archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941

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Review

Recent development trends in metal forming

Z. Gronostajski a, Z. Pater b, L. Madej c,*, A. Gontarz b, L. Lisiecki c,

A. Lukaszek-Solek c, J. Luksza c, S. Mróz e, Z. Muskalski e, W. Muzykiewicz c,
M. Pietrzyk c, R.E. Sliwa d, J. Tomczak b, S. Wiewiórowska e, G. Winiarski b,
J. Zasadzinski c, S. Ziólkiewicz f
a
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 27 Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego St., 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
b
Lublin University of Technology, 38D Nadbystrzycka St., 20-618 Lublin, Poland
c
AGH University of Science and Technology, 30 Mickiewicza Av., 30-059 Kraków, Poland
d
Rzeszow University of Technology, 12 Powstanców Warszawy Av., 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
e
Czestochowa University of Technology, 69 Generala Jana Henryka Dabrowskiego St., 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland
f
INOP – Metal Forming Institute, 14 Jana Pawla II, 61-139 Poznan, Poland

article info abstract

Article history: Major, recent developmental trends in the field of metal forming are presented in the paper
Received 28 January 2019 both from experimental and numerical point of view. First, progress made in metal forming
Accepted 15 April 2019 processes such as: rolling of long flat products, cross wedge rolling, open die forging, die
Available online 4 May 2019 forging, extrusion, drawing, and stamping are addressed. Then, the study provides infor-
mation on the current trends in the application of numerical modeling in the field of metal
Keywords: forming. Presented discussion of the particular issues, is confronted with the authors' own,
Rolling recently elaborated, solutions.
Forging © 2019 Politechnika Wroclawska. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Extrusion
Drawing
Stamping

alloy) in processes resembling primitive die forging. The

1. Introduction
Metal forming is one of the oldest technology known to
mankind. Already in 4500 B.C., metal forming techniques were
applied to copper, with the use of hammers made of strong
stones. Steel began to be forged at a larger scale, after it was
produced in bloomeries, in about 1000 B.C. In the 8th century B.
C., coins began to be manufactured (from silver or electron
Middle Ages are the times of the development of forging due to
the popularization of water wheel, which started to be used in
forging shop to power the hammers for open die forging (since
the 14th century) as well as rolling mills applied initially in the
production of lead plates (since the 17th century). The further
development of metal forming technologies was connected
with the introduction of a steam engine, which began to be
applied to power machines such as: rolling mills (Wilkinson,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lmadej@agh.edu.pl (L. Madej ).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2019.04.005
1644-9665/© 2019 Politechnika Wroclawska. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
1783), hammers (Nasmyth, 1839) or presses (Haswell, 1861). At
the beginning of the 20th century, forging machines started to
be equipped with individual electric drives. Next, automatiza-
tion and numerical control were introduced to create the metal
forming industry of today.
At present, metal forming is an important part in the
production of machine components as well as ready to use
products, mainly owing to such advantages as: economy of
material and labor, repeatability of dimensions, possibility of
producing the desired internal stresses and of providing the
objects with in use properties often unreachable by means of
other manufacturing methods e.g. casting or machining. Thus,
metal forming operations are often applied in the industry,
especially in large lot production. The popularity of this
technology can be proved by a statistical car, which, in 90%,
consists of components made by metal forming processes.
Therefore, in the recent years, significant progress is being
observed in the development of modern metal forming
processes. This is reflected in high value journal publications
as well as granted patents. There is, however, no comprehen-
sive study, which discusses the progress in this field in the
recent years. With that, an idea was created at the Metal
Forming Division of Metallurgy Committee of the Polish
Academy of Sciences to provide a review on the matter that
would summarize the achievements and identify directions of
future developments in metal forming.
2. Rolling processes
The rolling processes belong to the group of the most efficient
production technologies and can be in general classified as
rolling of long and flat products or forge rolling of shaped
components.
2.1. Shape rolling
Shape rolling processes are applied in the production of long
products characterized by simple cross-sections (e.g. round,
square, flat) as well as ribbed bars and wire rods [1,2]. Besides
that shape rolling found wide range of applications in the
production of complicated profiles, such as angle bars, channel
bars, I-beams and rails [3–5]. The shape of a final product is
provided by means of cooperating rolls with properly designed
grooves. Shape rolling is often used to obtain final products
with controlled mechanical properties [2,6,7]. As mentioned,
rolling is most often applied to produce bars with simple cross-
sections [1,2,8], which are used as final products or semi-
products for further processing by drawing, die forging or
extrusion. Therefore, the paper pays particular attention to the
recent achievements in this field of applications.
The precision of shaped rolled products is described by
deviations between the measured cross section dimensions
and their nominal values. In case of round and square
products as well as flat rods both height and width are
characteristic dimensions while for ribbed rods, the running
meter is most often used. In recent years, a clear increase in
the customers demand for rolled products within the negative
deviations from required tolerances is observed. The newly-
constructed and recently modernized shape rolling mills are
899
capable of producing parts with dimensional accuracy lower
than 1/4 DIN standard what directly results in significant metal
economy as well as mass reduction of final products and their
assemblies [8]. The main factors affecting dimensional
accuracy of final products, beside rolling mill parameters,
are grove shapes, deformation pass design and rolling
temperatures [9].
The latter ones, play particularly important role. Variations
in the billet temperature along the length of furnace can be in
the range of 30 8C to even 90 8C [10]. A non-uniform
temperature distribution in the rolled band significantly
affects recorded force-energy parameters, results in non-
uniform wear of the rolls, and most of all influences plastic
flow of metal during subsequent rolling passes. As a result
final product may fail to meet the customers' requirements. As
seen in Fig. 1a and b, a temperature drop along the length of
the band by about 50 8C causes a momentary increase in
rolling torque and power. At the same time such temperature
drop influences dimensional accuracy what can be seen in
Fig. 1c and d. In this case a drop of temperature by 50 8C along
the length of a rolled oval band with diameter 70 mm, resulted
in an increase of the band width of 0.8 mm in the areas of a
lower temperature [10].
Therefore, temperature is a very important factor, with
regard to both the rolling mill stand safety as well as final
product dimensional accuracy [10].
The precision of shaped rolled products also depends on
the applied system of passes and grove shapes. In order to
unify the deformation distribution in the rolled band,
modifications of the classic passes are more often applied
[1,8]. The effect of the application of modified stretching passes
on the possibility of obtaining final products with narrowed
dimensional tolerances as well as on the decrease of the rolling
force parameters for the two rolling variants has been
discussed in [8]. In the paper, the first variant is a horizontal
oval-vertical-oval-horizontal-oval-circle system often called
‘‘universal’’ system of passes, which enables shape rolling of a
wide range of products with various dimensions. In the second
variant for the horizontal and vertical oval passes, modifica-
tion of shapes was introduced and new dimensions of the
passes were determined. In the design of the modified passes,
the similarity of the surface areas of the modified passes with
those of the classic passes were used. The modification
consisted, among other things, of the application of three
construction radii, while the typical oval passes have only one
radius. Examples of geometrical changes of the rolled 14 mm
diameter bar in subsequent rolling are shown in Fig. 2.
Comparisons of products obtained from the two investigated
variants clearly showed that introduced modifications narrow
dimensional tolerances of the final product (no ovality of the
final product, regardless of the applied steel). Also recorded
mean unit pressures acting on rolls during deformation was
lower in the second variant of the technology what directly
leads to reduction of the rolls wear. The surface quality of the
rolled product was also improved [11].
The reduction of rolls wear is often addressed in the
literature by means of different approaches. In [1] an
interesting approach based on combination of regression
analysis and the probability density function distribution was
used to optimize the oval pass shape.
900 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 1 – Comparison of the change in the value of the torque (a) and power of rolling (b) as well as temperature distribution and
its influence on the band width in the exit from the roll gap for the two cross sections (c and d) [10].
Fig. 2 – Shape and dimensions of the crosswise templets
collected from the bands after particular roll passes: (a)
steel C45, variant I, (b) steel C45, variant II, (c) steel
X2CrNi19-11, variant I, and (d) steel X2CrNi19-11, variant II.
In the recent years, the demand for ribbed bars for concrete
reinforcement has increased. That resulted in improvement of
the rolling technology.as consumers require products with
appropriate structure, shape as well as dimensions but at a low
price at the same time. One of the ways of reducing the
production costs of ribbed bars is increasing the production
capabilities by using e.g. rolling with longitudinal band
separation (multi-slit rolling process) instead of the traditional
single-stand rolling technology. The major advantage of the
technology is that it can be introduced into the industrial
practice both in the new continuous rolling mills and in the
already existing modernized ones without significant invest-
ment costs. The technology allows separation of the billet at
the rolling train into two, three, four or five strands for
subsequent rolling of ribbed bars. The main difficulties
encountered in the technology are related to the selection of
the appropriate shape of the slitting passes, which are
responsible for the shaping of the particular strands and the
bridges which connect them. The issue of low durability of the
rolling equipment used during slitting passes is another a
disadvantage of the process [15]. Since the beginning of the
21st century, many scientific centers have been conducting
research addressing these issues. The studies concentrated
mainly on the optimization of the shape of slitting passes and
the selection of the system of these passes [12–15]. Adding
additional slitting passes and proper modification of the
geometry of other rolls leads to reduction of deformation value
and eventually wear. Example of the modified technology is
presented in Fig. 3.
The proposed slitting pass system used during the rolling
process can also lower force-energy parameters, which
reduces the load of the main drives for the group of finishing
stands of the analyzed rolling mill [12,13].
During designing of the shape rolling technology, beside
obtaining appropriate shape of the final product required by
the customers, particular attention has been payed to the final
mechanical properties. These properties in a classical ap-
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 3 – System of slitting passes for three-strand rolling of
ribbed bars: (a) classic, (b) modified; H – horizontal rolls
stand and V – vertical rolls stand.
proach can be obtained after the rolling process through the
use of thermal treatment. However, in recent years, the
concept of accelerated cooling of the band between rolling
stands has been introduced [2,6,16]. The use of this technology
for e.g. 26 mm diameter bars, rolled under the conditions of a
continuous mill D370 provided the possibility to obtain a lower
rolling end temperature what directly influence the properties
of final product. The use of accelerated cooling limited the
growth of the austenite grain, which ensured a reduction of its
size from about 20 mm for the classic process to about 15 mm
[16] and causes homogenization of the microstructure at the
cross-section of the rolled bars from steel S355. This leads to
increase in the impact energy value from 8 to 60 J for 40 8C
and from 30 to 92 J for 0 8C. A similar approach to the one
analyzed has also been discussed in study [6].
2.2. Rolling of flat products
Manufacturing of flat products in the form of hot rolled thick
and thin plates, cold rolled thin sheets and strips as well as
coated sheets is presently the second largest (after long
products) assortment of products obtained with the use of the
rolling technology. Among the products mentioned above, a
part of them is directly used for the constructions of various
kinds (e.g. shipbuilding or power industry), but a significant
majority, after cutting, is used as semi-products for further
processing in e.g. rolling, forming and bending. Advanced
rolling technologies must ensure not only required geometry
(e.g. flatness) of the plate and sheet, but also required more
elevated mechanical properties, which are obtained e.g. by
using new advanced types of steel. This is connected with the
automatization and robotization of the production processes
as well as the aim of lowering the kerb weight with an
increased level of safety (e.g. automotive industry).
901
During the rolling of thick plates, there is a problem with
the ‘‘penetration’’ of the deformation in the whole thickness of
the strip. Inhomogeneous deformation in the thickness results
in a non-uniform morphology of the microstructure, which
worsens the mechanical properties. In recent years, in order to
homogenize the microstructure in the whole volume of the
rolled strip, a new technology of rolling thick and thin plates
has been developed, i.e. Gradient Temperature Roll (GTR),
which ensures an increase of the deformation uniformity in
the whole thickness of the strip. The concast slab, and next the
rolled strip, are subjected to intensive cooling between the
particular passes in such a way so as to lower the surface
temperature to about 800 8C. In turn, the core has a much
higher temperature, which can be equal even as much as
1100 8C. The temperature gradient obtained in this way causes
the prescribed deformation to accumulate in the strip's core,
which contributes to obtaining of fine austenite grains as well
as fine and homogenous ferrite plates. Both ensures an
improvement of mechanical properties in the whole thickness
of the plate [17,18]. When geometrical accuracy of sheets and
plates is of interest an asymmetric rolling can be used.
This process is known for many years, although being still
developed and modified, [19]. Introduction of asymmetry in
the form of a difference in the peripheral speeds or diameters
of the rolls lowers the rolling force and, as a result of
improvement of the sheets' flatness, reduces the dimensional
deviations in their length and width. In recent years, this
technology has also been analyzed in respect of an improve-
ment of the properties of the rolled products [20,21]. The use of
asymmetrical process of rolling for austenitic steels intensified
the recrystallization and refinement of the structure in the
central layer for temperatures above 900 8C. In turn, for rolling
temperatures below 900 8C, even with the use of a 60% rolling
reduction, in a symmetrical rolling process, the phenomenon
of dynamic recrystallization, occurring in the asymmetrical
process, was not observed. A significant effect of asymmetrical
rolling on the mechanical properties was observed also in the
case of sheets rolled from non-ferrous metals [21]. As a result
of the activation of shear bands, in the deformed material, a
stronger grains refinement takes place in the areas of their
presence, which improves the mechanical properties, as
compared to the sheets obtained in a symmetrical process.
At present, the steel processing industry (including sheets)
requires from the semi-products to exhibit better and better
properties both in respect of quality (proper geometry) and
functionality (mechanical properties, but also, more and more
often, a reduced level of residual stresses). The sheets, after
they have been unwind from the coil, usually are characterized
by lack of flatness as well as a high and non-uniform level of
residual stresses. This is, among other things, a remain of the
rolling process and bending into coil. In the case of hot rolled
sheets, it is also related to cooling, which causes non-uniform
temperatures of the sheets along their width (the edges cooled
more intensively than the central part), which especially
generates geometrical defects and increases the level of
residual stresses (residual stresses type I). There are two
groups of defects strip flatness (mainly non-uniform strip
thickness) and strip straightness deviations such as: waviness,
bow shaped faults and strip camber. In the cold rolling the
most common shape deviation is a strip waviness which is
902 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
measured by a wave height and a wave length. In order to
minimize such defects, in the recent years, a finishing pass
with a very small deformation, usually from 0.5 to 4%, the so-
called skin pass, has been used by the industry (temper rolling)
[22,23]. Usually, the skin pass is applied after the annealing of
the sheet in order to homogenize the level of residual stresses
on the upper and lower surface of the sheet through softening
of the surface areas, to improve the sheet's flatness and to
obtain a specific sheet texture. Surface softening of the sheet
lowers the non-uniformity of the deformation in the width of
the profile formed from such a strip; also, the bow and camber
type defects are limited. The use of the skin pass technology
during the cold rolling of sheets, beside mentioned advan-
tages, also lowers the operational costs, increases the
elasticity of the mill and improves the surface quality of the
sheet. The latter is especially important in the case of use of
such sheets as a semi-product for the forming and stamping
processes.
Currently, an increasing interest in light construction
materials characterized by high strength, with a simultaneous
preservation of good plastic properties can be noticed. And so,
more and more often, non-ferrous metal alloys are applied,
especially those of aluminum and magnesium. The processes
of metal forming of magnesium alloys are unique in their
character, and their proper implementation in the industrial
practice is very difficult. The main limitation of their applica-
tion is the low plasticity of these alloys at low temperatures. Try
to avoid it, the twin-roll casting (TRC) technology has been
developing. With the technology fine-grained feedstock mate-
rials, which are then hot rolled into thin sheets can be obtained.
This process combines metal solidification followed by rolling
into one production stage. In this way, the number of passes as
well as the thermal treatment are limited compared to the
conventional rolling process. This results in an improvement of
the mechanical and plastic properties of the products in
comparison with those obtained in the classic technology of
sheet rolling [24,25]. The properties of an Mg alloy sheet made
in the TRC technology is significantly affected by the rolling
parameters. The application of higher deformation values in
the particular passes and a lower rolling temperature leads to a
higher strength, lower elongation. In turn, higher rolling
temperatures improve the deformability but worsen the
strength of the sheet. It has also been proven that the quality
of the final product is strongly affected by the amount of
impurities in the feedstock material [25].
As far as hot rolling of thin strips is considered, the most
important challenges can be summarized in four groups, as
follows:
 Dimensional accuracy, which involves problems of homo-
geneity through the width and through the length of the
strip, as well as stability of rolling.
 Low level of residual stresses, which can be obtained by
controlling the laminar cooling and coiling parameters.
 Improved microstructural parameters and mechanical
properties, which are obtained by thermomechanical rolling
and complex cooling strategies.
 Rolling of new materials with exceptional properties –
Advanced High Strength Steels are used as an example in the
present paper.
There are, in general, two strategies in development of
hot strip mills. The first is focused on development of
conventional rolling mills (Fig. 4a), which are generally
composed of furnace (1), descaler (2), slab sizing press (3),
roughing train (4), roller table (5), finishing train (6), laminar
cooling (7) and coiler (8). Development of these mills involves
an increase of the power of motors, new gauge control
systems and complex cooling strategies including ultra-fast
cooling, which allows to decrease coiling temperature below
400 8C. The second strategy involves compact hot mills (CSP –
Compact Strip Production), which is a novel technology
developed in 1980s for casting-hot-rolling of thin slabs
(Fig. 4b). This technological innovation follows converter
steelmaking and continuous casting technology in the steel
industry. The CSP provides a more compact line and simpler
procedure as compared with the traditional hot rolling
technology. Both conventional hot strip mills and CSP trains
are now capable of reducing the final thickness of the strip to
1 mm. Hot rolled strips can be either used directly for
manufacturing final products or can be subjected to further
cold rolling process (Fig. 4c). In the former case the final
microstructure is obtained by applying complex cooling
strategies in the laminar cooling. In the latter case hot rolled
strips are subjected to typical cooling cycles resulting in
ferrite–pearlite microstructures.
There is no CPS mill operating in Poland and this process is
not discussed further here, see [26] for details on the
development of the CPS technology and [24] for its application
to magnesium alloys. The focus in the present paper is on
development of new routes for conventional hot strip mills
with manufacturing of AHSS strips used as an example.
Multiphase microstructure of the AHSS can be obtained either
during laminar cooling after hot rolling (thicker strips) or
during continuous annealing after cold rolling (thinner
strips).
Hot strip rolling is a process specifically designed to control
the product microstructure and properties. The process called
thermomechanical process control (TMPC) is of particular
importance. The TMPC rolling is used to obtain both the
desired shape of the product and its final properties without
further processing. The microstructure is sensitive to the
process parameters. Thus, understanding and controlling the
influence of these parameters is crucial for obtaining the
desired product properties. A typical the TMCP rolling mill
configuration is shown in Fig. 4a. It illustrates wide possibili-
ties for varying the process parameters including rolling
schedule, rolling temperatures, cooling temperatures and
rates, etc. The property control is mainly achieved in the
finishing mill and by laminar cooling afterwards. The influ-
ence of both is briefly discussed below.
The TMCP aims at maximum grain refinement, which can
be reached either by the austenite grain refinement or by
increase the effective area of grain boundaries or increase the
density of nucleation sites for ferrite. Rolling deformation
results in an increased energy level of the material due to the
accumulated dislocations generated by plastic deformation.
The elevated temperatures during hot rolling lower this stored
energy by recovery, recrystallization and grain growth pro-
cesses. In this context the non-recrystallization temperature
TnRX, above which static recrystallization between passes
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941 903

