratings of
LEDs are for an operating temperature of 25°C. LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or in-pavement signal
lights, and that are utilized in climates where the temperature within the luminaire gets very hot, could result in low
signal intensities or even failure.[42]
LED light output actually rises at colder temperatures (leveling off depending on type at around −30C).
Consequently, LED technology may be a good replacement in uses such as supermarket freezer lighting[43] [44] [45]
and will last longer than other technologies. Because LEDs emit less heat than incandescent bulbs, they are an
energy-efficient technology for uses such as freezers. However, because they emit little heat, ice and snow may build
up on the LED luminaire in colder climates.[42] This lack of waste heat generation has been observed to cause
sometimes significant problems with street traffic signals and airport runway lighting in snow-prone areas, although
some research has been done to try to develop heat sink technologies to transfer heat to other areas of the
luminaire.[46]
Colors and materials

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the following table shows the
available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:
Color Wavelength (nm) Voltage (V) Semiconductor material
Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.9 Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Red 610 < λ < 760 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03 Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Orange 590 < λ < 610 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Yellow 570 < λ < 590 2.10 < ΔV < 2.18 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Green 500 < λ < 570 [47]

1.9 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Blue 450 < λ < 500 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate — (under development)
Violet 400 < λ < 450 2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Purple multiple types 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Dual blue/red LEDs,
blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
Ultraviolet λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4 [48]

Diamond (235 nm)
[49] [50]
Boron nitride (215 nm)
[51]
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
[52]
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) — (down to 210 nm)
White Broad spectrum ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor
Ultraviolet and blue LEDs

Blue LEDs are based on the wide band gap semiconductors
GaN (gallium nitride) and InGaN (indium gallium nitride).
They can be added to existing red and green LEDs to
produce the impression of white light, though white LEDs
today rarely use this principle.
The first blue LEDs were made in 1971 by Jacques Pankove
(inventor of the gallium nitride LED) at RCA
Laboratories.[53] These devices had too little light output to
be of much practical use. In the late 1980s, key
breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type
doping[54] ushered in the modern era of GaN-based
Blue LEDs.
optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, in
1993 high brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated.[55]
By the late 1990s, blue LEDs had become widely available. They have an active region consisting of one or more
InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the relative
InN-GaN fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can be varied from violet to amber. AlGaN
aluminium gallium nitride of varying AlN fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers
for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of the
InGaN-GaN blue/green devices. If the active quantum well layers are GaN, instead of alloyed InGaN or AlGaN, the
device will emit near-ultraviolet light with wavelengths around 350–370 nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the
InGaN-GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems.
With nitrides containing aluminium, most often AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter wavelengths are achievable.
Ultraviolet LEDs in a range of wavelengths are becoming available on the market. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths
around 375–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as black light lamp replacements for
inspection of anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in some documents and paper currencies. Shorter wavelength
diodes, while substantially more expensive, are commercially available for wavelengths down to 247 nm.[56] As the
photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about
260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250–270 nm are to be expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices.
Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and
sterilization devices.[57]
Deep-UV wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using aluminium nitride (210 nm),[51] boron nitride
(215 nm)[49] [50] and diamond (235 nm).[48]
White light
There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDs. One is to use individual LEDs that
emit three primary colors[58] —red, green, and blue—and then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to
use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light,
much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works.
Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white.
RGB systems
White light can be formed by mixing

differently colored lights, the most
common method is to use red, green
and blue (RGB). Hence the method is
called multi-colored white LEDs
(sometimes referred to as RGB LEDs).
Because these need electronic circuits
to control the blending and diffusion of
different colors, these are seldom used
to produce white lighting.
Nevertheless, this method is
particularly interesting in many uses
because of the flexibility of mixing
different colors,[59] and, in principle,
this mechanism also has higher Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high brightness red solid-state
quantum efficiency in producing white semiconductor LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 24–27 nm for all three
light. colors.
There are several types of multi-colored white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic white LEDs. Several key factors
that play among these different methods, include color stability, color rendering capability, and luminous efficacy.
Often higher efficiency will mean lower color rendering, presenting a trade off between the luminous efficiency and
color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous efficacy (120 lm/W), but the
lowest color rendering capability. Conversely, although tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering
capability, they often have poor luminous efficiency. Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good
luminous efficacy (>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering capability.
Multi-color LEDs offer not merely another means to form white light, but a new means to form light of different
colors. Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors. This allows
precise dynamic color control. As more effort is devoted to investigating this method, multi-color LEDs should have
profound influence on the fundamental method which we use to produce and control light color. However, before
this type of LED can play a role on the market, several technical problems need solving. These include that this type
of LED's emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,[60] resulting in a substantial change in color
stability. Such problems inhibit and may preclude industrial use. Thus, many new package designs aimed at solving
this problem have been proposed and their results are now being reproduced by researchers and scientists.
Phosphor-based LEDs
This method involves coating an LED

