ELEMENTARY DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

Course Content:
1. Introduction to Elementary design:

• Types of structures and Loads.

• Use of Codes of practice, Handbooks, Manuals and technical Publications
• Design principles and Guidelines
• Review of nature of materials for structural use.
2. Elementary Reinforced Concrete Design

• Simple beams and Slabs

• Columns and pillars
• Foundations

3. Elementary Design of Walls and Masonry

• Use of masonry
• General Guiding principle of masonry design
• Retaining wall analysis

4. Elementary design of steel structures

• Tensile members
• Compression members
• Bending and Beams
• Connections
5. Elementary Design of Timber Structures

• Review of structural Timber species and stress grading

• Tensile members
• Compression members
• Beams

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 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1) TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS

Structure: refers to a system of connected parts that can support loads while performing its
primary functions. Structures can be classified according to their uses:

Civil Structures - Building, bridges, towers etc. are used by civilians or general public.
Military Structures - ships, aircraft frames, tanks etc. used by the military etc.

Normally all static/stationary structures used by the common public are designed by CIVIL
Engineers. Engineers must design the structure for:
• Safety
• Serviceability
• Aesthetics
• Economy
• Environmental conditions

Engineers must consider several possibilities for a structure before selecting a final design
based on several performance criteria.
DESIGN PROCESS - creative and technical
• Requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties and mechanics
• Requires knowledge of various types of structural forms and configurations
• Calculation of loads and load effects acting on the structure
• Knowledge of structural analysis to calculated design forces
• Requires knowledge of designing structural members and connections
• Ability to evaluate designs and consider other options

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
An engineer must be able to classify structures according to their form and function and must
also be able to recognize various types of elements composing a structure.

STRUCTURAL SYSTEM - composed of structural members joined together by structural

connections. Each structural system may be composed of one or more of the four basic types of
structures. The four basic types of structures are:
(a) Trusses
(b) Cables and Arches
(c) Frames
(d) Surface Structures

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TRUSSES
Trusses consist of slender members, arranged in a triangular pattern.
Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same plane. They are frequently used
to support bridges and roofs.
Space trusses have members extending in three dimensions and are suitable for transmission
line towers etc.
• All members are connected together by PINS, which are free to rotate.
• Loads that cause the entire truss to bend are converted into axial tensile and
compressive forces in the members.
• Truss members are usually subjected to axial forces only.
• Truss members use less material to support a given load. But, they require a lot of
fabrication.

Fig.1.1 Truss types.

CABLES AND ARCHES

Cables: Cable type structures are used to span long distances, they are usually flexible and carry
their loads in tension. The external load is usually applied vertically (not along the axis of the
cable). As a result, the cable deforms with a SAG.
• Cables are commonly used to support bridges and building roofs.
• Cables have an advantage over beams and trusses, especially for spans greater than 45m.
• Past and future uses -Rope bridges and Composite Cables
• Cables are limited by their SAG and methods of anchorage.

Fig.1.2 Suspension bridge.

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Arches: An arch has the reverse curvature of a cable and it achieves its strength in compression.
The arch must be rigid in order to maintain its shape. It is primarily subjected to compression
(but also some shear and moment).
• Arches are used in bridge structures, dome roofs, and openings in masonry walls.

Fig.1.3 Arch.

FRAMES

Frames are composed of beams and columns that are connected together, they are commonly
used in building structures. Steel frames and Concrete frames are the most commonly used
buildings
• Planar (2D) frame with all members in one plane
• Space (3D) frame with all members in more than one plane.
There are different types of frames depending on the connections between beams and
columns.
• Braced frames - All connections between beams and columns are pinned and
there are diagonal bracing members
• Moment resisting frames - Connections between beams and columns are rigid
and there is no need for diagonal bracing members.

Fig.1.4 Frame types.

SURFACE STRUCTURES

Membrane, plate, or shell type structures with much less thickness as compared to its other
dimensions. The structure is subjected to in-plane (tension or compression forces mainly).
Surface structures may be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete.

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 • The structures may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, etc.
• They are referred to as thin plates or shells.