Fig. 4 – Typical process steps for TMCP rolling mill configuration (a) and Compact Strip Production (b) followed by cold rolling,
continuous annealing and manufacturing of final product (c).

Table 1 – Key aspects regarding innovative hot strip rolling processes [28].
Market demands
Improved homogeneity of mechanical
properties
Improved homogeneity of mechanical
properties
Reduction of geometrical tolerances
Cost efficiency vs. Mechanical properties -
cost reduction due to decrease of
alloying elements content
Increased dimensional feasibility
New grades development and production
Weight reduction
Needs at rolling mill
Cooling homogeneity/control of process
conditions
Rolling stability + cooling homogeneity
Rolling stability
Lower alloying elements, increased cooling
capacity and efficiency (UFC)
Adaptation of the metallurgical concept
Increased power/torque on HSM, different
technologies (CSP for thinner product),
rolling stability, coiling capacity for thicker
products.
Low coiling temperature (200–400 8C)
Production of new grades with enhanced
mechanical properties
Limitations
Classical cooling is heterogeneous
Different thermal path from head to tail &
heterogeneous coil cooling
High investment required
Investment required and increase of energy
consumption
Different thermal path from head to tail
Difficulty to control coiling temperature in
this range of temperature
Complex concept

occurs, is of main interest. TnRX depends on the deformation,
the cooling rate and the inter-pass times between roll stands.
Only decelerated recrystallization appear below this tempera-
ture due to strain-induced precipitation of second-phase
particles. In case of retarded recrystallization the work
hardened (pancaked) austenite provides a high number of
nucleation sites for the phase transformation resulting in very
fine ferrite grains.
The control volume fractions of constituent phases are the
main challenge in manufacturing AHSS strips. The transfor-
mation kinetics is needed to reach this goal. By using
dilatometric results the austenite to ferrite fraction is deduced.
When the material reaches the defined fractions, the fast
cooling begins and the material is cooled down to martensite
start temperature (Ms). In general it can be stated that
decreasing hot deformation temperature or/and increasing
strains shifts the transformations start temperatures toward
higher levels and lowers the Ms, what pronounce finer ferrite
grains and finer martensite blocks.
The effect of the TMCP rolling compared to conventional
rolling was thoroughly investigated by the researchers, see [27]
for the review in the area. A variety of pass schedules and mill
characteristics together with the operating capacity and
related constraints were analyzed and innovative rolling
routes as well as modern equipment was proposed, while
the general setup of the mill (Fig. 4b) remained unchanged. Key
aspects regarding innovative rolling processes are summa-
rized in Table 1. It is seen that a number of challenges is large
and they involve various aspects of the process. General
discussion of all these items is presented in [28]. Two aspects
904 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
connected with: (i) rolling stability due to temperature control
and (ii) new grades development (AHSS, bainitic) by sophisti-
cated and more intensive cooling routes and decreasing the
coiling temperature, are presented below.
AHSS grades compose of dual phase (DP), complex phase
(CP), transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) and martensitic
(M) steels. It can be stated that the production of DP steels is
well investigated. However, the process window in hot rolling
of these steels is tight as only very short times less than 10 s are
allowed on the existing run-out tables, according to their
limited length. The pursued objective of research in [28] was to
accomplish a higher flexibility in terms of rolling AHSS strips.
This was intended by the intercritical rolling in the tempera-
ture range of the austenite–ferrite transformation. This
process exhibits the potential of producing new, high perfor-
mance hot rolled products and the ability to produce thinner
strips for a given maximum rolling force. Beyond this, the
cooling rate, which is necessary to get the desired amount of
martensite can be reduced significantly.
Controlled accelerated cooling treatment is the crucial part
of the hot strip mill and it decides about product microstruc-
ture and properties. Conventional laminar flow cooling (LFC)
systems use one of the following strategies: front cooling, rear
cooling and sparse cooling. Since the cooling schedules
required for the AHSS microstructures often cannot be reached
in the existing LFC systems for typical velocities and
thicknesses of strips, new systems were proposed, such as:
reinforced cooling (RC), compact cooling (CC) and ultra-fast
cooling (UFC). They can achieve a wide range of cooling rates at
the exit of the rolling mill, the main objective being a reduction
of the time between the last rolling pass and the run-out table.
It was observed that through the rational allocation of the UFC
and LFC, more flexible cooling path control and cooling
strategies could be obtained. The new systems strengthen
the control capability of grain refinement and precipitation
behavior by the front located UFC. Meanwhile, due to the
appropriate set of intensive laminar boxes, the rear LFC
cooling capacity can be further improved and meet the new
demands. In consequence, the mechanical properties of the
steels get a great leap forward due to the cooling strategies,
which can decrease costs and create economic benefits for the
steel companies. The UFC technology allows for the realization
of high cooling rates and has a remarkable effect on grain
refinement and precipitation during phase transformation. By
applying the TMCP technology followed by the UFC combined
with the traditional LFC and suitable control strategy, steel
products with high added value can be processed. This
technology allows for the production of high strength material
at a reduced amount of alloying and microalloying elements.
High strength level (750 MPa) can be obtained for a lean C–Mn–
Nb chemistry, with an attractive strength-ductility balance,
high toughness, as well as interesting fatigue properties in the
as hot-rolled condition. All discussed problems are particularly
important for other than DP multiphase steels.
Investigation of various hot rolling routes cannot be
performed on the industrial mill and industrially realized
pass schedules are difficult to acquire due to the existing
competitive situation and resultant confidentiality. Therefore,
it is only possible to gain indirect information by using
numerical simulations as well as physical simulations in
laboratory conditions. The former can be performed by using
e.g. VirtRoll hybrid computer system described in [28,29].
VirtRoll, which is a digital twin of the industrial mill, is
composed of two parts: (i) a web-based module allowing
design of an arbitrary rolling mill and (ii) computing module
dedicated to numerical simulations of designed manufactur-
ing cycle. The VirtRoll system combines models, data and
knowledge bases and inverse approach to design of optimal
process parameters with respect to required final properties. It
allows configuration of a rolling line composed of basic
equipment like furnaces, descalers, rolling stands, laminar
cooling, coilers, etc. Dependently on selected materials specific
numerical models can be loaded by the system.
Information about materials, models and devices available
for hot rolling mill designers is stored in the database, which is
the crucial part of the system. Details concerning the material
models in the database can be found in [30] and coefficient in
these models for all steels investigated in [28] are given in [29].
Flexibility and a content of the database are the factors, which
decide about the reliability and usefulness of the whole
system.
On the other hand physical simulations of new rolling
routes can be performed on thermo-mechanical simulator
Gleeble 3800. Special focus can be turned to the identification
of an enlargement of the working space enabling the more
flexible and energy efficient production of existing steel grades
and to production of new grades. As it has been mentioned, hot
rolled strips require diverse and flexible control of cooling path
in order to take full advantages of strengthening mechanisms,
such as fine grain strengthening, precipitation strengthening
and transformation strengthening.
Results of physical and numerical simulations performed
to develop optimal cooling strategies are described below.
Bainitic steel and AHSS strips were considered. Different
schedules were investigated for each group of steel grades [29]:
 Bainitic steels. Four steels with various content of Nb, Ti and
Mo were tested. Two variants of physical simulations were
considered. In variant 1, presented schematically in Fig. 5a,
lower temperatures of deformation were applied. Variant 2,
which is not presented here, was characterized by higher
temperatures of deformation. Grain size prior to the first
deformation (after soaking) was 67 mm. Cooling from the last
deformation temperature to the holding temperature was at
the rate of 20 8C/s. Three holding temperatures during
cooling, 400, 450 and 500 8C for cooling versions a, b and c
respectively, were used for each variant. These tempera-
tures correspond to the coiling temperatures in the
industrial mill.
 AHSS: Four steels with various combinations of Nb, Ti and
Mo were tested. Three schedules were considered (Fig. 5b).
The four first passes were the same in all the cases. The
difference was in the interpass time between the two last
deformations and in the time before accelerated cooling.
Schedule (a) was a reference schedule, schedule (b) was the
shortest interpass time between the two last deformations
and schedule (c) was the shortest time between the last
deformation and immediate accelerated cooling. It allowed
to obtain different state of the austenite at the beginning of
phase transformations. Moreover, two coiling temperatures
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 5 – Simulated rolling schedules for bainitic steels (a) and AHSS grades (b) [29].
Fig. 6 – Sample images of the microstructure for 0.18%Ti bainitic steel variant 2a (a) and variant 2b (b) [28].
(CT) were considered (500 and 600 8C). The objective was to
see the influence of the CT on the subsequent microstruc-
ture and properties.
Samples were quenched at various stages of the process
and microstructure was analyzed. Mechanical properties of all
samples were measured. Full set of micrographs and results of
properties measurement is presented in [28] and only the most
important results and conclusions are discussed below.
Bainitic steels. Typical microstructures are shown in Fig. 6a
for variant 1 and in Fig. 6b for variant 2. The microstructure
contains allotrimorphic ferrite (<10%), degenerated upper
and lower bainite, and blocky martensite. It is seen that,
generally, coiling at the highest temperature of 500 8C results
in a coarser microstructure and higher blocky martensite
fraction compared to coiling at 450 and 400 8C. Some
diversification of strength of the samples was observed
depending on the coiling temperature, namely, decreasing
the CT temperature resulted in yield strength decrease and
elongation increase, but the lowest strength was obtained for
the CT of 450 8C (variants b). Steel with 0.18Ti performs better
in terms of strength versus ductility relation. Steel with
0.03Nb and 0.18Ti showed the highest mechanical properties.
For low end of rolling temperatures (variant 1) yield stress (YS)
around 840 MPa and Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) around
1110 MPa were obtained. These properties were, however,
combined with slightly lower elongation, which was due to
the highest amount of blocky martensite. The most plausible
explanation of all the observation is that longer time of
thermomechanical processing resulted in more intense
precipitation of TiC in the austenite. This, however, lowers
905
the precipitation strengthening effect of TiC in bainitic ferrite,
see [28] for details.
AHSS. For all the samples ferrite was the main constituent
of the microstructure (from 60 to 90% depending on the grade
and process conditions). The rest of the microstructure
consisted of pearlite and/or martensite. No significant effect
of the rolling schedule (time between two last deformations
and time before cooling) was observed mainly due the fact that
austenite is already highly non-recrystallized for the reference
rolling schedule. In all cases austenite was highly deformed
leading to fine but heterogeneous microstructures. Concerning
mechanical properties, better results were obtained for a
coiling temperature of 600 8C. The higher level of properties
(YS = 810 MPa and UTS = 1130 MPa) was obtained for the TiMo
grade and CT of 600 8C. Lower mechanical properties of the ‘‘no
Mo’’ comparing to ‘‘Mo’’, which is due to higher fractions of
hard phases in the latter. In some cases, important gap
between mechanical properties was observed without signifi-
cant variations in the microstructure suggesting an important
effect of precipitation strengthening. This effect seems more
pronounced for Ti grades.
All rolling/cooling schedules were simulated by mentioned
VirtRoll system and selected results for the bainitic steel are
presented in Fig. 7. Two cases were considered, conventional
rolling with the final temperature of 950 8C (variant 1) and a
new route with additional fast cooling before stands 5 and 6
(variant 2). Time-temperature profiles for both variants are
shown in Fig. 7a and changes of the austenite grain size are
shown in Fig. 7b. There data were used as starting point for
simulations of laminar cooling variants a, b and c, see Fig. 7c.
All these plots show capabilities of using combination of
906 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941

Fig. 7 – Time–temperature profiles (a), grain size changes (b) and kinetics of phase transformation (c) for variants 1 and 2 (T –
temperature, F – ferrite, B – bainite).