of one color (mostly blue LED made of
InGaN) with phosphor of different
colors to form white light; the resultant
LEDs are called phosphor-based
white LEDs.[61] A fraction of the blue
light undergoes the Stokes shift being
transformed from shorter wavelengths
to longer. Depending on the color of
the original LED, phosphors of
different colors can be employed. If
several phosphor layers of distinct
colors are applied, the emitted
spectrum is broadened, effectively
raising the color rendering index (CRI)
Spectrum of a “white” LED clearly showing blue light which is directly emitted by the
value of a given LED.[62] GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more broadband Stokes-shifted light
emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor which emits at roughly 500–700 nm.
Phosphor based LEDs have a lower
efficiency than normal LEDs due to
the heat loss from the Stokes shift and also other phosphor-related degradation issues. However, the phosphor
method is still the most popular method for making high intensity white LEDs. The design and production of a light
source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex
RGB system, and the majority of high intensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using
phosphor light conversion.
The greatest barrier to high efficiency is the seemingly unavoidable Stokes energy loss. However, much effort is
being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the
efficiency can be raised by adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Philips
Lumileds' patented conformal coating process addresses the issue of varying phosphor thickness, giving the white
LEDs a more homogeneous white light.[63] With development ongoing, the efficiency of phosphor based LEDs
generally rises with each new product announcement.
The phosphor based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor coated epoxy. A common yellow
phosphor material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Ce3+:YAG).
White LEDs can also be made by coating near ultraviolet (NUV) emitting LEDs with a mixture of high efficiency
europium-based red and blue emitting phosphors plus green emitting copper and aluminium doped zinc sulfide
(ZnS:Cu, Al). This is a method analogous to the way fluorescent lamps work. This method is less efficient than the
blue LED with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger, so more energy is converted to heat, but yields light
with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet
LEDs than of the blue ones, both methods offer comparable brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from a
malfunctioning light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.
Other white LEDs

Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and was based on
homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate which simultaneously emitted blue light from its
active region and yellow light from the substrate.[64]
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)

If the emitting layer material of the LED is an organic compound, it is known as an organic light emitting diode
(OLED). To function as a semiconductor, the organic emitting material needs conjugated pi bonds. [65] The emitting
material can be a small organic molecule in a crystalline phase, or a polymer. Polymer materials can be flexible; such
LEDs are known as PLEDs or FLEDs.
Compared with regular LEDs, OLEDs are lighter, and polymer LEDs can have the added benefit of being flexible.
Some possible future uses of OLEDs may be:
• Low cost, flexible displays
• Light sources
• Wall decorations
• Luminous cloth
OLEDs have been used to make visual displays for portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras,
and MP3 players. Larger displays have been demonstrated,[66] but as of 2007, their life expectancy was still far too
short (<1,000 hours) to be practical.
As of 2008, OLEDs operated at substantially lower efficiency than inorganic (crystalline) LEDs.[67]
Quantum dot LEDs (experimental)

A new method developed by Michael Bowers, a graduate student at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, involves
coating a blue LED with quantum dots that glow white in response to the blue light from the LED. This method
emits a warm, yellowish-white light similar to that made by incandescent bulbs.[68]
Quantum dots are semiconductor nanocrystals that possess unique optical properties.[69] Their emission color can be
tuned from the visible throughout the infrared spectrum. This allows quantum dot LEDs to create almost any color
on the CIE diagram. This provides more color options and better color rendering than white LEDs. Quantum dot
LEDs are available in the same package types as traditional phosphor based LEDs.
In September 2009 Nanoco Group announced that it has signed a joint development agreement with a major
Japanese electronics company under which it will design and develop quantum dots for use in light emitting diodes
(LEDs) in liquid crystal display (LCD) televisions.[70]
Types
LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package (red, fifth from the left) is the most common, estimated at 80% of
world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is
often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in SMT packages, such as those found on blinkies and
on cell phone keypads (not shown).
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.
Miniature
These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in
various-sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount
packages. They are usually simple in design, not requiring any separate
cooling body.[71] Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to
above 20 mA. The small scale sets a natural upper boundary on power
consumption due to heat caused by the high current density and need
for heat sinking.
Mid-range Different sized LEDs. 8 mm, 5 mm and 3 mm,

with a wooden match-stick for scale.
Medium power LEDs are often through-hole mounted and used when
an output of a few lumen is needed. They sometimes have the diode
mounted to four leads (two cathode leads, two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens.
An example of this is the Superflux package, from Philips Lumileds. These LEDs are most commonly used in light
panels, emergency lighting and automotive tail-lights. Due to the larger amount of metal in the LED, they are able to
handle higher currents (around 100 mA). The higher current allows for the higher light output required for tail-lights
and emergency lighting.
High power
High power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from
hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens
of mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens.[72]
[73]
Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be
mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat
from a HPLED is not removed, the device will fail in seconds.
One HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a torch, or
be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.
Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Lumileds