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

There are five basic types of structural members. These are as follows:
• Tension Members or Tie Rods
• Compression Members or Columns or Struts
• Flexural Members or Beams
• Members subjected to combined loading or Beam-Columns.

1) Tension Members
• Structural members subjected to tensile forces are often referred to as tie rods.
• These members are usually slender and often chosen from rods, bars, angles, or
channels.
• They occur most commonly in truss structures and in braced frames.

2) Columns and Struts

• Column members are generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads.
• Tubes and I-sections are often used for metal columns.
• Circular and square cross-sections with reinforcing bars are used for concrete
compression members.
• Compression members that occur in trusses are usually called struts. They may be
vertical or inclined depending on the layout of the truss.

3) BEAMS or Flexural Members

• Beams are usually straight horizontal members that are used primarily to carry vertical
loads. Beams are usually classified according to their support conditions.
• When the beam cross-section varies along the length it is called as a tapered or
haunched beam.
• Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment and shear force.
• The optimized cross-section looks like an I-shape. The horizontal plates are called
flanges and the vertical plate is called 'web'.
• Concrete beams are generally rectangular in cross-section, since it is easy to construct
this form directly in the field.
• Concrete as a material is weak in resisting tension. Therefore, steel 'reinforcing rods'
are cast into the beam within regions of the cross-section subjected to tension.

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 • Precast concrete girders are fabricated at a factory and then transported to the job site.
• Pre-stressed concrete beams or girders are also used nowadays for bridges.

4) Beam-Column Members
• Columns that are subjected to flexural forces (bending moment) in addition to axial
forces are called beam-columns.
• Steel beam-columns are also usually designed with I shaped sections.
• Concrete beam-columns are similar to concrete columns, but reinforcing steel is added
to resist the additional bending moment.

1.2) STRUCTURAL LOADS

The building structure must be designed to carry or resist the loads that are applied to it over
its design-life. The building structure will be subjected to loads that have been categorized as
follows:

a) Dead Loads:
These are permanent loads acting on the structure. These include the self-weight of structural
and non-structural components. They are usually gravity loads.

b) Live Loads:
These are non-permanent loads acting on the structure due to its use and
occupancy. The magnitude and location of live loads changes frequently over the design life.
Hence, they cannot be estimated with the same accuracy as dead loads.

c) Wind and Seismic Loads:

They cause horizontal lateral loads (forces) on the structure, which can be critical for tall
buildings. Wind loads also cause uplift of light roof systems.

d) Snow Loads:
These are vertical gravity loads due to snow, which are subjected to variability due to seasons
and drift.

e) Roof Live Load:

These are live loads on the roof caused during the design life by planters, people, or by workers,
equipment, and materials during maintenance.

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1.3) USE OF CODES OF PRACTICE;

Uganda being a former British protectorate has followed the British system of designing. In
1972, a limit state design code CP was introduced. This was withdrawn in 1985 and a new limit
state design code BS (British Code) was introduced. A new limit state design code Eurocode was
introduced in 2000. However, Eurocode works hand in hand with BS.

Why change to Eurocodes from British Standards?

• Eurocodes results in more economic structures.

• Eurocodes is less restrictive than British standards.
• Eurocodes is extensive and comprehensive.
• The new Eurocodes are claimed to be the most technically advanced codes in the world.
• Europe, all public works most follow Eurocodes for structural design, implying that
graduates from Uganda would be able to work in Europe and probably the whole of
Africa.
• Eurocodes are logical and organized to avoid repetition.

1.4) DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES;

The fundamental objective of structural design is to ensure that the structure as a whole
and its components shall attain the following requirements within its intended life and an
acceptable degree of reliability:

(a) Safety – the ability to sustain all actions and influences likely to occur during execution and
use.
(b) Economy – the use of resources with little waste, calling for avoidance of overdesign.
(c) Serviceability – the ability to remain fit for the use for which it is required.
(d) Robustness – the ability not to be damaged by events such as explosion, impact or
consequences of human errors, to an extent disproportionate to the original cause.
(e) Fire resistance – the ability to resist fire for the required period of time so as to limit risks
with respect to people, the structure, neighbouring property or the environment.