Fig. 8 – Methods of forge rolling: (a) longitudinal, (b) cross, and (c) skew.

TMPC, UFC and LFC to design process routes leading to a
variety of microstructures.
Other aspects of the hot strip rolling design, which were not
discussed above and are of scientific and practical interests,
include:
 Investigation and analysis of the residual stresses caused be
temperature heterogeneity.
 Substantial through-thickness microstructure and texture
inhomogeneity, which can occur due to the imposed
through-thickness gradients in shear, deformation, and
temperature.
 The use of a coil box, which can help to limit the variation of
finish rolling temperature along the length of the strip.
More details on all these aspects can be found in [28].
2.3. Forge rolling
The processes of forge rolling are usually realized under the
conditions of hot metal forming, where, with respect to the
positioning of the rollers and the rotation direction can be
classified as follows:
 longitudinal rolling (Fig. 8a), during which the treated object
is in translational motion and the rollers arranged in parallel
rotate in the opposite direction;
 cross rolling (Fig. 8b), where the treated object rotates
opposite to the rollers arranged in parallel, which rotate in
the same direction;
 skew rolling (Fig. 8c), during which the treated object is in
translational-rotational motion (screw motion), and the
rollers, arranged askew, rotate in the same direction.
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 9 – View of the production of motorcar front axle beams
(top) and the exemplary products (bottom) [35].
2.3.1. Longitudinal rolling
Longitudinal forge rolling constitutes a popular type of rolling
and is applied mostly for the formation of preforms of drawn
forgings, preliminarily forged on forging presses. This process
is currently quite well-known and so the number of new
scientific papers referring to it is relatively low. However, after
2008, owing to the possibilities provided by computer
modeling, new types of passes used in this rolling method
have been developed, including oval-flat and oval-diamond
passes [31,32]. The use of such passes gave a possibility to
homogenize distribution of deformation intensity at the cross-
section of the elongated strand.
A lot of focus [33,34] has been put to issues related to the
longitudinal rolling of motor truck front axle beams. At
present, these components are flash rolled in three passes,
and next, they are bent and forged on a press to obtain the pre-
described shape. In China only, as many as 30 front axle
production lines have been activated (Fig. 9), including
longitudinal rolling mills and presses with the load of 25–
40 MN. The annual production efficiency of these lines varies
in the range of 50,000–100,000 beams, depending on their
overall dimensions. The material output is 85–92% and the
durability of the rolling segments equals 8000–15,000 pre-
forms, being twice as high as the durability of the dies in which
the beams are bent and forged [35].
The literature also provides some information on the
longitudinal rolling of components made of non-ferrous
metals. And so, the studies [36] discuss research in the scope
of rolling of a lever preform made of the AZ31 grade
magnesium alloy. In turn, article [37] presents the results of
907
Fig. 10 – Results of modeling, in the Forge program, of the
process of rolling a stepped shaft, with the marked
temperature distribution (8C).
laboratory tests of longitudinal rolling of a lever preform made
of the 2014 aluminum alloy. The [38] discusses the results of
theoretical and experimental tests in the scope of cold
longitudinal rolling of a compressor blade made of the
Inconel-718 alloy. In this case, the research was directed to
the improvement of the rolling accuracy by way of taking into
account the elastic deformations occurring in the tool-rolling
mill system, in the drafts.
2.3.2. Cross rolling
Among the cross rolling technologies, the one mostly applied
in the forging industry is the cross-wedge rolling (CWR), which
is used to form components such as stepped axles and shafts,
as well as to produce preforms, which are next forged at
forging presses. This state of knowledge in the scope of CWR
until 2010 has been discussed in detail in the study [39].
In the last decade, there have been numerous studies in the
scope of CWR, in which the possibilities provided by numerical
modeling have been widely used. A large part of these studies
[40–44] have been focused on the research of the limitations in
the course of the CWR process, in the form of: uncontrolled
slide, narrowing of the formed core of the treated object,
bending of the product and cracking of the material. Also,
based on FEM analyses, the force parameters have been
determined [45,46] as well as the change in the temperature
[47], the microstructure [48], the stress [49] and the deforma-
tion state [50] in the rolled product.
The development of computer programs used for the
modeling of metal forming processes, as well as the increasing
computational capabilities of the computer units created the
possibility to stimulate very complex cases of CWR processes.
An example in this scope can be the process of forming a
driving shaft presented in Fig. 10, where the treated object is
rolled by means of two rollers. The extreme steps are rolled
with the cross-section reduction equaling 91%, which requires
the use of a two stage rolling process. In the first stage, the
forming of the pins is realized on the intermediate diameter,
and in the second stage – on the final diameter.
Taking into consideration the expansion of the technologi-
cal possibilities of CWR, in recent years, several research works
have been performed. A part of these studies referred to the
forming of components with steps whose cross-sections are
different than the circular one (e.g. square, hexagonal, oval).
The making of elements with such steps requires the use of
tools with specially profiled calibrating surfaces [51,52]. The
characteristic of the mentioned forming processes is an
alternating change of forces, which is a consequence of the
908 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
cyclically changing draft. Examples of products, which do not
fulfill the conditions of axial symmetry but can be produced by
the CWR methods are also shafts with toothed rings or worm
windings. In this case, the rolling tools are equipped with
special inserts (placed directly behind the calibration zone)
used to form the windings. The results of the research
performed so far show that, in this way, it is possible to
produce shafts with normal and skew toothing [53] as well as
with a worm winding [54,55].
An emphasis has also been made on the development of
new methods for manufacturing hollow elements, which are
currently becoming popular in the machines construction. As
a result of the quite numerous studies performed in this area
[56–58], it has been established that:
 the CWR process of hollow elements can be disturbed by the
product being crushed or narrowed, as well as significantly
deformed in its internal surface;
 the wedge angles should be selected differently than in the
case of full products (it is recommended to use smaller
angles of flare and larger shaping angles);
 in order to eliminate the ovalization of the cross-section, the
sizing zone should be elongated in such a way so that the
formed product can make at least 3 rotations in it.
With the aim of improving the possibilities of forming long
products, a lot of attention has been paid to the development
of the multi-wedge rolling technology, during which the
product is formed by more than one pair of wedges. The
application of such a solution results in shortening of the tools,
increase of the forming forces and complication of the tools'
construction (the shape of the side wedges must take into
account the elongation of the product caused by the operation
of the central wedges) [59]. Beside the long products, such as
railway carriage axles [49], this method can also be used to
produce several short products at the same time, such as balls
for ball mills [60].
The CWR method is applied mostly to form steel products.
However, recently, several research works have been per-
formed on the expansion of this technology for products made
of non-ferrous metals and their alloys. In this scope, so far,
attempts have been made at the rolling of elements made of
aluminum [61] and titanium [62] alloys, superalloys based on
nickel, copper balls [63] and shafts made of a zinc alloys used in
nuclear reactors [63].
The present popularity of the CWR process in the forging
industry is proven by the fact that, in China only, about 300
production lines based on this technology have been activated.
The total production capacity of these lines equals about
400,000 t/year. Also, in this country, approximately 20 profes-
sional CWR factories have been opened, each of them having
the annual production capacity at the level of over 10,000 tons
[64]. An example of such a factory, in which the CWR method is
used to produce transmission shafts, has been shown in
Fig. 11.
2.3.3. Skew rolling
Skew rolling, in the industrial practice, is rarely applied. The
reason for this is the fact that the rollers have screw grooves of
varying shapes and steps, determined by the constancy of the
Fig. 11 – A CWR factory producing transmission shafts [64].
volume of the material closed in the pass, which creates the
grooves of the cooperating rollers. Tools with such shape are
difficult to design and manufacture. That is why the discussed
rolling technology is currently used to form products of simple
shapes, such as rings for rolling bearings or balls.
The limited scope of the use of skew rolling translates
directly to a small number of scientific papers referring to this
issue and published in the last decades in the subject
literature. The studies recorded in this area referred mainly
to the FEM analysis of the process of rolling balls [65] and the
designing of tools securing the ball forming process [66].
In recent years, at Lublin University of Technology, a new
method of producing steel balls has been developed, called
wedge rolling (HWR). This method uses wedges, which are
helically wound over rollers in one or two coils, which makes it
possible to produce balls in a continuous way. The performed
research [67] has fully confirmed the purpose of the developed
forming concept. Taking into account the results obtained in
the scope of HWR of balls, this technology could be applied in
the manufacture of other axial symmetrical products, such as:
joining elements [68], stepped axles and shafts [69], or bodies
of rotary knives (Fig. 12).
3. Forging processes
A wide range of applications of forgings is explained by their
high quality, good efficiency of forging equipment as well as a
relatively low amount of scrap after forming. In comparison to
other production technologies, forgings, especially after
thermal treatment, are characterized by exceptional mechan-
ical properties and a fine-grained structure. Therefore, they are
often used for manufacturing of the machine parts, which are
exposed to the excessive loads.
The amount of the global production of forgings reaches 26
million tons, of which the hot closed die forged constitute 19
million tons, the closed die forged parts 644 thousand tons and
the open die forgings 6 million tons [72]. Fig. 13 shows the
share of the particular countries in the global tonnage
production. It is worth noticing that the forging industry is
dominant in the regions with a strongly developed automotive
industry, i.e. in Europe, USA, Japan as well as China.
3.1. Open die forging
The characteristic feature of the open die forging processes is
the possibility of producing elements of very large overall
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941 909

Fig. 12 – Numerical simulation of the HWR process of a rotary knife body, with the marked temperature distribution (8C).

Fig. 13 – Production of forgings: (a) globally, (b) Europe, and (c) globally open die forgings, in 2016 [112].

dimensions (much larger than in the case of e.g. die forging) as
well as optimized mechanical properties (exceeding the
parameters of cast products) [70,71]. The high customer
requirements often make the open die forging technology
the only one to manufacture a given detail of a significant size.
Open die forging is distinguished by a wide spectrum of
manufactured products/forgings from modern materials, with
a focus on the fulfillment of the increasing demand on the local
and global market. The current tendency forces the manu-
factures to deliver products, which are maximally processed
and of the possibly highest quality.
The production rate of open die forged large-size parts
depends on the demand generated by such branches as the
power industry (wind, nuclear and thermal power plants) and
sea transport. The main assortment is constituted by shafts,
rings, disks, bushings, as well as end caps and shells. The
biggest global producers of heavy open die forgings made of
the heaviest ingots are: Japan Steel Works in Japan, China First
Heavy Industries and China Erzhong in China, Doosan in South
Korea, Le Creusot in France, OMZ Izhora in Russia, Pilsen steel,
Vítkovice Heavy Machinery in Czech, Celsa Huta Ostrowiec
and Kuznia Swobodna Stalowa Wola in Poland, Sheffield
Forgemasters International Ltd.in Great Britain, and Larsen &
Toubro, Bharat Forge Ltd. in India [73].
Materials for the open die forging are usually in the form of
slabs and multi-angular forging ingots. They ensure the
optimal purity (through e.g. minimization of inclusions and
impurities), small inner porosity and a uniform structure in
the whole volume of the detail. The studies [73–75] performed
in the scope of steel manufacturing (directional solidification
technologies) and casting (of sub-arcs, ingot mold casings and
top swages) have enabled optimization of the parameters and
control of the process as well as increase capabilities of the
casting technology. Nevertheless, there are technological
problems connected with the creation/occurrence of various
kinds of internal discontinuities in the process of ingot
solidification (e.g. defects, internal voids). This issue is quite
largely discussed in scientific papers referring to the analysis
of the behavior of internal discontinuities during the defor-
mation process. Usually, two phenomena are considered:
mechanical closing [76,77] and pressure welding [78], which, in
consequence, enables the final bonding of the inner surfaces
(elimination, complete healing/integration) of the voids. These
issues are addressed by the two different approaches:
macroscopic (process scale) and micro-analytical (defect scale)
[76]. The performed investigations are based on a theoretical
analysis, as well as numerical and physical modeling, with the
use of artificially introduced discontinuities into the deformed
910 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941

Fig. 14 – Forging simulation in the QForm – 16 ton ingot, in combined dies: (a) ingot with introduced internal voids in the head
area and (b and c) following forging stages with visible voids reduction [107].