Rebel Led, Osram Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon and Cree High-power light emiting diodes (Luxeon, Lumileds)
X-lamp. As of September 2009 some HPLEDs manufactured by
Cree Inc. now exceed 105 lm/W [74] (e.g. the XLamp XP-G LED chip emitting Cool White light) and are being sold
in lamps intended to replace incandescent, halogen, and even fluorescent lights, as LEDs grow more cost
competitive.
LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power without the need for a DC
converter. For each half cycle, part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half
cycle. The efficacy of this type of HPLED is typically 40 lm/W.[75] A large number of LED elements in series may
be able to operate directly from line voltage. In 2009 Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage capable of
being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The low power dissipation of these LEDs affords
them more flexibility than the original AC LED design.[76]
Application-specific variations
• Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs
resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit which causes the LED to flash with a
typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit
light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color
sequence using RGB color mixing.
• Bi-color LEDs are actually two different LEDs in one case. They
consist of two dies connected to the same two leads antiparallel to
each other. Current flow in one direction emits one color, and
current in the opposite direction emits the other color. Alternating
the two colors with sufficient frequency causes the appearance of a Calculator LED display, 1970s.
blended third color. For example, a red/green LED operated in this

fashion will color blend to emit a yellow appearance.
• Tri-color LEDs are two LEDs in one case, but the two LEDs are connected to separate leads so that the two LEDs
can be controlled independently and lit simultaneously. A three-lead arrangement is typical with one common
lead (anode or cathode).
• RGB LEDs contain red, green and blue emitters, generally using a four-wire connection with one common lead
(anode or cathode). These LEDs can have either common positive or common negative leads. Others however,
have only two leads (positive and negative) and have a built in tiny electronic control unit.
• Alphanumeric LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Seven-segment displays handle
all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays
were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power
needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.
Considerations for use
Power sources
The current/voltage characteristic of an LED is similar to other diodes, in that the current is dependent exponentially
on the voltage (see Shockley diode equation). This means that a small change in voltage can cause a large change in
current. If the maximum voltage rating is exceeded by a small amount, the current rating may be exceeded by a large
amount, potentially damaging or destroying the LED. The typical solution is to use constant current power supplies,
or driving the LED at a voltage much below the maximum rating. Since most common power sources (batteries,
mains) are not constant current sources, most LED fixtures must include a power converter. However, the I/V curve
of nitride-based LEDs is quite steep above the knee and gives an If of a few milliamperes at a Vf of 3 V, making it
possible to power a nitride-based LED from a 3 V battery such as a coin cell without the need for a current limiting
resistor.
Electrical polarity
As with all diodes, current flows easily from p-type to n-type material.[77] However, no current flows and no light is
emitted if a small voltage is applied in the reverse direction. If the reverse voltage grows large enough to exceed the
breakdown voltage, a large current flows and the LED may be damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently limited
to avoid damage, the reverse-conducting LED is a useful noise diode.
Safety
The vast majority of devices containing LEDs are "safe under all conditions of normal use", and so are classified as
"Class 1 LED product"/"LED Klasse 1". At present, only a few LEDs—extremely bright LEDs that also have a
tightly focused viewing angle of 8° or less—could, in theory, cause temporary blindness, and so are classified as
"Class 2".[78] In general, laser safety regulations—and the "Class 1", "Class 2", etc. system—also apply to LEDs.[79]
Advantages
• Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent bulbs.[80] Their efficiency is not affected by shape
and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
• Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods
need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
• Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[81] ) and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards.
• On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in under a
microsecond.[82] LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times.
• Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when
cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.
• Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current.
• Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage
to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
• Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.[83]
• Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life,
though time to complete failure may be longer.[84] Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000
hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours.
• Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike
fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.
• Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources
often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.
• Low toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.
Disadvantages
• Fluorescent lamps are typically more efficient than LEDs (for lamps with the same CRI).
• High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most
conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output
and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed.
• Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating
environment. Over-driving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package,
eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat sinking is needed to maintain long life. This is especially
important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of
temperatures, and need low failure rates.
• Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating.
This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies.[85]
• Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the
sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived
differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism,[86] red
surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However, the color
rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white
LEDs.
• Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a “point source” of light, but rather a lambertian distribution. So
LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field. LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few
degrees. In contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.[87]
• Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits
of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1–05:
Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.[88] [89]
• Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs (i.e., LEDs with high color temperature) emit proportionally more blue
light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the strong wavelength
dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light
sources. The International Dark-Sky Association discourages using white light sources with correlated color
temperature above 3,000 K.[90]
• Droop: The efficiency of LEDs tends to decrease as one increases current.[91] [92] [93] [94]
Applications
LED uses fall into four major categories:
• Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the
source to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
• Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual
response of these objects.
• Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human
vision.[95]
• Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias
mode and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light.
LED lighting in the aircraft cabin of an Airbus
A320 Enhanced.
Indicators and signs