In any design, criteria should be established to evaluate whether or not an optimum has been
achieved. Such criteria include minimum cost, minimum weight, minimum construction time,
minimum labour, minimum cost of manufacture of owner's products, maximum efficiency of
operation to owner, etc.

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An appropriate choice of quality management in design will ensure that the design is reliable. In
addition to the above requirements, it is important that steel is designed to be durable, robust and
with a sufficient design working life. This is achieved by;
(i) designing against corrosion by means of suitable surface protection, use of weathering or
stainless steel.
(ii) detailing for adequate fatigue life.
(iii) designing for wearing.
(iv) designing for accidental actions; and
(v) inspecting and maintaining the structure.

LIMIT STATE DESIGN;

Limit states are situations beyond which the structure is unfit for use. This forms the basis of the
design methods in most codes of practice for structural design. They include:
i) Ultimate limit state and

ii) Serviceability limit state.

I. Ultimate Limit State (ULS);

The structure or its elements should not collapse, overturn or buckle when subjected to design
loads. Under limit state, we consider;
• Robustness
• Stability and
• Strength.

Robustness;
To be robust means that the layout should be such that damage to a small area or failure to a
single element will not lead to a whole collapse/ progressive collapse.

Stability;
The overall stability of a structure should be provided by one or a combination of the following:
a) Shear walls (Reinforced Concrete).
b) Reinforced Concrete wall surrounding a stair well.
c) Reinforced Concrete lift shaft.
d) Rigid frame action.

Strength;
The structure should be adequately strong to carry all the applied loads without collapse.

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 II. Serviceability Limit State (SLS);
The structure should not become unfit for use due to excessive deflection, cracking, vibration,
durability effects or inadequate fire resistance.

Deflection, this should not adversely affect its efficiency or appearance.

Cracking, the cracking should be kept within reasonable limits by detailing.
Vibration, it should not cause dis-comfort to the occupants of the structure.
Durability, this is the resistance to ware and tare and environmental effects with time.
Any Reinforced structure has to be designed to protect any embedded reinforcement. Durability
requirements are given in Table 3.2 & 3.3 of Eurocode II. If durability is neglected, it will lead to
expenditure on;
• Inspection
• Maintenance
• Repair.

Durability in Reinforced concrete is catered for by selection of the most appropriate concrete
grade and cover for the condition of exposure.

Fire Resistance, during a fire, three resistance categories are considered:

• Resistance to collapse
• Resistance to fire penetration
• Resistance to transfer of excess heat.

Fire resistance determines the minimum thickness of members.

Durability and fire resistance depends on:
• Amount of cover
• Thickness of the member
• Type and quality of materials and workmanship.

Factors affecting fire resistance, the factors that influence the fire resistance of concrete elements
are as follows:
a) Size and shape of elements;
b) Disposition and properties of reinforcement or tendon;
c) The load supported;
d) The type of concrete and aggregate;
e) Protective concrete cover provided to reinforcement or tendons;
f) Conditions of end support.

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1.5) REVIEW OF NATURE OF MATERIALS FOR STRUCTURAL USE.

Structural materials can be categorized in many different ways. One of the most common is by
the nature of their failure. Materials, such as steel, after reaching their elastic limit, deform
plastically before failing. Such materials, where reasonably large plastic strains are observed, are
broadly categorized as ductile. On the other hand, those materials that exhibit little or no
plasticity are in contrast termed brittle.
In structural design, ductile materials are usually preferred, because failure is rarely sudden and
catastrophic. Once the material has yielded, large observable strains will occur before total
collapse of a structure.

1.5.1) Steel,

The most common primary structural building material, generally behaves in a ductile fashion.
However, during the Second World War, over two hundred steel ships suffered serious brittle
fracture, often at relatively low stress levels. It was observed that brittle behavior, in normally
ductile materials, almost always occurs in regions of elastic stress concentration, where some
constraint exists to prevent plastic stress redistribution (McGuire, 1968).
Following these experiences, designers realized that brittle fracture in steel could be avoided by
sensible detailing. This is also true of reinforced concrete. Concrete itself is a brittle composite,
but with the addition of reinforcement it behaves in a ductile fashion. In earthquake-prone areas,
where designing for ductility is paramount, reinforced concrete beam-column joints are highly
reinforced to avoid the possibility of brittle behavior.