Fig. 15 – Analysis of the distribution of porosity in the hollow ingot: (a) after solidification and (b–d) after subsequent stages of
forging on a mandrel, from THERCAST® and FORGE® [108].

material (Fig. 14) [77,79,80]. This makes it possible to formulate
empirical and analytical models [81], semi-analytical models
[82] and phenomenological models of the material's behavior.
A tool, which helps in the evaluation of internal voids behavior
in heavy ingots during forging are computational software,
such as DEFORM [80,83], QForm [84] or FORGE® [80]. Another
important problem related to the closing of material voids is
their behavior in the case of a complex sequence of forging
operations including upsetting and cogging, consisting of
many drafts prescribed in the consecutive passes [80]. Some of
the voids that were closed in a given pass later can reopen in
the following forming stages. Preliminary cooling, degree of
deformation, feed rate and tool shapes have significant
influence on forging performance and voids elimination [80].
For example research results from [80] directly showed that
shaped dies used at initial stages of forging significantly
reduce amount of voids due to closing process. Limiting the
plastic flow of the material during the deformation process
favors the deformation's penetration to the core of the forged
material. On the other hand, this solution is rarely applied in
the industrial practice, as it causes a rapid increase of the force
compared to the forging in flat dies with similar deformation
levels.
Generated three-dimensional compression stresses in the
central part of the ingot by the wide die heavy blow forging
(WHF) method also leads to effective void closure in the
cogging process [85]. The deformation process of large forging
ingots modify also the crystalline structure of the material and
increases its mechanical properties.
At present, the trends in the forging ingot production aim at
manufacturing elements of an increasing mass. The increase
in the power of energy aggregates is connected with the
necessity of producing their construction elements (such as
shafts, rings, etc.) of increasing dimensions. So far, they have
been produced as assembled elements (e.g. through welding or
bonding) out of several smaller forgings. However,
manufacturing monolithic parts significantly improves their
durability owing to the preservation of structure continuity.
The technologies of producing such elements show not only
the wide possibilities of the forging technologies in the scope
of the given assortment, but also the advanced progress of the
forging industry. A good example can be manufactures from
China and Japan, which produce forgings from ingots with the
mass exceeding 600 tons. Another solution becoming more
and more popular among the open die producers is the use of
hollow ingots with axial ports (Fig. 15). These are usually
products forged on a mandrel, such as pierced shafts, rings and
bushings [86–88]. Casting an ingot with an opening is
connected with material economy and simplicity as additional
operations such as piercing or drilling of an opening in the
technological cycle are not required.
Another effective way of achieving material economy is
ensuring an improved quality of the ingot before the forging
process. A verified method of improving the ingot structure is
electroslag remelting [89], which is successfully applied in the
case of large-size ingots made of nickel alloys. The process
consists of subjecting the solidified ingot to gradual remelting,
and the liquid metal is then additionally passed through a
layer of slag, which causes its purification. After the repeated
solidification, the element characterizes in a much lower
content of non-metallic inclusions. While the process requires
the engagement of additional aggregates and the extra energy
consumption for the repeated material remelting, the
obtained material exhibits high purity what positively affects
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941 911

Table 2 – Compilation of selected open die forged equipped with high pressure force presses [97].
Country Company Forging Press (ton) Max. ingot (ton)
Japan Japan Steel Works 14,000 650
South Korea Doosan 17,000 540
China China Erzhong 16,000 650
India L&T 15,000 300
Russia OMZ Izoha 15,000 600
Czech Rep. Vitkovice 12,000 250
Poland Celsa Huta Ostrowiec 8000 130
UK Sheffield Forgemasters 10,000 200
the USA N. American Forgemasters 9000 170

its plasticity. As a result of it is possible to perform forging with
a significant limitation of required material to fully fill the
shaped die, what in the case of expensive materials, is crucial
from the economical point of view.
Recently also intensive development of robotization and
automatization is clearly visible in the area of open die forging.
This fact is largely related to the concept of Industry 4.0, which
has been introduced in recent years [90,91].
Under production conditions, there is a pursuit of full
integration of all the equipment participating in the production
process, from heating furnaces, presses and manipulators to
measurements equipment controlling the product quality.
Specialized systems make it possible to track the parameters
of the machines in real time through the collection and
processing of data provided by the particular stations along
the production line. Such an approach, beside the data collection
for statistical purposes, makes it possible to eliminate or improve
some weak points in the technological chain [92]. Also predictive
maintenance is possible with the use of such complex systems.
From the point of view of the environment protection, the
key issue in the open die forging is limitation of the carbon
dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions [92]. With that reduction
of the fuel consumption in gas furnaces (usually used to heat
the elements during open die forging) without disturbing the
production continuity has to be achieved. The solutions in this
area are based on the assembly of specialized burners enabling
the heat recovery from combustion gases, which reduces the
fuel consumption by up to 30% [92]. It is also important to
precisely control the temperature inside the furnace chamber
[93,94] and to properly arrange the heated products [95].
Hydraulic presses, as the machines which are the most
frequently used for the open die forging of large-size elements,
are also systematically equipped with energy-saving power
supply systems [96], whereas the integration of these devices
with modern manipulators accelerates the process and
minimizes the risk of damage.
Mentioned hydraulic presses are presently more often used
for open die forging (Table 2), of the nominal force exceeding
100 MN (10,000 tons) – Fig. 16. In Poland, the press of the
highest load is a machine of the nominal working force up to
80 MN (8000 tons) [72].
For the production of solid products, shaped/stepped shafts
or thick-walled pipes, swaging machines with hydraulic drive
are more often used especially with a four-anvil system,
enabling deformation with large drafts and feeds. They ensure
not only precision (narrowed dimensional tolerances), repeat-
ability, fully automated forging, but also a homogeneous fine-
grained microstructure [99,100]. The development of swaging
machines is also directed to the automatization and energy
saving of utilization.

Fig. 16 – Generalized diagram and main overall dimensions of a modern hydraulic press with the nominal force of 170 MN
(17,000 tons) in Doosan, South Korea [98].
912 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941

Fig. 17 – Current solutions proposed by forging manipulator producers in the context of open die forging: (a) automatic circular
manipulator in the working area separated by a laser curtain [101] and (b) schematic representation of the process of bending
a preform with the use of flat tools and manipulator [102].

A mass increase of the produced preforms is also possible
due to developments in the industry supplying forging
manipulators (Fig. 17). Complex automatization and increase
in maneuvering capabilities of rail manipulator allow to carry
preforms up to 200 tons[101]. Developments in the circular
manipulators, which carry lighter forgings. is directed toward
full automatization as well as the possibility to deform
preforms with the use of manipulator jaws and press anvils
as seen in Fig. 17b [102].
The increase in the working requirements of open die
forgings and the common application of advanced materials
have created the necessity of a strict control of the quality of
the formed elements, both after and during the forging process
[103]. Especially useful are optical measurement devices
(Fig. 18a) used for the analysis of the product dimensions
and modern defects detectors that can identify even internal
discontinuities [103–105]. These solution replaces the manual
measuring devices, which enabled mainly local measure-
ments of the geometry and forced the operator to closely
approach the heated detail [106].
Optical systems are also used for the analysis of the
vibrations and undesirable deformations of forging machine
components during the forging process (Fig. 18b) [105].
3.2. Close die forging
3.2.1. Close die forging of steel forgings
Since the end of the last century, there is a continuous
development in the closed die forging industry. The require-
ments for reduction in the production costs, increased quality
of products, increased flexibility of product as well as
fulfillment of the environment protection requirements are
the main factors affecting competitiveness and therefore new
developments [109]. The North American Forging Industry
(NAFI) has reported a growing risk for the American forging,
being a result of the global competition as well as the
development of new production processes, such as the casting
(from modified cast iron and high-alloy cast steels) and the
efficiency of the machining equipment. A threat to the forging
industry is also non-metallic construction materials, widely
used in the automotive and aircraft industry. NAFI has pointed
out that the cost-effectiveness of the American forging
depends on the close cooperation of associated industries,
joint research and development programs in the scope of cost
reduction and material use increase [110]. At the same time,
the strong pursuit of production cost reduction has led, in
1990s, to the tendency to transfer the production to Asian
countries with low labor costs. However, the authors [111] note
that such policy may not be effective, presenting examples
showing that the cooperation with local forging producers is
mutually beneficial, both economically (e.g. through the use of
knowledge and experience, which lower the implementation
costs, and quality guarantee), but also through the develop-
ment of technologies lowering the costs of mechanical
treatment or selection of new materials.
Based on [109,111,113,115–117] it seems justifiable to state
that the development of modern die forging will be directly
related to the development of precision forging – Fig. 19. The
basic feature of a precision forging process is limitation of the
material consumption and the machining time, as well as
improvement of the strength properties as a result of a better
grain pattern [114].
Initially, precision forging referred mostly to cold forging
processes. Currently, however, more often there is a pursuit of

Fig. 18 – Quality control by means of optical systems: (a) a forging model after scanning [106] and (b) control of the press
vibrations and analysis of the undesirable tool displacement [105].
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941 913

Table 3 – Comparison of characteristic parameters of die forging processes [113].

Criteria Hot forging Warm forging Cold forging
Forging weight <60 kg <10 kg <2 kg
Shape Any Rotational-symmetric Rotational-symmetric
Roughness 100 mm 50 mm 10 mm
Additional thermal treatment – Additional surface treatment Forcing
is not usually applied
Softening pressures Low Medium High
Energy costs High Medium Low
Tolerances General Precise Very precise
Tool costs Low High High
Tool durability (number of items 5000–10,000 10,000–20,000 20,000–50,000
from impression)

Fig. 19 – Examples of precision forgings made by IFUM [115].

Fig. 20 – Half of a die for precise forging with exemplary
forgings (INOP).

high quality and dimensional accuracy in a hot forging

process, which is close to that obtained by cold forging. An
alternative for hot forging is warm forging, i.e. a forging
process performed within the temperature range above
ambient temperature and below the recrystallization one.
The selection of the appropriate die forging technology takes
into account many factors, such as the scale of production, the
type of the forging material, the quality requirements, the
available equipment, etc. The authors [113], quoting Sheljas-
kov from 1996, compiled the criteria for the selection of the
proper technology in a tabular form. It should be noted that a
significant progress obtained in the scope of tool materials,
tool manufacture methods and new lubricants as well as the
frequent choice of dies made of sintered carbides has caused
an improvement of durability by approx. 100% in respect of the
values presented in Table 3.
The precision forging is conducted in close dies. The
precision of the forging in such a process is affected by many
interconnected factors, such as the preform temperature, the
tool temperature, the material type, the tool construction as
well as the characteristics of the forging press (e.g. slide
velocity, body rigidity). In this process, another construction of
dies is applied (Fig. 20), in which the parting plane is designed
so that the die working area throughout the process is
confined.
In the case of complex forgings, it is recommended to use
split dies (Fig. 21). Such a solution provides the possibility to
use compensators for flash material [114]. Fig. 21 – Diagram of die forging in split dies [114].
914 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941

Fig. 22 – Multi-motion press (a) and exemplary forgings (b).

The method of close die forging with split dies was

successfully used for the production of e.g. bevel gears or
spiders. The charge located in the cavity between the upper
and lower die, can be, depending on the construction,
simultaneously pressed by the upper and lower punch. The
material flows in the crosswise direction, with a relatively
small contact area with the punches, and so, the forming load
is proportionally lower than in the case of forging in open dies.
This method requires a multiaxial motion of the forging device
causing an independent movement of the upper and lower
punch.
A solution fulfilling the requirements of such a process has
been developed and implemented at the Metal Forming
Institute in Poznan (Fig. 22a). The presented hydraulic press
Fig. 23 – Device used for forging in open dies based on the
has three independent servo-motors enabling an independent
pantograph mechanism [118].
movement of the die closing and a controlled movement of the
upper and lower die. The movements of the punches are
steered by a control unit making it possible for the punches to
move according to the prescribed program determining the During the design of the technological process of precision
direction and speed of the punch movement. Such an forging, the elastic deformation of the tools should be
approach enables a higher control of the forming process considered. The size of the elastic deformation of the tool in
through the creation of local material deformation zones. a cold forging process can be within the scope of 50–500 mm,
Fig. 22b shows exemplary forgings obtained by the developed which is a quantity exceeding the acceptable tolerances
press. concerning the making of a forging at the level of 10 mm.
Another concept of the realization of a closed die forging The changeability of the tool deformation is strictly connected
process was developed in Nichidai [118]. In order to obtain with the, variable unit pressure operating on the tool walls
relative motions of the upper and lower punch and the dies of during the forming. In order to compensate for the effect of
the forging press, the pantograph mechanism was applied elastic deformation of the tools on the dimensional errors of
(Fig. 23). The upper punch is pressed to the bottom by the slide the forgings, the authors [114,118] proposed to construct tools
of the mechanic press, and the lower punch is placed with elastic die inserts. Fig. 24 shows a solution for an
motionless on the press table. The dies are located at the application of an elastic die for gears forging. During the
middle plate connected by the pantograph mechanism with forming, the die insert is pressed through the punch into a
the upper and lower plate, moving downwards with half a cylindrical die casing, causing its shrinking and a precise
speed of the slide. This device is used for precision forming of representation of the tooth impression on the forging. After
e.g. bevel gears. the relief of pressure, the die insert is ejected from the
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941 915

Fig. 24 – Concept of tool construction with an elastic die insert [118].

Fig. 26 – Hollow forging [119].

Fig. 25 – Hollow shafts [120].

cylindrical clamping ring and next, the forming of the tooth

surface begins. When the diameter of the press-formed core
die is ejected from the die casing, it undergoes elastic
expansion, which facilitates the removal of the forging from
the die.