The low energy consumption, low maintenance and small size of
modern LEDs has led to uses as status indicators and displays on a
variety of equipment and installations. Large area LED displays are
used as stadium displays and as dynamic decorative displays. Thin,
lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway stations,
and as destination displays for trains, buses, trams, and ferries.
One-color light is well suited for traffic lights and signals, exit signs,
A large LED display behind a disc jockey.
emergency vehicle lighting, ships' navigation lights or lanterns
(chromacity and luminance standards being set under the Convention
on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972,
Annex I and the CIE) and LED-based Christmas lights. In cold
climates, LED traffic lights may remain snow covered.[96] Red or
yellow LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric displays in
environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits,
submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in the field,
e.g. night time animal watching and military field use.
Because of their long life and fast switching times, LEDs have been
used in brake lights for cars high-mounted brake lights, trucks, and
LED destination displays on buses, one with a
buses, and in turn signals for some time, but many vehicles now use
colored route number.
LEDs for their rear light clusters. The use in brakes improves safety,
due to a great reduction in the time needed to light fully, or faster rise
time, up to 0.5 second faster than an incandescent bulb. This gives
drivers behind more time to react. It is reported that at normal highway
speeds, this equals one car length equivalent in increased time to react.
In a dual intensity circuit (i.e., rear markers and brakes) if the LEDs are
not pulsed at a fast enough frequency, they can create a phantom array,
where ghost images of the LED will appear if the eyes quickly scan
across the array. White LED headlamps are starting to be used. Using
LEDs has styling advantages because LEDs can form much thinner
lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic reflectors.
LED digital display that can display 4 digits
Due to the relative cheapness of low output LEDs, they are also used in along with points.
many temporary uses such as glowsticks, throwies, and the photonic

textile Lumalive. Artists have also used LEDs for LED art.
Weather/all-hazards radio receivers with Specific Area Message
Encoding (SAME) have three LEDs: red for warnings, orange for
watches, and yellow for advisories & statements whenever issued.
Lighting
With the development of high efficiency and high power LEDs it has
grown possible to use LEDs in lighting and illumination. Replacement
light bulbs have been made, as well as dedicated fixtures and LED Traffic light using LED
lamps. LEDs are used as street lights and in other architectural lighting
where color changing is used. The mechanical robustness and long
lifetime is used in automotive lighting on cars, motorcycles and on
bicycle lights.
LED street lights are employed on poles and in parking garages. In
2007, the Italian village Torraca was the first place to convert its entire
illumination system to LEDs.[97]
LEDs are used in aviation lighting. Airbus has used LED lighting in
their Airbus A320 Enhanced since 2007, and Boeing plans its use in
the 787. LEDs are also being used now in airport and heliport lighting. Western Australia Police car using LED
LED airport fixtures currently include medium intensity runway lights,

runway centerline lights and obstruction lighting.
LEDs are also suitable for backlighting for LCD televisions and
lightweight laptop displays and light source for DLP projectors (See
LED TV). RGB LEDs raise the color gamut by as much as 45%.
Screens for TV and computer displays can be made thinner using
LEDs for backlighting.[98]
LED's can now be used interactively to produce an immersive
experience for end users in entertainment mediums such as PC gaming
Printhead of an Oki LED printer
and audio visual platforms via amBX [99] technology
LEDs are used increasingly commonly in aquarium lights. Particularly
for reef aquariums, LED lights provide an efficient light source with
less heat output to help maintain optimal aquarium temperatures.
LED-based aquarium fixtures also have the advantage of being
manually adjustable to emit a specific color-spectrum for ideal
coloration of corals, fish, and invertebrates while optimizing
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) which raises growth and
sustainability of photosynthetic life such as corals, anemones, clams,
and macroalgae. These fixtures can be electronically programmed to LED daytime running lights of Audi A4
simulate various lighting conditions throughout the day, reflecting
phases of the sun and moon for a dynamic reef experience. LED
fixtures typically cost up to five times as much as similarly rated
fluorescent or high-intensity discharge lighting designed for reef
aquariums and are not as high output to date.
The lack of IR/heat radiation makes LEDs ideal for stage lights using
banks of RGB LEDs that can easily change color and decrease heating
from traditional stage lighting, as well as medical lighting where
IR-radiation can be harmful.
LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in hand LED panel light source used in an experiment on
held devices such as flashlights. LED strobe lights or camera flashes plant growth. The findings of such experiments
may be used to grow food in space on long
operate at a safe, low voltage, instead of the 250+ volts commonly
duration missions.
found in xenon flashlamp-based lighting. This is especially useful in
cameras on mobile phones, where space is at a premium and bulky
voltage-raising circuitry is undesirable. LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision uses including
security cameras. A ring of LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into a retroreflective background, allows
chroma keying in video productions.