1.5.2) Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is a complex material, being comprised of a brittle composite which has
been rendered ductile by the addition of reinforcement. It also fits reasonably well into the limit
state method because sensible detailing can ensure that an RC element behaves in a ductile
fashion at failure. However, failure of reinforced concrete structures rarely occurs as a result of
an inadequate design approach, but frequently occurs because of poor detailing or poor
workmanship. Numerous examples of reinforcement corrosion problems could be cited, in which
structures not much more than a few years old are showing serious signs of deterioration.

1.5.3) Timber

Timber, because it comes from a natural living source is by its nature highly variable, anisotropic
and inhomogeneous. This in itself suggests it would be a difficult material for construction.
However, it is very widely used, because of its toughness, the ease with which it can be cut and
joined and its natural attractiveness that is not so evident in other construction materials.

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This high degree of variability is reflected in the strength of timber; not only between species but
also within a species. The coefficient of variability is typically between 10 and 30 percent
depending on the species. The current Eurocode for timber, defines the stresses that can safely be
permanently sustained for particular species as grade stresses.

1.5.4) Masonry

So far in this discussion the emphasis has been on stress. When we turn to masonry, stress-based
design methods become all but irrelevant. This is because it is almost impossible for a masonry
structure to fail completely as a result of over-stressing (except of course in tension). In
compression, to crush an average sandstone with a % strength of say 40kN/mm2, would require a
tower of similarly dense material to be 2km high (Gordon, 1978).
Furthermore, to discuss plastic behavior of individual units of masonry would be nonsense, as
the material displays little or no ductility. However, it is possible to "translate basic ideas
stemming from plasticity theory into terms applicable to masonry"

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 2.) ELEMENTARY DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Reinforced concrete is a composite material whose constituents are concrete, which forms the
main bulk of the material, and steel, in the form of reinforcing bars.

Concrete itself is also a composite material being composed of cement, sand and aggregate
(fragments of stone), The properties of concrete depend on those of its constituents and on the
proportions in which these are mixed.

Concrete can actually be manufactured on the building site although in modern practice it is
normal for even in-situ concrete to be mixed in a separate factory and delivered to the site in
liquid, ready-mixed form.

Reinforced concrete is therefore a complex material which places certain demands on the
designer who wishes to exploit its potential fully.
The successful use of such a material must be based on a knowledge of its basic properties and
its behavior in response to load.

Fig. 2.1: The principal reinforcement in reinforced concrete is placed in the locations where
tension occurs due to the bending effect of the load. Secondary reinforcement (not shown) is
placed throughout the structural elements to resist the tensile stress which occurs due to the
shrinkage associated with the curing process and with thermal movement.

Reinforcement
The reinforcement which is used in concrete is normally in the form of steel bars, either of plain
circular cross-section or with various surface treatments which increase the bond with the
concrete.
The preferred diameters are 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32 and 40 mm, and the normal maximum
length is 12 m.

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Reinforcement for slabs is produced in the form of square mesh, in individual pieces or in rolls,
in which the bars are welded together at their crossing points.

Fig. 2.2: Reinforcing bars are produced with a number of surface treatments to improve the
bond with concrete.

THE BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

Fig. 2.3: The pattern of stresses in a beam. Circles drawn on the side of an unloaded beam
(a). become ellipses as a result of the strain caused by the load.
(b). This gives an indication of the directions of maximum tension and compression at every
location and allows principal stress lines to be drawn.
(c). The magnitude of the stress varies along each principal stress line from zero at the point at
which it crosses the top or bottom surface of the beam to a maximum at the mid-span position.

Fig. 2.4: Failure of an unreinforced concrete beam. The unreinforced beam fails as a result of the
formation of a crack situated at the location of the highest tensile stress and at right angles to the
direction of maximum tension.

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Fig. 2.5: Crack pattern in a reinforced concrete beam. The reinforced beam carries significantly
more load than the unreinforced beam. Tensile cracks form, always at right angles to the
direction of maximum tension (given by the principal stress lines) in those locations at which the
tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded. The beam continues to carry load, however, so long
as each crack is effectively crossed by the reinforcement.