3.2.1.1. Hollow forgings. A reply of the forging industry to the

requirements of the automotive industry related to the
reduction of the vehicle weight with a simultaneous preser-
vation or improvement of safety are the developed technolo-
gies of forming hollow shafts (Fig. 25).
Hollow elements are mainly applied as: driving shafts in gear
boxes and toothed gears, axle shafts in vehicle power transmis-
sion systems and electric motor shafts. At present, the main
recipients of hollow elements are the automotive industry and
the aircraft industry. This results from the elevated ecological
standards as well as the continuous increase of fuel prices, which
forces the constructors to search for solutions improving the
efficiency of power transmission systems while reducing their
weight. Even hollow components can be produced efficiently in
cold forging. The shaft shown in Fig. 26 is produced in two halves
by backward cup extrusion and reducing. Next two halves are
joined by friction welding. The hollow shaft presented in Fig. 27 is
formed when a tube billet undergoes multiple forward tube
extrusion and heading operations.
Alternative technologies as: cross-wedge rolling, forging in
swaging machines or hydroforming also provide encouraging
results in the scope of forming geometrically complex hollow
products [120,122–124].
Fig. 27 – Hollow forging [119].
A general disadvantage of all mentioned processes is the
necessity to use of a pipe segment as a preform, which
increases the costs in comparison to classical bar preform.
The processes of hot or warm forging on technological lines
equipped on transfer presses are currently becoming the only
economically justified technologies of manufacturing hollow
products in series production [121]. The realization of a die
forging process on a press, from an initial material in the form
of a section of the rod, is implemented in several technological
procedures including the processes of upsetting, extrusion and
piercing. As a result of a properly selected sequence of
technological procedures, hollow forging of a shaft with
narrowed tolerances can be obtained.
916 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
3.2.2. Die forging processes for parts made of non-ferrous
metals
Although steel is the most commonly applied construction
material, again non-ferrous metals and their alloys are
irreplaceable in many applications. Aluminum, titanium,
copper, magnesium and nickel alloys are key materials when
it comes to forging. Die forging processes for these materials
have been used for a long time. A comprehensive description
of these processes is given in [125]. Although the forging of
non-ferrous metals is very similar to the forging of steel, it is
usually more difficult to perform due to specific properties of
non-ferrous metals. Given the limitations primarily resulting
from high variability of properties with respect to forging
parameters and narrow ranges of hot forming temperatures
for these materials, the production of complex-shaped
forgings is often more difficult than in the case of steel, if
not impossible. This justifies conducting research aimed at
optimizing the existing methods and testing new more
effective ways of producing forgings from these materials.
In recent years one can observe a growing interest in
aluminum, titanium and magnesium alloys on the part of
global research centers and production plants. This results
from an increased use of parts made of these alloys in the
aircraft and automotive industries where mass reduction is of
significant importance. In light of the above, it is justified to
present recent achievements in the development of die forging
processes for this group of alloys.
The main advantage of aluminum alloys, especially the
2000, 6000 and 7000 series, is their high relative strength, i.e.
the strength-to-density ratio. For this reason, aluminum
alloy forgings are primarily used in the automotive and
aerospace industries. Due to their advantages, such as high
abrasion and corrosion resistance, good electrical and
thermal conduction, low contraction, high impact strength
at low temperatures, high light and heat beam reflection
coefficient, the resistance to impact spark generation and
incombustibility, aluminum alloys are also used in the
electrical, chemical, food, shipbuilding and construction
industries, among others. The wide range of applications of
these materials lead to a growing increase in the global
production of aluminum and its alloys. Over the last 20 years,
this production increased from about 50 million tons in 1998
to over 125 million tons in 2017. The highest increase was
recorded in China, where the production of aluminum tripled
in the last 10 years, reaching over 70 million tons in 2017
[126]. Among all parts made of aluminum alloys in automo-
tive structures, the use of forged parts increased from 3% in
2012 to 5% in 2016 [127].
Aluminum alloy forgings are produced by the traditional
flash forging methods, mainly in forging presses, but also with
the use of hammers. The properties of these materials, such as
good workability, relatively low hot-forming temperatures,
low deformation resistance and lack of scale, make the forging
of aluminum alloys considerably easy. On the other hand, the
production of forged parts requires access to sophisticated
equipment and devices that are different than those used for
steel forging. A good example are billet heating furnaces
ensuring precise temperature control and distribution, hyper-
quenching and aging lines, etching rooms and many others.
For this reason, the standard technical equipment of forging
plants used for producing steel forgings is insufficient to
manufacture forgings from aluminum alloys.
The current development of technologies for producing
aluminum alloy forgings focuses on taking advantage of the
casting and forging processes. The shape of cast preforms is
close to that of the finished product [128]. The application of a
forging operation to obtain the desired final shape and size of a
forging results in the production of parts with good structure
quality and mechanical properties that are characterized by
lower anisotropy compared to the forging of extruded bars. In
addition, the production costs are 15–20% lower than those of
the standard forging process [129].
The authors of [130] reported interesting results of
investigations conducted under industrial conditions. They
propose a forging process for producing a suspension element
from alloy EN AW 6082, in which the applied billet heating
temperature is higher than in the standard forging process and
the hyperquenching operation is omitted. As a result, they
obtained a product with better structure quality (without
surface coarse-granularity), and higher impact strength and
fatigue properties. The proposed solution is an interesting
approach to modernization of the forging process, allowing for
reduced production costs; this however requires maintaining
very strict temperature conditions at the production stage.
For several years particularly aircraft industry was inter-
ested in the production of forgings from Al-Li alloys (e.g. 2090,
2091, 2297, 8090, 8091). These alloys have good strength
properties along with 8–10% lower density, and higher
elasticity modulus and corrosion resistance than standard
aluminum alloys. Despite their lower workability and high
price, forgings made of these alloys have already been used in
commercial applications, e.g. in the EH101 helicopter from
Agusta Westland [131], which proves that it is a promising
direction of development.
Titanium alloys have high relative strength, can be treated
at high temperatures and are characterized by very good
corrosion resistance and good biocompatibility. As a result,
forgings made of these materials are widely used in the
aircraft, power, shipbuilding and automotive industries as well
as in medicine. Die forging of titanium alloys resembles typical
forging operations for steel; nevertheless, it is more difficult
due to high deformation resistance and relatively low
workability of these materials. The design of die shape is
here of key importance. Due to different material flow
characteristics, titanium alloys do not fill the die as good as
steel; as a result, bigger filet radii should be applied preventing
sudden changes in the die shape dimensions. Consequently,
depending on the forging geometry, it is necessary to use more
dies characterized by the lowest roughness possible. A typical
process for producing a Ti6Al4V forging is described in [132].
To discover new methods of improving the workability of
titanium alloys in hot forming processes, forging processes are
investigated under both isothermal and quasi-isothermal
conditions. The tools are heated to a temperature that is
close to or slightly lower than that of the billet, which
significantly improves the workability of the material in the
forming process, thus making it possible to produce complex-
shaped forgings and reduce both material consumption and
forming forces at the same time [133,134]. An important
problem that has to be solved regarding isothermal forging
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
processes concerns the low durability of tools and low process
efficiency. The study [135] discusses the industrially applied
isothermal forging process for producing TiAl alloy blades for
high-speed compressors and aircraft engine turbines. The
billet and the tools were heated to 1150 8C. The forming
process was performed at a low speed of the slide, at a strain
rate of about 103 s 1. Under such conditions, the forging
operation lasted 5–10 min. In order to prevent oxidation, tools
made of heat-resistant molybdenum alloy were kept in
protective atmosphere. Positive results of both industrial
and product certification tests made it possible to implement
series production. This example shows that – despite the high
forming temperature – the isothermal forging of titanium
alloys holds the promise of wider use, particularly in small
batch production.
Some research studies focus on a forging method for
preforms made of metal powders. The advantages of this
process include reduced costs and a shortened production
cycle, as well as forgings have the desired structure and good
mechanical properties [136,137].
There are also continuous developments in the area of
superplasticity of titanium alloys. Under suitable thermal and
mechanical conditions, it is possible to obtain a fine-grained
structure exhibiting high elastic deformation capacity
[138,139]. Various research works pointed to the possibility
of taking advantage of titanium alloy superplasticity in forging
processes; however, it is difficult to find studies which confirm
the practical applications of obtained test results in this area.
Magnesium alloys have the lowest density out of all
construction materials. As a result, forged parts made of
these materials are applied in the aerospace, automotive,
sports and recreation industries. Due to their capacity for
vibration damping and electromagnetic radiation absorption,
magnesium alloys are widely used in the electromagnetic and
electrical industries. In recent years these materials have also
been increasingly applied in medicine. A serious limitation to
the use of magnesium alloys is their low corrosion resistance.
Recent progress in corrosion protection methods and devel-
opment of new materials with enhanced strength and
functional properties led to a growing interest in the
manufacturing of products, including forgings, made of
magnesium alloys. Between 2005 and 2015 an over twofold
increase in the global use of magnesium was recorded [140]. It
is predicted that by 2020 every car will have from 100 to 160 kg
of parts made of these materials [141]. Most magnesium alloy
products are manufactured by casting methods; however, for
Fig. 28 – Examples of forgings manufactured in hydraulic presses with heated dies: (a) bracket with ribs made of AZ31B alloy
[143], (b) rim made of AZ80 alloy [144], and (c) cantilever beams made of AZ80 alloy [145].
917
applications requiring good mechanical and functional prop-
erties, forging is applied. Due to a narrow range of processing
temperature and high thermal conductivity of magnesium
alloys, the forging of magnesium alloys is relatively difficult to
perform. For this reason, there are few forging plants in the
world that deal with the production of magnesium alloy
forgings. The most widely used forging process is the one
involving the use of hydraulic presses or low-speed mechani-
cal presses under isothermal or quasi-isothermal conditions
[142]. Tool are heated with the use of special heating systems,
which ensures the production of forgings with shape and size
that are close to those of the finished product (near-net shape),
as well as with relatively large overall dimensions. Owing to its
advantages, this forging method is constantly being devel-
oped. Examples of forged parts produced by isothermal forging
are shown in Fig. 28 [143–145]. Disadvantages of this process
include high tool cost and low efficiency due low strain rates.
In recent years, numerous studies have been performed to
investigate die forging processes for magnesium alloys
involving the use of forging machines with work tools
operated at higher speeds [142,146], including die forging
hammers and screw presses. Both theoretical studies and
experimental tests demonstrated that these forging machines
can be used for die forging of some alloys with small contents
of alloying additions e.g. AZ31, AZ41, AZ61. Examples of
forgings manufactured at ZOP Co. Ltd Forging Plant (Poland) by
the developed techniques are shown in Fig. 29. The use of die
forging hammers and screw presses ensures higher
manufacturing efficiency and allows plants equipped with
standard machinery to launch the production of forged parts
made of magnesium alloys.
An interesting recent development in the research on metal
forming of magnesium alloys is a multiaxial forging [148,149].
Multiaxial deformation ensures reduced grain size along with
an increased workability and strength of alloys. As an example
presented in [148] show that with this method, the grain of the
hard-to-deform magnesium alloy WE43 can be reduced from
25 mm to 6 mm, as a result of which it is possible to obtain
elongation equal to 475% by uniaxial tensile testing at 375 8C
and a strain rate of 3  10 4 s 1. The large number of promising
results in this area creates a potential of their practical
applications.
Also interesting are the results of studies on combined die
casting and forging processes [150,151], a technique which
combines the advantages of the two processes. The casting
method enables the production of forgings of complex shapes,
918 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941

Fig. 29 – Examples of forgings made of magnesium alloys: (a) levers made of AZ31B alloy by a hammer forging, (b) bracket
made of AZ61A alloy by a screw press, and (c) handles made of AZ41 alloy by a screw press [147].

Fig. 30 – The general scheme of the extrusion process.

whereas the final forging operation removes casting flaws and
ensures a product with structure and properties characteristic
of forged parts.
Another direction of development for magnesium alloys is
the design of new alloys. Alloying additions in the form of rare-
earth metals increase the strength properties and corrosion
resistance of formed materials [152,153]. Alloys containing
lithium are another promising materials, since lithium is the
only element that decreases the density of magnesium alloys
and positively affects the workability, which makes such
alloys suitable for the production of forgings [154].
Extrusion processes depending on the requirements can be
classified from different point of view as presented in Table 4.
Analysis of the possibilities of forming different types of
metallic materials in the extrusion process as well as existing
needs for the production of more and more sophisticated
products with high technical requirements (e.g. light and
strong at the same time, with homogeneous microstructure,
etc.) and simultaneously, the search of economically justifi-
able technological solutions, have become the basis for the
elaboration of new extrusion processes, including special
extrusion processes, such as:

- continuous extrusion (e.g. CONFORM, LINEX, EXTROLLING),

4. Extrusion of metallic materials
Similar as previously, in the recent years, there has been a
significant technical and technological progress in the scope of
extrusion of metals and alloys as well as metallic composite
materials. This refers mainly to the idea of perfecting the
existing processes (Fig. 30.) and aiming at the implementation
of new ones, which would be close to ‘‘ideal’’, but also at
developing new special purpose extrusion processes.
The basis for the development of extrusion processes is the
growing need to manufacture sophisticated products with
specific features, both in respect to required mechanical
properties and the inner structure (macro- and micro-
structure). The production capabilities and lowering the
manufacturing costs are also equally important factors.
- hydrostatic extrusion,
- explosive extrusion,
- extrusion with liquid phase,
- isothermal extrusion.
The most popular method of extrusion is hot extrusion of
long products from non-ferrous metals, mainly aluminum and
its alloys. Also, there is an increased interest in products
extruded from magnesium alloys and composite materials
because of the demand for advanced products for special
applications [155]. In vase of steels, a significant role in the
metal forming industry is played by the hot and cold extrusion
of short products - so-called press forging.
Development in the extrusion technology is primarily
related to:
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941 919

Table 4 – Types of extrusions processes.
Type of extrusion process
Hot extrusion
Cold extrusion
Long extrusions
Short extrusions
Extrusion of open sections (full)
Extrusions of closed sections
(hollow)
Co-extrusion (direct extrusion)
Indirect extrusion
Direct-indirect extrusion
(combined)
Extrusion with active friction
Side extrusion
Extrusion with oscillating die
(KOBO)
Extrusion through single-
impression dies
Extrusion through multi-
impression dies
Extrusion of non-ferrous metals
Extrusion of steels
Extrusion of metal composites
Extrusion through regular dies
(without welding)
Extrusion through porthole dies
(extrusion welding)
Extrusion of full billet
Extrusion of hollow billet
- perfection of the technology in the whole extrusion cycle
(homogenization, temperature and rate parameters, solu-
tioning on a press),
- development of extrusion welding,
- perfection of the extrusion tools (porthole dies),
- perfection of the continuous extrusion technology (CON-
Division criterion FORM),
- development of new extrusion methods (KOBO, Friction
Extrusion temperature
Extrusion),
- extrusion of composite materials, including powder mix-
Length of extruded product
tures,
Shape of extruded product - development of recycling methods based on the extrusion
cross-section of the initial material in different forms, including e.g.
chips,
Kinematics of tool - development of numerical methods used to design tools and
movement in extrusion
describe (simulate) the course of the extrusion process.
process
The scope is also put on improvement of the whole
technological cycle, from billet homogenization, selection of
temperature, heating and deformation rates to heat treatment
of extruded sections.
Number of simultaneously New solutions in the scope of homogenization of billets
extruded products
refer to the selection of the homogenization cycle parameters
(temperature – time) in order to obtain the desired billet
Type of extruded material structure with the phase particle dispersion not exceeding 0.5–
1 mm, which guarantees good plasticity of the billet in relation
with the extrusion parameters. Fig. 31 shows the structure of
Type of applied extrusion billets after homogenization [156].
dies
When selection of proper extrusion temperature-velocity
condition is investigated the maximization of the speed of the
Type of extrusion billet metal's flow out of the die and maintaining isothermicity of
the process, which leads to the efficiency of the extrusion
process should be in particular addressed [157].
Fig. 32 schematically shows the conditionings deciding
about the maximization of the speed of the metal's flow out of
the die opening during the extrusion.
A guarantee of obtaining high and uniform mechanical
properties of the extruded product is the application of
controlled oversaturation of the press coasting, followed by
their artificial aging.