LEDs are used for decorative lighting as well. Uses include but are not limited to indoor/outdoor decor, limousines,
cargo trailers, conversion vans, cruise ships, RVs, boats, automobiles, and utility trucks. Decorative LED lighting
can also come in the form of lighted company signage and step and aisle lighting in theaters and auditoriums.
Smart lighting
Light can be used to transmit broadband data, which is already implemented in IrDA standards using infrared LEDs.
Because LEDs can cycle on and off millions of times per second, they can be wireless transmitters and access points
for data transport.[100] Lasers can also be modulated in this manner.
Sustainable lighting
Efficient lighting is needed for sustainable architecture. A 13 watt LED lamp emits 450 to 650 lumens.[101] which is
equivalent to a standard 40 watt incandescent bulb. [102] A standard 40 W incandescent bulb has an expected lifespan
of 1,000 hours while an LED can continue to operate with reduced efficiency for more than 50,000 hours, 50 times
longer than the incandescent bulb.
Environmentally friendly options

One kilowatt-hour of electricity will cause 1.34 pounds (610 g) of CO2 emission.[103] Assuming the average light
bulb is on for 10 hours a day, one 40-watt incandescent bulb will cause 196 pounds (89 kg) of CO2 emission per
year. The 13-watt LED equivalent will only cause 63 pounds (29 kg) of CO2 over the same time span. A building’s
carbon footprint from lighting can be reduced by 68% by exchanging all incandescent bulbs for new LEDs in warm
climates. In cold climates, the energy saving may be lower, since more heating is needed to compensate for the lower
temperature.
LEDs are also non-toxic unlike the more popular energy efficient bulb option: the compact fluorescent a.k.a. CFL
which contains traces of harmful mercury. While the amount of mercury in a CFL is small, introducing less into the
environment is preferable.
Economically sustainable
LED light bulbs could be a cost-effective option for lighting a home or office space because of their very long
lifetimes. Consumer use of LEDs as a replacement for conventional lighting system is currently hampered by the
high cost and low efficiency of available products. 2009 DOE testing results showed an average efficacy of 35
lm/W, below that of typical CFLs, and as low as 9 lm/W, worse than standard incandescents.[101] The high initial
cost of the commercial LED bulb is due to the expensive sapphire substrate which is key to the production process.
The sapphire apparatus must be coupled with a mirror-like collector to reflect light that would otherwise be wasted.
In 2008, a materials science research team at Purdue University succeeded in making LED bulbs with a substitute for
the sapphire components.[104] The team used metal-coated silicon wafers with a built-in reflective layer of zirconium
nitride to lessen the overall production cost of the LED. They predict that within a few years, LEDs produced with
their revolutionary new method will be competitively priced with CFLs. The less expensive LED would not only be
the best energy saver, but also a low cost bulb.
Non-visual applications
Light has many other uses besides for seeing. LEDs are used for some of these. The uses fall in three groups:
Communication, sensors and light matter interaction.
The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively in optical fiber and Free Space
Optics communications. This include remote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs, where infrared LEDs are often
used. Opto-isolators use an LED combined with a photodiode or phototransistor to provide a signal path with
electrical isolation between two circuits. This is especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low
voltage sensor circuit (usually battery powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from
any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An
optoisolator also allows information to be transferred between circuits not sharing a common ground potential.
Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a light source due to the requirements
of the sensors. LEDs are used as movement sensors, for example in optical computer mice. The Nintendo Wii's
sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. In pulse oximeters for measuring oxygen saturation. Some flatbed scanners use arrays
of RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control
of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there is no need
for warm-up. Further, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one time the page being scanned is only
lit by one color of light. Touch sensing: Since LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both
photo emission and detection. This could be used in for example a touch-sensing screen that register reflected light
from a finger or stylus.[105]
Many materials and biological systems are sensitive to, or dependent on light. Grow lights use LEDs to increase
photosynthesis in plants[106] and bacteria and viruses can be removed from water and other substances using UV
LEDs for sterilization.[57] Other uses are as UV curing devices for some ink and coating methods, and in LED
printers.
Plant growers are interested in LEDs because they are more energy efficient, emit less heat (can damage plants close
to hot lamps), and can provide the optimum light frequency for plant growth and bloom periods compared to
currently used grow lights: HPS (high pressure sodium), MH (metal halide) or CFL/low-energy. However, LEDs
have not replaced these grow lights due to higher price. As mass production and LED kits develop, the LED products
will become cheaper.
LEDs have also been used as a medium quality voltage reference in electronic circuits. The forward voltage drop
(e.g., about 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be used instead of a Zener diode in low-voltage regulators. Red LEDs
have the flattest I/V curve above the knee. Nitride-based LEDs have a fairly steep I/V curve and are useless for this
purpose. Although LED forward voltage is far more current-dependent than a good Zener, Zener diodes are not
widely available below voltages of about 3 V.
Light sources for machine vision systems

Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of interest are easier to
process. LEDs are often used for this purpose, and this is likely to remain one of their major uses until price drops
low enough to make signaling and illumination uses more widespread. Barcode scanners are the most common
example of machine vision, and many low cost ones use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical computer mice are also
another example of LEDs in machine vision, as it is used to provide an even light source on the surface for the
miniature camera within the mouse. LEDs constitute a nearly ideal light source for machine vision systems for
several reasons:
The size of the illuminated field is usually comparatively small and machine vision systems are often quite
expensive, so the cost of the light source is usually a minor concern. However, it might not be easy to replace a
broken light source placed within complex machinery, and here the long service life of LEDs is a benefit.
LED elements tend to be small and can be placed with high density over flat or even shaped substrates (PCBs etc.)
so that bright and homogeneous sources can be designed which direct light from tightly controlled directions on
inspected parts. This can often be obtained with small, low cost lenses and diffusers, helping to achieve high light
densities with control over lighting levels and homogeneity. LED sources can be shaped in several configurations
(spot lights for reflective illumination; ring lights for coaxial illumination; back lights for contour illumination; linear
assemblies; flat, large format panels; dome sources for diffused, omnidirectional illumination).
LEDs can be easily strobed (in the microsecond range and below) and synchronized with imaging. High power
LEDs are available allowing well lit images even with very short light pulses. This is often used to obtain crisp and
sharp “still” images of quickly moving parts.
LEDs come in several different colors and wavelengths, allowing easy use of the best color for each need, where
different color may provide better visibility of features of interest. Having a precisely known spectrum allows tightly
matched filters to be used to separate informative bandwidth or to reduce disturbing effects of ambient light. LEDs
usually operate at comparatively low working temperatures, simplifying heat management and dissipation. This
allows using plastic lenses, filters, and diffusers. Waterproof units can also easily be designed, allowing use in harsh
or wet environments (food, beverage, oil industries).
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[93] "The LED’s Dark Secret: Solid-state lighting won't supplant the lightbulb until it can overcome the mysterious malady known as droop," by
Richard Stevenson, IEEE Spectrum, August 2009" (http:/ / www. spectrum. ieee. org/ semiconductors/ optoelectronics/ the-leds-dark-secret). .
[94] EnergyDaily: The LED's dark secret (http:/ / www. energy-daily. com/ reports/ The_LED_Dark_Secret_999. html)
[95] EPIC European Photonics Industry Consortium.
[96] LED advantages outweigh potential snow hazards in traffic signals (http:/ / www. ledsmagazine. com/ news/ 7/ 1/ 4), LEDs magazine 7
January 2010
[97] LED There Be Light (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=led-there-be-light), Scientific American, March 18, 2009
[98] Eisenberg, Anne (June 24, 2007). "In Pursuit of Perfect TV Color, With L.E.D.’s and Lasers" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 06/ 24/
business/ yourmoney/ 24novel. html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-04-04.
[99] http:/ / www. ambx. com/
[100] Green, Hank (2008-10-09). "Transmitting Data Through LED Light Bulbs" (http:/ / www. ecogeek. org/ content/ view/ 2194/ 74/ ).
EcoGeek. . Retrieved 2009-02-15.
[101] (PDF) DOE Solid-State Lighting CALiPER Program Summary of Results: Round 7 of Product Testing. (http:/ / apps1. eere. energy. gov/
buildings/ publications/ pdfs/ ssl/ caliper_round_7_summary_final. pdf). U.S. Department of Energy. February 2009. .
[102] "GE lighting catalog" (http:/ / genet. gelighting. com/ LightProducts/ Dispatcher?REQUEST=RESULTPAGE& CHANNEL=Consumer&
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[103] "US DOE EIA: Electricity Emission Factors" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ oiaf/ 1605/ emission_factors. html). . Retrieved 2009-06-03.
[104] Venere, Emil (2008-07-17). "Advance brings low-cost, bright LED lighting closer to reality" (http:/ / news. uns. purdue. edu/ x/ 2008b/
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Further reading
• Shuji Nakamura, Gerhard Fasol, Stephen J Pearton (2000). The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete Story (http://
books.google.com/?id=AHyMBJ_LMykC&printsec=frontcover). Springer Verlag. ISBN 3540665056.
• Mills, Evan (2005). "The Specter of Fuel-Based Lighting". Science 308 (5726): 1263–1264.
doi:10.1126/science.1113090. PMID 15919979.
• Moreno, I., "Spatial distribution of LED radiation," in The International Optical Design Conference, Proc. SPIE
vol. 6342, 634216:1–7 (2006).
• Salisbury, David F. (October 20, 2005). "Quantum dots that produce white light could be the light bulb’s
successor" (http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/news/news_quantumdot_led.htm). Exploration—The Online
Research Journal of Vanderbilt University. (More details regarding the use of quantum dots as a phosphor for
white LEDs.)
• Keith Scott, "Four Solid State Lighting Trends for 2010" (http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/
solid-state-lighting-trends-for-2010/), Greentech Media, January 13, 2010. (Keith Scott is Vice President of
Business Development at Bridgelux, a small LED technology company).
External links
• Light-emitting diode (http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Electronics_and_Electrical/Optoelectronics_and_Fiber/
Vendors//) at the Open Directory Project
• Dendrimers in the spotlight (http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/ChemTech/Volume/2008/11/
dendrimers_insight.asp) – an Instant Insight (http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/ChemTech/Instant_insights.
asp) examining the use of dendrimers in organic light-emitting diodes from the Royal Society of Chemistry
• Photonics Sources Group, Tyndall National Institute (http://www.tyndall.ie/gan) GaN and other photonics
research at the Tyndall National Institute, Ireland.
• MAKE Presents: The LED – A movie about the origins of the LED and how to make your own from
carborundum! (http://blog.makezine.com/archive/2008/11/make_presents_the_led_a_m.html)
• Rensselaer Electrical Engineering Department (http://www.ecse.rpi.edu/~schubert/
Light-Emitting-Diodes-dot-org/) LED information arranged in textbook form, aimed at introductory to advanced
audience
• Uncertainty evaluation for measurement of LED colour (http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/46/704)
• The light bulb goes digital (http://brainstormtech.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2010/01/26/
the-light-bulb-goes-digital/?section=magazines_fortune)
• Lighting Research Center's Solid-State Lighting program (http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/solidstate/index.
asp)
Article Sources and Contributors 31
Article Sources and Contributors