Fig. 2.5: Shear failure of a reinforced concrete beam. The beam depicted in Fig. 4.33 eventually
fails due to the formation of an inclined crack at the end of the beam which is not effectively
crossed by the reinforcement. This type of failure is called a shear failure.

Failure eventually occurs due to the formation of a diagonal crack which is not crossed by the
reinforcement. This type of failure is called a shear failure because the degree of inclination of
the principal stress lines causes a shearing action on the cross-section rather than a simple
bending action. Shear failure can be prevented by shaping the reinforcing bar so that it conforms
to the profile of the line of the principal tensile stress.

Fig. 2.6 Beam with shear reinforcement. Bent up bars or links prevent shear failure by ensuring
that all possible tensile cracks are effectively crossed by reinforcement.

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The Technical Performance of Concrete as a Structural Material

The technical advantages and disadvantages of concrete in relation to those of alternative

materials are reviewed in this section. These are obviously an important consideration in relation
to the selection of concrete as the structural material for a building.

Advantages

1) Strength
Of the four principal structural materials reinforced concrete is one of the strongest. It performs
well in skeleton-frame-type structures and is therefore best used in situations in which the
properties of a frame are required. It is particularly suitable for frameworks on which the level of
imposed loading is high.

2) Mouldability
The fact that reinforced concrete is available in semi-liquid form means that it can be cast into an
almost infinite variety of shapes. This property, together with its strength characteristics, means
that virtually any form can be created relatively easily in reinforced concrete.

3) Durability
Reinforced concrete is a durable material which can be left exposed in relatively hostile
environments. A wide variety of surface textures can be achieved, depending on the type of

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mould treatment which is specified. Finishing materials can therefore be eliminated where
concrete structures are used.

4) Fire resistance
Reinforced concrete performs well in fire; it is incombustible and it retains its structural
properties when exposed to high temperatures.

5) Cost
Reinforced concrete is relatively cheap and, when used for frame structures, will usually be
cheaper than steel. It is, however, normally more expensive than masonry for loadbearing- wall
structures.

Disadvantages

1) Weight
Reinforced concrete structures are heavy. The material has a relatively low ratio of strength to
weight and a reinforced concrete frame is normally significantly heavier than an equivalent steel
frame. It is because of the high self- weight that reinforced concrete performs best in situations in
which relatively high imposed loads are involved-for example, for the floor structures of multi-
storey commercial or industrial buildings.

2) Construction
The construction of a reinforced concrete structure is complicated and involves the erection of
formwork, the precise arrangement of intricate patterns of reinforcement and the careful placing
and compacting of the concrete itself. The construction process for a reinforced concrete
structure therefore tends to be both more time consuming and more costly than that of an
equivalent steel structure and these factors can mitigate against its use in a particular situation.

Basis of Design;
The design of reinforced concrete elements to Eurocode 2 is based on the limit state
method. The Ultimate Limit State models the behavior of the element at failure due to a variety
of mechanisms including excessive bending, shear and compression or tension. The
serviceability limit state models the behavior of the member at working loads and in the context
of reinforced concrete design in principally concerned with the limit states of deflection and
cracking.
Having identified the relevant limit states, the design process simply involves basing the design
on the most critical one and then checking the remaining limit states. This requires an
understanding of:
• Material properties.
• Loadings.

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PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
Reinforced concrete consists of both concrete and steel.
Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed into many varied
shapes and ranging from a simple rectangular column, to a slender curved dome or shell, its
utility and versatility are achieved by combining the best features of concrete and steel.

Table 2-1: properties of steel and concrete

property concrete steel
Strength in tension Poor Very good
Strength in compression Good Very good but slender bars will buckle
Strength in shear Fair Very good
Durability Good Poor, corrodes if unprotected
Fire resistance Good Poor-suffers rapid loss of strength at high temperature

As seen from table 2-1, concrete is poor in tension, good in compression, and fair in shear. On
the other hand, steel is very good in tension, compression and shear. Thus, when they are
combined, the steel is able to provide the tensile strength and probably some of the shear strength
while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the steel to give durability and fire resistance.
• In beams, slabs, and stair cases, where there is tension, the concrete must be reinforced
by steel.
• In areas where the compression forces are very high such as columns, concrete must be
reinforced by steel and the steel must be tied and surrounded by concrete in order not to
buckle.
Steel is poor in durability and fire resistance while concrete is good, therefore concrete must
provide cover to protect the steel.