Fig. 31 – Microstructure of the billet made from 6082 alloy after casting – (a and b) image after homogenization at 535 C for the
time of 8 h (c and d).
920 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 32 – Scheme of the relationship between the material
velocity at the die opening during extrusion and the
process temperature with respect to the press force
parameters and the properties of the extruded metal.
The newest extrusion lines are equipped with presses with
coasting on which it is possible to perform oversaturation of
the sections with a controlled cooling rate, both along the
section's length and the cross-section [158] as seen in Fig. 33.
Extrusion is most commonly used to manufacture so-called
closed sections, often with small wall thickness. They are
manufactured by the extrusion welding method. The basic
difficulty limiting a wider application of this method for pipes
production or closed sections of with various cross-sections is
the low weldability of some alloys. Owing to an original device
for testing weldability [159], which enables the selection of
such welding parameters and which guarantee high quality of
the welds, extrusion welding has lately been mastered for high
magnesium-silicon alloys from the 6xxx series, as well as a
selected group of alloys from 5xxx, 7xxx and 2xxx series.
A lot of research has also been devoted to improvement and
designing of tools for extrusion, including porthole dies. The
most important problems include the selection of the welding
chamber geometry, minimization of the frictional resistance
during the metal flow and the durability of the calibrating
straps. Also important is the mechanical strength of the die in
the context of its final exit geometry [160].
Fig. 33 – Oversaturation of extruded sections with controlled
cooling rate: 1 – puller, 2 – air nozzle, and 3 – main cooling
chamber.
Fig. 34 – Continuous extrusion of coatings on power and
telecommunication cables.
Tracing the development of the processes of metal and
alloy extrusion in the last decade, it is hard to point to any
spectacular successes in the creation of completely new
extrusion processes, which have been used in practice under
industrial conditions. And so, in the analysis of the progress
made in continuous extrusion, which dates back to early
1970s, it should be noted that, except for the CONFORM
method, other ways of continuous extrusion have not been
successfully implemented. In the case of the use of the
CONFORM method to produce different products, in the recent
years, continuous application of extruded coatings on power
and telecommunication cables has been proposed [161] as well
as sections made of copper for the power industry (Fig. 34).
An interesting extrusion process, which strongly affects the
structure of the extruded products and helps lower the
extrusion forces is the KOBO process [162], whose schematics
are shown in Fig. 35. The process uses a cyclic movement of the
die causing a change in the deformation path during the
extrusion.
The process is characterized by a significant reduction of
the extrusion force and the possibility to realize a ‘‘cold’’
extrusion process. Another advantage is possibility to obtain
monolithic products from scrap materials, e.g. from machin-
ing chips, which after proper compaction there are subjected
to consolidation what provide an attractive form of recycling
(Fig. 35b and c) [163].
A novelty of the recent years is the Friction Extrusion (FE)
process [164], shown in Fig. 36, which has been inspired by the
plasticity effect in the process of friction stir welding (FSW).
The process can be used for production of wires from
metals and metallic composites, however presently, the FE
process is at the stage of research under laboratorial condi-
tions.
Extruding composites from powder mixtures within the
scope of powder metallurgy is another interesting area of
application. The industrial practice includes extrusion of
composites from a preliminarily pressed charge, extrusion
of a charge located in a casing (extrusion of a so-called
cartridge), and possibly, extrusion of loosely poured powder
mixture directly into the press container. Also promising are
the results of the research on the use of porthole dies to
extrude closed sections from composite mixtures based on
aluminum alloys reinforced with hard particles, e.g. SiC [165].
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 35 – (a) Scheme of KOBO extrusion with an oscillating die, (b) extrusion of metal chips in the KOBO process – chip before
and after billet compaction and (c) an extruded monolithic profile.
Fig. 36 – Scheme of the Friction Extrusion (FE) process.
Progress in these area will contribute to the development of
recycling methods based on extrusion. Even currently, it is
possible to perform recycling of aluminum alloy chips through
their hot extrusion in order to extrude full quality products
[163,166].
It should also be mentioned, that recent progress in the
extrusion technology would not be possible without the
excessive use of numerical methods to design tools and
evaluate material behavior under extrusion conditions, e.g.
[167,168]. Introduced benchmarking options (ICEB) resulted in
significant progress in developed numerical models, that
became more reliable.
To sum up, it is also worth pointing out that, beside the
current reports on the progress in the extrusion of metals and
alloys as well as metallic composites presented in the subject
literature, a very important role is played by the periodical
conferences and congresses held on a global scale, including
Extrusion Technology (ET) and Aluminum 2000. The research
in the scope of extrusion is performed at many scientific
centers in the world. In Poland, the leading scientific center
with an over 50 year tradition, working with the processes of
921
extruding metals is the Faculty of Non-Ferrous Metals of AGH
University of Science and Technology, Kraków [169].
5. Drawing
The conventional wire drawing technology is usually devoted
for processing of simple axiasymmetrical products. The main
disadvantage of the process is associated with the friction, at
the interface between the drawing tool and deformed material,
which results in heterogeneity of properties at the drawn wires
cross-section. Increasing the product properties during con-
ventional wire drawing by modifications introduced to the die,
including their hardness, surface smoothness and shape of the
working zone, or changes to the processing parameters and
lubricants have been investigated for many years and it seems
that they have reached their technological maturity.
Therefore, in recent years alternative drawing technologies
such as accumulated angular drawing (AAD) with a non-linear
drawing system, ultrasonic vibrations assisted drawing or
‘‘warm’’ drawing of hardly deformable non-ferrous alloys
attracted a lot of attention. Intensive research is also carried
toward adaptation of well-known drawing technologies to
modern steel grades with multi-phase structures (e.g. AHSS
steels), which become more frequently used due to their
elevated properties.
5.1. Non-conventional drawing technologies
In the drawing processes, a lot of attentions was put on
forming, very hard materials with low plasticity. These
materials deformed in the conventional way, cause the
occurrence of various technological problems, such as:
excessive tool wear, formation of surface scratches and cracks,
improper circularity of the product, etc. At the same time, the
need for products with special properties has increased, e.g.:
ultrafine structure, specific deformation heterogeneity (related
922 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 37 – Different arrangements of drawing dies: (a) linear;
(b) crank; (c) stepped [170].
to specific heterogeneity of properties). Therefore there is a
continuous search for manufacturing technology of very thin
wires (below 0.1 mm in diameter) made of steel or alloys with
low plasticity. One of the developed solutions that addresses
that issue is an Accumulative Angular Drawing (AAD).
The essence of this method consists in multi-step drawing
through a system of three arched drawing dies, whose mutual
arrangement of the axes can be changed in a controlled
manner [170,171]. As a result of the drawing process, shown
schematically in Fig. 37, a significant non-homogeneous
accumulation of deformation can be observed, as the drawn
material undergoes deformation. This is a direct outcome of
the flow through the dies, bending, twisting and burnishing.
The largest total equivalent deformation occurs in the surface
layers, becoming gradually smaller toward the axis of the
product. In the AAD process, a material with a significant non-
homogeneous properties distribution at the cross-section is
obtained, which is a result of the non-homogeneity of
deformation. At the same time, in the material after
deformation, high, accumulated, plastic deformation energy
is present. As a result, the material annealed after the drawing
exhibits diversified yet very fine grain at the cross-section. The
properly selected parameters of the AAD process make it
possible to obtain a product with high strength and good
plastic properties. Such a character of mechanical properties
results from the controlled heterogeneity of properties, which,
in turn, is a result of the significant difference in the
reinforcement between the surface layers and the layers in
the vicinity of the drawn product's axis.
Fig. 38 – Change in the drawing force in time in the case of
drawing aluminum wire through a split die with the use of
ultrasound vibration perpendicular to the drawing axis: (a)
drawing with ultrasounds FcSr = 157.27 N; (b) drawing
without ultrasounds FcSr = 290.3 N. Drawing rate = 1 m/s;
elongation l = 1.85; drawing without a lubricant [172].
Drawing performed with the use of longitudinal or
circumferential ultrasound vibration of the drawing die is
another example of nonconventional process, which increases
deformation characteristics of materials with low plasticity.
To produce vibration with the usual frequency of about 20 kHz,
piezoelectric or magnetostrictive generators with the acoustic
power of a few kilowatts are applied. The use of ultrasound
vibration lowers the drawing force, improves the surface
quality and increases the plasticity of the drawn material.
Drawing though a split die with the use of ultrasound
vibrations is presented in [172–175]. The process consists in
drawing the product through a die axially divided into two
halves. On one die ultrasound vibration perpendicular to the
drawing axis are imposed, which significantly changes the
deformation conditions. In the material, compressive stresses
occur, produced by the vibrating die. Fig. 38 shows an
exemplary oscillogram of the changes in the force of drawing
aluminum wire through a split vibrating die as well as a die
which does not perform perpendicular ultrasound vibrations.
The conducted research showed that the use of vibration leads
to a clear reduction of the drawing force. Depending on the
applied elongation and drawing rate, the reduction of the
drawing force was within the scope of 80%. The increase of
elongation and drawing rate reduces the effect of drawing
force reduction. At the same time, the construction of a split
drawing die creates the risk of the occurrence of flash on the
drawn material. It should, also, be emphasized that each
reduction in drawing force reduces the accumulated deforma-
tion thus causes an increase in plasticity.
The study [173] presents the results of investigations of
wire drawing in a tandem die system, where a split die is in
front of, or behind, a monolithic die. It should be remembered
that drawing through tandem system dies makes it possible to
create a back tension between the cooperating dies.
Drawing through heated dies also attracted a lot of
attention throughout last 10 years. For example, the research
team led by Prof. A. Milenin has developed a technology of
producing very thin wires from the MgCa 0.8 alloy by way of
drawing through a heated die [176,177]. The MgCa 0.8 alloy
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
belongs to the group of biocompatible alloys, which can be
successfully applied in medicine, e.g. as surgical sutures.
Unfortunately, it exhibits very low plasticity, which makes it
impossible to obtain very thin wires by the traditional drawing
method. In order to increase the plasticity of the MgCa 0.8
alloy, a modification of the well-known process of warm
drawing in a heated die was applied. The use of a heated die
made it possible to obtain wires from the MgCa 0.8 alloy with
0.1 mm in diameter. The technology was extended with
continuous annealing operation to manufacture thin wires
with diameter of 0.05 mm [176,177].
5.2. Modern materials in drawing industry
At present, the developed technologies of obtaining products
from steel with a multi-phase structure, containing martens-
ite, bainite or retained austenite, belonging to the group of high
strength steels AHSS (Advanced High Strength Steel) [178–180]
refer almost exclusively to the processes of mechanical and
thermo-mechanial treatment of sheets by way of rolling,
whereas there are no descriptions of the technologies of
producing wire rods and wires from these steel types.
Since 2006, a team at the Department of Drawing and Metal
Products of Czestochowa University of Technology have been
performing research on the possibilities of the use of TRIP type
steel in the drawing process. Obtaining a TRIP type structure in
a wire rod is possible, as in the case of sheet rolling, through
the use of regular cooling of the wire rod directly after the hot
rolling process. Accelerated-controlled cooling of the wire rod
can be carried out with the use of a properly efficient cooling
system Stelmor. With the developed technology TRIP structure
wire rods with diameter 5.5–8.0 mm were obtained [181]. It was
also shown that wires from TRIP steel with the content of 0.1–
0.4% C have the same level of mechanical properties wires
from steel with a ferritic–pearlitic structure and the carbon
content of 0.45–0.78% C (Fig. 39) [181–185]. Example of final
products out of these materials are e.g. fasteners (screws).
Performed research confirmed that final products from
TRIP type steel with the content of 0.1% C, have comparable
Fig. 39 – Change in the tensile strength Rm of wires from
TRIP type steel (0.29% C) and wires from high carbon steel
GD75A with a ferritic–pearlitic structure as a function of
homogeneous deformation eH [182].
923
level of mechanical properties determined by the standard PN-
EN ISO 898-1 to products from the properties class 8.8, without
additional heat treatment process (Table 5). Currently, inten-
sive research is being performed on the implementation of
TRIP type steel into the industrial production of fasteners and
also, there is a search of further possibilities of their
application.
6. Sheet forming
The progress observed in the last decade in the area of press
forming concerns mainly the shaping of high strength
materials as well as non-conventional methods of sheet
forming. The driving force is especially the automotive
industry, where through the increasing introduction of lighter
materials, the vehicle mass can be reduced, which thus limits
also the CO2 emission [187].
6.1. Modern materials
The first group of materials is constituted by AHSS type high
strength steels. These steels have been the subject of research
for several years now, and most of them have been
implemented into the large lot production [188]. The biggest
progress in the recent years in the area of press forming refers
to the shaping of manganese-boron steels (22MnB5) in the
process of hardening. The process is presently performed in
two different variants: the direct and the indirect hot stamping
method. In the case of direct hot stamping, the semi-product is
heated in a furnace, and next it is transferred onto a press,
where it is formed and hardened in the tool (Fig. 40a). During
indirect hot stamping, first the die stamping is only cold-
formed and next it undergoes only hardening and calibration
(Fig. 40b). Due to economic reasons, mainly the direct hot
stamping technology is applied at the industrial scale [189].
A properly carried direct hot stamping process requires a
high cooling rate capabilities, i.e. at least 27 K/s, which
provides a possibility to obtain martensitic structure. Depend-
ing on the applied material, this provides tensile strength in
the range of 1000–1900 MPa [190].
Direct hot stamping is a complex technology and therefore
its proper design requires extensive knowledge of not only the
press forming process but also the structural phenomena
taking place during the cooling. Many varying parameters
cause that not all stamping presses can be used for the
technology. The most important problem is the selection of
the thermo-mechanical parameters of the process, such as the
forming temperature, the deformation degree, the heating and
cooling rates, the austenitization temperature and the
hardening time. All these factors are critical for the final
properties of the product [191].
Another very important factor is the proper design of the
tools, especially the selection of a material of a properly high
conductivity coefficient and the appropriate distribution of the
cooling channels (Fig. 41). During the design of the tools, it is
very helpful to apply mathematical modeling of the whole
process. This technology is currently used for the form
pressing of an increasing number of elements, and so there
is also the problem of tool durability [192]. The basic
924 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Table 5 – Mechanical properties of screws made from
steel with the TRIP effect and medium carbon screws in
the properties class 8.8 according to PN-EN ISO 898–1
[186].
Strength Steel TRIP Carbon steel with
properties (C < 0.1%) ferritic–pearlitic
structure (0.15% < C < 0.55%)
Rm 836 MPa 800 MPa
R0.2 678 MPa 640 MPa
mechanisms of tool wear during the hot press forming of a
22MnB5 steel sheet coated with Al–Si is adhesion. The material
from the sheet coating is transferred onto the die surface
through mechanical and chemical operation, thus forming
layers with the thickness of over 50 mm on the tools. In the case
of forming with a 22MnB5 coating, mainly abrasive wear is
present [193].
As not all applications require high strength in the whole
product (e.g. in some areas, good deformability is more
important), in recent years, the idea of partial press hardening
has been created, where only a part of the die stamping is
hardened; the remaining part has good plastic properties. Of
course the design of such process requires extensive knowledge
of the phase transformations and it is difficult to perform. For
this reason, this method is still not applied in the industry [194].
Other materials, which may enable a high reduction of the
die stamping mass are TWIP steels with a high content of
manganese, i.e. over 25% wt. They represent a new type of
material from the point of view of its properties – high
strength, good deformability and ability of energy absorption.
In TWIP type steels, the reinforcement runs on the basis of the
generation of twins as well as nano-twins of deformation [195].
The literature provides, however, only simple research of the
press-formability [196] or springing [197] of these materials. As
in the press forming processes, the cost of material is very
important, which is high in the case of TWIP steels due to a
high content of manganese, and so, despite their very good
properties, their practical applications are highly doubtful.
Fig. 40 – Methods of press hardening (a) direct hot stamping and (b) indirect hot stamping [189].
Another group of materials for which a great progress has
been observed in the area of press forming are sheets made of
light alloys, mainly magnesium as well as high strength
aluminum from the 7xxx group. At present, some examples of
the use of magnesium are: Daimler-Chrysler – 7G-Tronic
automatic gear box, BMW – engine block, steering wheel,
casing of momentum transfer (however, all these elements are
casted) [198].
The processes of bending and press forming of magnesium
alloys pose significant problems, as they need to be performed
at temperatures above 200 8C [199]. There is also contradictory
information on the resistance of elements made of magne-
sium alloys to dynamic loads [200].
In the study [201], for the press forming of the AZ31 alloy,
the authors used a work station enabling independent heating
of the forming tools (Fig. 42). During the press forming process,
the pressing force on the counter-punch is regulated with the
hydraulic cushion of the press. The designed station makes it
possible to perform tests in the scope of 20–450 8C with the
maximal shaping punch motion speed of 10 mm/min and the
maximal rate of 2 mm/s.
At the shaping temperature of 300 8C, obtained products
showed no visible defects in the form of delaminations for the
punch speed of 10 mm/s. The selection of press forming
temperature is, however, dependent on the speed of the
process. With very high sensitivity to the deformation rate,
lowering the forming temperature requires a reduction of the
deformation rate.
The tests of the energy consumption of samples made of
the AZ31 magnesium alloy showed that magnesium exhibits
good energy consumption but only with low displacements,
when the deformations are small. Because of this as well as the
fact that the process of its forming is very difficult and
expensive, the use of magnesium for press-formed elements is
questionable at this stage.
Recent years have also showed intensive research on the
forming of aluminum alloys from the 7xxx series, especially
the 7075 alloy, which, in the T6 state, has its strength close to
that of high strength steel. The knowledge of the deformability
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 41 – Schematics of a press forming tool.
Fig. 42 – Tools for sheet forming of magnesium and the
bracket made from magnesium alloy AZ31.
and thermal treatment of the 7075 alloy is quite extensive.
Among other things, the tests show that up to the temperature
of 140 8C, the alloy characterizes in a slight drop of strength
with a simultaneous small deformability. Its best plasticity is
in the case of 220 8C; however, at this temperature, a very rapid
elimination of the T6 state as well as loss of strength are
observed [202].
This knowledge does not, however, translate to an
industrial use of this alloy, as only slight changes in
temperature may cause drastic changes of properties. The
course of the aging process in the annealed state differs from
the deformed annealed state as well as the warm-deformed
state.
The literature provides information about a technology of
warm forming of the 7075 aluminum alloy developed by LKR
Leichtmetallkompetenzzentrum Ranshofen GmbH (in 2012)
Austria Metal GmbH (Fig. 43a). There are also analyses of the
concept of shaping the 7xxx aluminum alloys, which is close to
the 22MnB5 boron-manganese steel. The process consists in
preparing the blank material, hardening in cold tools and
925
finally aging [203]. sThe idea of this technology as well as the B-
pillar press-formed according to it have been presented in
Fig. 44a.
6.2. Non-conventional sheet metal forming methods
The search of non-conventional solutions in sheet forming
technologies usually results from the necessity of surmount-
ing the limitations posed by the traditional solutions (cracking,
sheet wrinkling, shape defects, drawpieces surface flaws), as
well as the desire to intensify the process (increasing the
material deformation degree or the technological safety factor
with the predetermined deformation), and often the need to
find a way of forming a product, which is difficult or simply
impossible to form by means of traditional methods.
This has been the reason of a dynamic development of e.g.
hydraulic forming methods: internal (Hydroforming) and
external (especially Hydromec), as well as sheet forming
methods with high deformation rates (explosive and electro-
dynamic forming). It also resulted in the appearance of such
solutions as deep drawing with a temperature gradient, with
the use of tools (dies, blankholders) with a shaped working
surface, with a controlled blankholder pressure, with the use
of ultrasound vibration of the tools or sheet forming with
active friction forces. Most of these solutions lead to the sheet
metal forming processes being performed under the condi-
tions of lowered tensile stresses in the critical area of the
formed semi-product by way of lowering the material's
deformation resistance and/or increasing the load capacity
of the drawpiece wall.
The interest in many of the mentioned non-conventional
sheet metal forming methods, like hydroforming, observed in
the recent years, results mainly from the need to produce
products often of complicated shapes or structures, from hard-
deformable steels as well as aluminum or titanium alloys,
usually for the automotive and aircraft industry [204,205].
Multi-layer panels [204] or ‘‘honeycomb’’ type structures [205]
significantly improve the rigidity factor to the mass of the
formed construction elements.
An important direction of development contributing a new
quality in the implementation of non-conventional sheet
metal forming methods are hybrid solutions, which combine
the advantages of the related technologies. An example can be
the combination of hydroforming with hot forming, the so-
called Warm Hydroforming (WHF) [206]. This solution makes it
possible to obtain products with complicated shapes from high
strength materials. A solution to the appearing problems
connected with the sealing of the system at high temperatures
can be the use of another type of shaping medium, for example
sand or ceramic granulate [207]. In turn, supporting the
hydroforming process with ultrasound vibration of the tools
[208] results in the lowering of the material plastic flow
resistance. Another interesting alternative solutions to sheet
forming are:
6.2.1. Single Point Incremental Forming
This concept was developed to enable manufacturing of small
series of parts using universal one tool. The main idea of this
technology is the forming of the sheet by means of a tool in the
form of a punch along the assumed path, as shown in Fig. 44. In
926 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941