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Fadeev, GODhack, Gadfium, Giftiger wunsch, Gokay05, Grimlock, Guanaco, Hugo-cs, Icairns, Isilanes, Itub, Jaraalbe, Kandar, Kaszeta, Kostmo, Leafyplant, Lfh, Maurreen, Mayumashu,
Nergaal, Nirmos, NorwegianBlue, Okedem, Petergans, Physchim62, Power, RISHARTHA, Rifleman 82, Sahehco, Saravask, Shaddack, Sidar, Siddhant, Smokefoot, Smokeybrain, Spasemunki,
V8rik, Vainamainien, Van Flamm, Vuo, Watcharakorn, WijzeWillem, Yilloslime, 65 anonymous edits
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Chiu frederick, Darrien, Dr Zak, DragonflySixtyseven, Element16, Jon the Geek, Jonathan Geronimo, Loren36, Mancunion, Nirmos, Nono64, Rifleman 82, Rune.welsh, Smokefoot, SteinbDJ,
T.vanschaik, Tetracube, V8rik, Walkerma, Wickey-nl, 20 anonymous edits
Light-emitting diode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=404447246 Contributors: (, 10metreh, 209.239.197.xxx, 62.226.0.xxx, A. B., A. di M., A3camero, ABF, AGToth,
AJim, AVand, Aadgray, Aaronbrick, Abbedabb, Abce2, Abqwildcat, Abune, Ace of Risk, Achoo5000, Adadurov A, Adam1213, Adam850, AdeMiami, Adi necromancer, Adkoon, AeroPsico,
Aesopos, Ahoerstemeier, Ajmoonz1, Alan012, Aldie, Aleenf1, Alex.muller, Alexander256, Alexius08, Alexofdodd, Alfred1520, All Is One, Allwin21, Alokpshah, Alphabet27, Americhinab2b,
AnOddName, AnakngAraw, Anaraug, Anastrophe, Anatoly larkin, Anbknaga, Ancheta Wis, Andonic, Andrarias, Andres, Andrestebro, Andrewpmk, Andros 1337, Andvd, Antandrus, Apis
O-tang, Aqua008, Arakunem, Arch dude, Ariel., ArielGold, Ark2120, Armyxi, Arnero, Arriva436, Arrson.led, Astor14, Atg-electronics, Atif.t2, Atlant, Atlfalcons866, Audriusa, Autodidactyl,
Autopilot, Avoided, Avé, AzaToth, Azul007, Bagelboy2020, Bagelverse, BalazsH, Bando26, Base369, BaseballDetective, Baylink, Bdiscoe, Beetstra, Beland, Belmond, Bemoeial, Bennyboy80,
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1234, Calabraxthis, Calmer Waters, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, CaptHayfever, Carlsotr, Carnildo, Carolynlowe, Cate, Caulde, Causa sui, Cbrodersen, Ccrrccrr, Cflm001,
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Courcelles, Cpl Syx, Craigbic, CryptWizard, Css, Ctachme, Ctroy36, Custardninja, CuteHappyBrute, Cyril.holweck, CyrilB, DB5, DGerman, DMahalko, Dachshund, Daniel.Cardenas, Darth
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 32
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:N-butyllithium-tetramer-3D-balls.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:N-butyllithium-tetramer-3D-balls.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Aushulz,
Benjah-bmm27
Image:Trimethylaluminium-3D-balls.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trimethylaluminium-3D-balls.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Benjah-bmm27,
Ephemeronium
File:Yes check.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yes_check.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Gmaxwell, User:WarX
File:RBG-LED.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RBG-LED.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: PiccoloNamek
File:LED symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_symbol.svg License: unknown Contributors: Er Komandante, Jed, Omegatron, Papa November, Rocket000,
Sergey kudryavtsev, 11 anonymous edits
File:LED Labelled.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_Labelled.svg License: unknown Contributors: -
File:E27 with 38 LCD.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:E27_with_38_LCD.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: D-Kuru, Dmitry G, Mion, Ocrho, 1
anonymous edits
File:SIC LED.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SIC_LED.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Teravolt
File:Haitz law.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Haitz_law.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Thorseth
File:PnJunction-LED-E.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PnJunction-LED-E.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: CLI, S-kei
File:Diode-IV-Curve.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diode-IV-Curve.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:H1voltage
File:LED-chip-20-deg-crti-angle - both types - crop.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED-chip-20-deg-crti-angle_-_both_types_-_crop.png License: Creative
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File:LED light emission cones from 2D plane emission zone.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_light_emission_cones_from_2D_plane_emission_zone.png
License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:DMahalko
File:Blue LED and Reflection.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_LED_and_Reflection.JPG License: unknown Contributors: Alexofdodd
File:Red-YellowGreen-Blue LED spectra.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red-YellowGreen-Blue_LED_spectra.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
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File:White LED.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:White_LED.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Deglr6328 at
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User:Afrank99
File:LEDs 8 5 3mm.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LEDs_8_5_3mm.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: user:afrank99
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Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: David Shankbone
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File:LED traffic light on red.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_traffic_light_on_red.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Kevin_Payravi
File:WAPOL TE204 rear.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WAPOL_TE204_rear.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors:
User:Nachoman-au
File:LED printhead.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_printhead.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Kristoferb
File:LED DaytimeRunningLights.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_DaytimeRunningLights.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Thermos
File:LED panel and plants.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_panel_and_plants.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Deglr6328, Ohms law, 4 anonymous
edits
License 33
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organo.met.

Coordination compounds with organic ligands

Structure and properties

Concepts and techniques

Organometallic chemistry timeline

CAS number [1]

Molecular formula C6H18Al2

Molar mass 144.18 g/mol

Appearance Colorless liquid

Density 0.752 g/mL

Boiling point 125 °C

Main hazards Pyrophoric

Structure and bonding

Synthesis and applications

Semiconductor grade TMA

Red, green and blue LEDs of the 5mm type

Working principle Electroluminescence

Invented Nick Holonyak Jr. (1962)

Pin configuration Anode and Cathode

A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced

When a light-emitting diode is forward

lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and

Discoveries and early devices

The wavelength of the light emitted, and

LED development began with infrared and

Internal reflections can escape through other

Efficiency and operational parameters

Lifetime and failure

Colors and materials

Color Wavelength (nm) Voltage (V) Semiconductor material

Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.9 Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Green 500 < λ < 570 [47]

Ultraviolet λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4 [48]

White Broad spectrum ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

Ultraviolet and blue LEDs

White light can be formed by mixing

This method involves coating an LED

Other white LEDs

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)

Quantum dot LEDs (experimental)

Mid-range Different sized LEDs. 8 mm, 5 mm and 3 mm,

Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Lumileds

blended third color. For example, a red/green LED operated in this

Considerations for use

• Low toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.

Indicators and signs

many temporary uses such as glowsticks, throwies, and the photonic

LED airport fixtures currently include medium intensity runway lights,

chroma keying in video productions.

Environmentally friendly options

Light sources for machine vision systems

Article Sources and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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