Fig. 43 – Schematics of forming process of aluminum 7075 (a) the hot forming developed by LKR
Leichtmetallkompetenzzentrum Ranshofen GmbH (in 2012) Austria Metal GmbH, (b) press hardening process applied for
aluminum 7075 and the B-pillar manufactured by the method and (c) cold forming in saturation state.

heated material, which determines the absorption of the

provided heat, and also to know the emissivity factor of the
treated material.
The technology of hot spinning of Hastelloy C-276 alloy
with the use of high power diode laser developed at the Metal
Forming Institute in Poznan [218] made it possible to obtain a
product in line with the set assumptions (Fig. 45c), character-
Fig. 44 – Main idea of Single Point Incremental Forming ized by minimal springback and a better surface quality than a
(SPIF) [215]. product made by cold spinning with the use of the necessary
inter-operational heat treatment.

6.2.3. Forming of non-rotational products through spinning

Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF) the sheet of metals is
deformed by the relative movement between the tool and the
sheet. The possibility of moving the punch in three directions
x, y, z is used in most machines and it is enough to obtain
complicated shapes. Different variants of the technology are
also investigated including Two Point Incremental Forming,
SPIF with partial/full dies or SPIF with pressurized fluid
support [215].
6.2.2. Spinning with laser heating
For materials whose cold forming is impossible or very
difficult, the hot spinning technology is applied, which, in
the case of traditional solutions, contributes to a faster wear of
the shaping tools (mandrel and roller). A minimization of this
effect is possible by way of heating of the formed material by
means of laser (Fig. 45b), which provides the possibility to
direct a focused beam in the area of the current location of the
shaping roller. Such a solution enables a full control of
material heating during the spinning process. Here, it is
important to properly adjust the laser beam in respect of the
The creation of the technology of non-axisymmetric spinning,
as well as spinning of products with a non-circular section or
the so-called tooth-shaped spinning, and their further
development, has begun to question the limitations of the
spinning technology in its traditional understanding as an
axisymmetric process [219]. A classification of these non-
conventional processes has been proposed on the basis of the
relative position of the rotating axes, the section geometry and
the variability of the wall thickness of the spinned part (Fig. 46).
These innovative processes have found their application
mainly in the production of parts with complex geometries
from pipes or sheets for the automotive industry. Aluminum
alloys as well as low carbon steel are usually used in the
process.
The study [220] describes the peculiarities of the numerical
modeling by finite element method in the case of non-circular
spinning for the variant of steering the displacement of the
forming roller. The simulation results were compared with the
reference experiments performed for two types of non-
rotational mandrels (Fig. 47). For the case of a ‘‘Tripode’’
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941 927

Fig. 45 – Spinning: (a) schematic of the process (1 – shaped material, 2 – spinning roller, 3 – pressure pad, 4 – centering pilot, 5 –
mandrel, 6 – stages of material forming); (b) MZH-500 spinner with a diode laser; (c) product made of Hastelloy C-276 alloy
obtained by the method of spinning with laser heating [218].

Fig. 46 – Classification of non-conventional spinning processes [219].

mandrel, it was established that it is possible to simulate non-
circular spinning with an error below 5% in respect of the
minimal wall thickness. It also turned out that it was possible
to predict the non-circular spinning processes, critical from
the point of view of the material wrinkling, which was
confirmed for the ‘‘Pagoda’’ case.
6.2.4. Electromagnetic forming
The forming of sheet metals and thin-walled products with
electromagnetic field energy [221,222] has the biggest applica-
tion potential among the high energy methods. Under slightly
differing names, various modifications and applications of this
forming technique can be recognized: ElectroMagnetic Forming
(EMF), ElectroMagnetic Puls Forming (EMPF), Electromagnetic pulse
assisted progressive deep drawing, Incremental electromagnetic-
assisted stamping (IEMAS). The process consists in the use of the
Lorentz forces operating onto metal elements placed in an
impulse magnetic field (Fig. 48). The forming process takes
place without the participation of intermediate masses (non-
contact technique), at the strain rate of up to 2  103 s 1.
The industrial applications of electromagnetic forming
include the processes of forming (drawing, necking, flaring),
joining (crimping, welding/bonding) and cutting as well as
their combinations in connection with conventional technol-
ogies [221,224]. The forming of sheet metals is usually carried
out with the use of pancake inductors (Fig. 49), whereas the
forming of tubes or walls of deep-drawn cups – with the use of
coil-shaped inductors, placed outside the semi-product during
the reducing (Fig. 48) or inside, in the case of expanding or
flanging.
This method can be used to form materials with good
electrical conductance. Beside copper, this group of materials
of significant technological importance also includes alumi-
num and magnesium. This makes this technology especially
attractive for the automotive industry, which is searching for
solutions lowering the vehicle mass [225,226] as well as in the
928 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 47 – Shapes of the mandrels used in the non-circular
spinning experiments: (a) ‘‘Tripode’’ and (b) ‘‘Pagoda’’
[220].
Fig. 48 – Schematic diagram of the device for electrodynamic
metal forming [223]: I – energy member, II – technological
member (1 – high voltage transformer, 2 – rectifier, 3 –
capacitor battery, 4 – connecting ducts, 5 – control system, 6
– inductor, 7 – semi-product, i – inductor current, ip –
current in semi-product, B – magnetic induction, p –
pressure).
Fig. 49 – Schematics of electromagnetic forming of sheets
[221].
area of designing and producing of energy-saving construc-
tions based on bionic [227]. The lack of friction between the
material formed in the EMPF technology and the tools as well
as the high pressures (magnetic pressure of values exceeding
250–300 MPa in the time of milliseconds) favors obtaining high
surface quality of the product, which is especially important in
the case of initial materials with an applied coating, as well as
high dimensional precision and repeatability of the product
shape, e.g. as a result of reduced springback.
In response to the expectations of the automotive
industry concerning the materials and technologies of their
processing leading to a reduction of mass, the authors of the
study [228] analyzed the process of electromagnetic forming
(bulging) of a perforated aluminum sheet. During the shaping
of shell products made of perforated sheets, regardless of the
applied plastic working method, one should remember about
their unique properties – strong directivity, dependent on the
type of perforation (on the directional character of the
geometrical features of the openings mesh) as well as
heterogeneity of deformation, enforced by the structure of
the center [229,230].
The directions of the development of the EMF/EMPF
method are mostly inspired by its limitations: first application
only to materials with high electrical conductivity, second –
application to workpieces with shapes and sizes limited by
the dimensions and power of the coil as well as the cost of the
instrumentation. The boundary below which a direct elec-
tromagnetic plastic working is impossible is considered to be
the value of electrical conductivity of structural steel (9,3 MS/
m) [224]. This results from the excessive heating of materials
with high resistivity and the reduction of the magnetic
impact. The limitation resulting from low electrical conduc-
tivity can be eliminated through the use of an intermediate
element (‘‘driver sheet’’), made from a material with high
conductance, placed between the inductor and the formed
material. The use of a moderator enables the treatment of
high-alloy steels, titanium and even materials, which do not
conduct electric current. The effectiveness of the method
depends on the type of moderator material (its deformation
resistance, electrical conductivity) and its geometrical pa-
rameters (thickness of the sheet as well as the transverse
dimensions in reference to the dimensions of the coil) [231]. A
higher electrical conductivity of the moderator strengthens
the Lorentz forces, whereas a lower deformation resistance
reduces the energy absorbed for its free deformation.
The forming of large components by means of small
inductors and low discharge energy is possible through
electromagnetic incremental forming (EMIF) [232]. Owing to this
method, it is possible to manufacture precision products with
complex shapes. Hybrid solution, known as ElectroMagnetic-
Assisted Stamping (EMAS) or Incremental electromagnetic-assisted
stamping (IEMAS), combines the advantages of conventional
forming with rigid tools and electromagnetic forming
[233,234]. In the study [234], the forces of the electromagnetic
field are used to support the forming of both the stretched
bottom part and the drawn flange part of the formed product,
whose shape can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. Fig. 50
shows an exemplary distribution of the electromagnetic coils
1–3.
At Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, a new
method of electromagnetic sheet metal forming has been
developed, which uses multiple continuous capacitor
discharges with a strictly determined frequency. The
developed technology makes it possible to increase the
maximal depth of the drawpieces by over 30% and to realize
the processes of continuous press forming. It also expands
the scope of applications and increases the effectiveness of
electromagnetic forming with the use of conventional
techniques [222].
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 50 – Possible locations of the coils in
electromagnetically supported stamping [234].
6.2.5. Press forming with the electroplastic effect
In the case of less deformable materials, it is possible to use the
method of forming with the electroplastic effect. The latter is
induced with the flow of pulsatory high density current. In
metallic materials, it can cause a radical drop of the yield
stress. The study [235] proposes an electrically supported
process of embossing micro-channels on metal elements. Both
the experiments and the numerical simulations showed that,
in a forming process supported by electric current with high
density, the stress was reduced in the workpiece, and the
depth of the produced channel was increased. Such advan-
tages of the electroplastic treatment as high technological
effectiveness, energy saving, deformability increase and
change of the metal's microstructure can stimulate the
interest in this technology as well as its development.
6.2.6. Sheet microforming
Microforming refers to the process of shaping with plastic
working methods of parts or their features with at least two
dimensions in a submillimeter range. A clear, increasing,
demand for microelements especially from the electronic
industry is observed for the last few years. Microelements
mean large productivity with a lower material and energy
consumptions. The microforming issues, similar to the ones in
traditional technologies, can be divided into four groups:
material, process, tools and machines [209]. In the case of the
material the grain size is the most important parameter, which
limits the geometry of microelements. The flow stress, limit
strains and anisotropy should also be considered, as in the
small scale material cannot be treated as a homogeneous
continuum. In the manufacturing processes the main pro-
blems are associated with friction effects (large contact surface
between tools and material to volume ratio), forming forces
and springback. For the tools area the problem of very small
contours and very high quality of the surface have to be
mentioned. Finally, in the case of forming machines there are
series of difficulties related to handling of microelements e.g.
inserting or removing components from tools.
A thorough analysis of the developments of the micro-
forming technologies has been performed in [209–211]. The
subject of research for over a quarter of the century have been
the problems resulting from the miniaturization itself (size
effects), as well as the phenomena occurring during the process
at the micro scale. Problems, which should be considered in
the design and development of a microforming system have
been summarized in Fig. 51 [209].
929
Fig. 51 – Problems related to the size effect in microforming
processes [209].
The most popular microforming processes are: extrusion,
forging, drawing and sheet forming. The latter one is
particularly addressed within the paper.
The microforming of sheets, both in reference to the testing
of their mechanical properties and the spatial forming,
requires subtle modifications of the shaping tools or micro-
machines construction, as well as special technological
solutions and precise process control. As it has been
demonstrated in the study [211], the effect of improvement
of the material's deformability during micro deep drawing was
obtained as a result of applying a laser to heat the flange of the
formed sample (Fig. 52).
Both the experiment and the numerical simulations
showed a significant influence of the size effect on the
cracking character at the micro/meso scale. The forming limit
curve (FLC) shifts downwards with the decreasing thickness-
grain size ratio.
In the last decade, a progress in the research carried out in
the area of microforming toward advanced hybrid technolo-
gies for the microscale was also observed. During an ultrasonic
forming process in [212] the pressure forming the micro-
product (trapezoidal micro-channels) was transferred onto a
thin sheet by means of powder, plasticized as a result of the
friction effect, caused by ultrasonic vibration. In the study
[213], the method of induction bulging was used to form the
micro-channels in a thin copper sheet. During laser micro-
forming [214], where the energy source is the impact wave
Fig. 52 – Concept of a tool with laser heating of the sample's
flange during micro deep drawing [211].
930 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 53 – Schematic of indirect forming with a laser impulse
[214].
generated by the laser, the way of indirect forming with a laser
impulse was examined, the idea of which is presented in
Fig. 53. The study [216] presents an analysis of the effect of the
laser energy on the micro-deformability of pure copper during
Fig. 54 – The idea of multiphysics character of the models (a) and schematic illustration of development of models leading to
uncoupled and fully coupled multiscale approach (b) [30].
microscale bulging, whereas the study [217] discusses the
physics of the laser microforming phenomenon.
Finally it has to be mentioned, that research works on
development of all presented modern technologies are also
closely supported by capabilities offered by numerical model-
ing techniques.
7. Numerical modeling in metal forming
As demonstrated throughout the paper numerical modeling
became an important tool in the area of metal forming. Initially
predictions of mechanical states including strains, stresses as
well as resulting forces were under consideration. The slab [236]
and upper bound [237] methods should be mentioned as primary
tools used in an industry at that time. In subsequent years
modeling of a microstructure evolution during forming [238] and
cooling [239] by Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov (JMAK) type
models received a lot of attention. Finally, the work of Kobayashi
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
on finite element (FE) flow formulation provided an invaluable
input to this field [240,241] and made numerical modeling easily
accessible. Then, during the end of XX and beginning of XXI
century this FE concept was combined with mentioned
microstructure evolution models providing the fully coupled
thermal–mechanical–microstructural tool for metal forming
simulations and process optimization.
Therefore, during the last decade research in the computer
aided development of metal forming operations has been
primarily focused on improving description of material behavior
under cold and hot forming conditions [30,243] as well as on
development of automatic optimization procedures that could
be applied to the complex combined processes [242]. Numerical
modeling of metal forming today requires multiphysics models
(Fig. 54a) and multiscale approaches (Fig. 54b). The former
combines mechanical, thermal and metallurgical components in
one model. The latter combines phenomena occurring in micro
scale with the macro scale description of the process.
From practical point of view both issues are extremely
important as they increase predictive capabilities of numerical
simulations (Fig. 55 [27]). However, it is crucial that at the same
time, computing cost have to be maintained at the acceptable
level. With this regard, issues related to numerical simulations
efficiency have also gained a lot of attention in the area of
metal forming modeling [244].
Presently not only general information on material state
and its microstructure are required. On the contrary sophisti-
cated numerical models, where material structure is consid-
ered not only in an implicit manner but also directly in an
explicit way, are essential to form complex new metallic
Fig. 55 – Natural relation between computational time and predictive capabilities of models [27].
931
materials (e.g. multiphase steels and non-ferrous light metals
alloys). Thus, conventional mean field models based on closed
from analytical equations (e.g. conventional flow stress
models, internal variable models, Avrami type evolution
models) [245] are gradually substituted by more elaborated
full field models [246–248]. In this case a microstructure
morphology as well as phenomena occurring during forming
are precisely simulated at various length scales often exceed-
ing predictive capabilities of experimental investigation
techniques. Therefore, the Computational Materials Science
(CMS) with emerging the Digital Materials Representation
(DMR) concept [249] have been intensively investigated during
the last decade as an approach that can offer a support for
description of a material behavior during forming of new
products with special in-use properties.
The definition according to [250] states that the Digital
Material Representation is a material description based on a
set of measurable quantities that provides the necessary link
between simulation and experiment. Thus, the objective of the
DMR is to provide a digital model of the microstructure where
all important features are represented explicitly. That way
comparison with a metallographic investigation is straight-
forward as seen in Fig. 56.
To address such complex models of modern materials, new
set of numerical approaches designed to couple phenomena
occurring at various length and time scales have also been
proposed [251].
In the metal forming area, to describe material behavior at
the macro scale the conventional continuum solutions are
frequently used [30]. That includes mesh based (finite element
932 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941

Fig. 58 – A concept of the two scale finite element and

Fig. 56 – A concept of the digital material representation cellular automata upscaling model of a dynamic
approach [27]. recrystallization during extrusion [264].

method, finite volume method, boundary element method
etc.) [242,244,252,253] as well as mesh free approaches
(smoothed particle hydrodynamic, element-free Galerkin
method, material point method, moving particle finite
element method, finite cloud method, boundary cloud method
etc.) [254,255]. Similar versatility is observed in the micro scale
analysis techniques that can deal with proper description of
material behavior at the lower length scales, namely mezo- or
micro scales. Series of previously mentioned continuum but
also discrete methods (Monte Carlo, lattice Bolztman, cellular
automata, etc.) are equally popular [256,258,259].
During the last decade coupling of these computational
techniques to provide both multiphysics and multiscale
material response (Fig. 54) has proven enormous predictive
capabilities. Therefore, combinations of a variety of numerical
approaches: finite element (FEM), cFigtal plasticity finite
element (CPFEM), extended finite element (XFEM), finite
volume (FVM), boundary element (BEM), mesh free, multi grid
methods, Monte Carlo (MC), Cellular Automata (CA), Molecular
Dynamics (MD), Molecular Statics (MS), Level set methods, Fast
Fourier Transformation (FFT) etc. have been applied to
practical metal forming simulations [248,257,262].

Fig. 57 – A concept of upscaling and concurrent multiscale numerical models [27,245].

 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
In general multiscale modeling techniques, can be classi-
fied into two groups: upscaling and concurrent approaches as
seen in Fig. 57 [261]. These multiscale approaches became the
basis of intensively developed Integrated Computational
Materials Engineering (ICME) [260]. In the ICME three funda-
mental aspects of materials design: Manufacturing, Design
and Materials are combined. In the metal forming community
the ICME concept has been additionally extended to the
Integrative Computational Materials and Process Engineering
(ICMPE) approach, which combines multiscale modeling and
through process simulation in one comprehensive approach
[263].
As mentioned in [263], in the upscaling class of methods,
constitutive models at higher scales are constructed from
observations and models at lower, more elementary scales. In
Fig. 59 – A concurrent multiscale model of incremental
forging concept [269] based on the digital material
representation approach and the CPFEM approach.
Fig. 60 – Major concepts in computational models cost reduction [30].
933
the fully coupled upscaling modeling, information from macro
is then used to recalculate material micro state. An example of
practical realization of a two scale finite element and cellular
automata upscaling model of dynamic recrystallization during
an extrusion of Al/Mg [264] is presented in Fig. 58.
Conceptually different approach to multiscale modeling is
represented by concurrent models. In this case, the computa-
tional domain is simultaneously decomposed to deal with
phenomena associated to particular length/time scale (Fig. 57).
Therefore, with these methods a detailed investigation of
material flow at various length scale became possible as can be
seen in Fig. 59, where concurrent multiscale model based on
the digital material representation approach and the CPFEM
approach is presented [265]. This class of models is also often
used when cold forming operations are investigated e.g. wire
drawing [266], stamping [267] or rolling [268].
As presented in Fig. 55, an increase in computational
time, which is usually unacceptable for industrial practice,
is the major drawback of these multiscale models. Research
on the computational efficiency is carried out from the
applied computer science point of view. The increasing
power of new computer processors or graphical cards, as
well as development of alternative methods and strategies
for computational simulations, create new ways to address
this issue, and provide possibilities for multiscale modeling
to become a common industrial practice. There are in
general two concepts that have been explored as seen in
Fig. 60:
 Reduced-order-modeling concept (ROM) [270], where in
order to reduce the computational costs to affordable level
simplifications to material or computational domain des
criptions are introduced. Developed model reduction strate-
gies range from purely physical or analytical approaches to
black-box methods (e.g. artificial neural networks) [271]. The
sensitivity analysis is also a common representative of this
class of methods [272].
934 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Fig. 61 – Future trend of coexistence of mean and full field approaches in practical industrial application [245].
 New high performance computer architectures and grid
distributed computational environments. In this case
reimplementation of already available numerical models
is essential to take benefits from such high computer power.
During last ten years parallelization techniques became a
standard approach for e.g. metal forming commercial finite
element software providers [244].
As presented, the combination of material science and
applied computer science brought to metal forming commu-
nity a possibility to use complex full field multi scale models
on more regular basis. It have to be emphasized, that these
models can often provide predictions of material behavior in
the conditions, which are difficult or even impossible to be
monitored under laboratory conditions. With this level of
accuracy, they have recently started to be used as a major
source of data for development of simplified mean field
approaches for practical applications (Fig. 61). The primary
goal of such an approach is minimization of time consuming
and expensive laboratory investigations, which are usually
used to provide sufficient amount of data to propose
mentioned mean field approaches. It seems that this will be
a large research area for the next decade.
8. Conclusions
An overview of selected metal forming methods, which have
been the subject of research and implementation into the
industry in the last 10 years was addressed in the paper. It can
be concluded from the performed analysis that the basic
driving force of the last decade's progress in this field is the
forming of new materials, especially high strength steels with
a multi-phase microstructures containing martensite, bainite
or austenite, belonging to the group of AHSS (Advanced High
Strength Steels) as well as non-ferrous alloys with aluminum,
magnesium and titanium as primary representatives. A
significant progress can also be observed in the area of
non-conventional methods of metal forming, such as:
incremental forming, electromagnetic press forming, draw-
ing with the use of ultrasounds, CONFORM extrusion, etc.,
which take advantage of the more and more extensive
knowledge of the effect of deformation on the shaped
material as well as the higher possibilities of process control,
e.g. the movement of the tools.
Another area which has a very significant effect on the
progress in metal forming is robotization and automatization,
which significantly increase the efficiency of the production
processes as well as the quality of the product. Final
components gained repeatable narrowed dimensional toler-
ances as well as a fine-grained microstructure.
It should be emphasized that the development of metal
forming is supported, to a large extent, by numerical
simulations. Historically, this tool was used for the prediction
of mechanical states, including strains, stresses and forces.
Thermal coupling of the mechanical models became possible
in mid-1970s and the temperature dependence of the material
properties could be introduced in the models. Current models
enable prediction of the microstructure development, and
fully coupled thermal-mechanical-metallurgical approaches
are available. Optimization of the processes with an objective
function based on the product properties has also become
possible. A multiscale approaches to modeling, which are
commonly used today, makes it possible to investigate the
phenomena occurring in the material microstructure account-
ing for the current local changes of parameters in the
technological processes.
In Poland, the driving force of the progress in metal forming
technologies is especially the automotive industry, which,
through the introduction of increasingly lighter materials,
aims at lowering the vehicle mass, and thus, also, limiting the
CO2 emission. However, influence of other industrial branches
also cannot be disregarded.
Conflict of interest
None declared.
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 19 (2019) 898–941
Ethical statement
The work has been prepared according to common ethical
standards.
Funding body
None declared.
Acknowledgements
None declared.
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