Load Combination
The design value of action effects, E d , assuming the structure is subjected to both permanent
and a single variable action (e.g. dead load plus imposed load or dead load plus wind load) can
be assessed using the following expression
E d    G , jGk , j   Q ,1Qk ,1
j 1

Using the partial safety factors given in EC 2 the design value of the action effect is given by
E d  1.35Gk  1.5Qk 1.35 and 1.5 are partial safety factors.

Example
Determine the characteristic load for CR 4.1 lecture room given that it is made of a
200mm reinforced slab, 25mm underside plaster, 25mm cement sand screed. The unit-weights of
concrete and cement sand screed & underside plaster are 25KNm-3 and 22KNm-3 respectively.
Solution

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Thickness of slab = 200mm = 0.2m
Weight of slab = (0.2 x 25) = 5KNm-2
Thickness of finishes = (25 + 25) mm = 50mm = 0.05m
Weight of finishes = (0.05 x 22) = 1.1KNm-2
Gk = (Weight of slab + Weight of finishes) = (5 + 1.1) = 6.1 KNm-2

Example: Design actions for simply supported beam (EN 1990)

A simply supported beam for an office building has a span of 6m. Calculate the values of the
design bending moments, M E , d assuming the beam supports uniformly distributed permanent and
variable actions of 5 kNm 1 and 6 kNm 1 respectively.

g k =5KN/m ; q k =6KN/m

L=6m

Since the beam is subjected to only one variable action use equation 3.3 to determine E d where
E d    G , jGk , j   Q ,1Qk ,1
j 1

 FE ,d  1.35  (5  6)  1.5  (6  6)  94.5 KN

94.5  6
FE ,d L
Hence, M E ,d  
 70.9 KNm
8 8
2.1) DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM

Reinforced concrete beams are normally either rectangular in cross-section or combined with the
slab which they support to form T- and L- shaped cross-sections (Fig. 2.7). The normal span
range for reinforced concrete beams is 4.5m to 10m.

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Fig. 2.7: T- and L-beams. Where reinforced concrete beams support a reinforced concrete slab
the elements are normally cast together and act compositely to form T- and L-beams.

Design of singly reinforced rectangular section in bending at the ultimate limit state
M Ed
When the design moment M Ed is such that  K   0.167 then the section is singly
f ck bd 2
reinforced and no compression reinforcing steel is required in the compression zone of the
section.
M Ed
When the design moment M Ed is such that  K   0.167 then the section is doubly
f ck bd 2
reinforced (Tensile and Compression reinforcement is required).

Example: Design of a singly rectangular section

The ultimate design moment to be resisted by the section in figure below is 185KNm. Determine
the area of tension reinforcement ( As ) required given the characteristic material strength are
f yk  500 N / mm 2 and f ck  25 N / mm 2 . b=260

M 185  106

d=440
K   0.147  0.167
bd 2 f ck 260  4402  25
As
Therefore, compression steel is not required.

Lever arm:

  K  
z  d 0.5   0.25  

  1.134  

  0.147  
 4400.5   0.25  
  1.134  
 373mm
Area of tension reinforcement:
M
As 
0.87 f yk z
185  10 6

0.87  500  373
 1140mm 2

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Example: Design of a rectangular section with compression reinforcement
The section shown in figure below is to resist an ultimate design moment of 285KNm . The
characteristic material strengths are f yk  500 N / mm 2 and f ck  25 N / mm 2 . Determine the
areas of reinforcement required.
b=260

d ' =50
A's

d=440
As

Design example with compression reinforcement, no moment redistribution

M
K 2
bd f ck
285  106
  0.226  0.167
260  4402  25
Therefore, compression steel is required

Compression steel:
( K  K bal ) f ck bd 2
As 
0.87 f yk (d  d )
(0.226  0.167)25  260  4402

0.87  500(440  50)
 438 mm 2

Tension steel:
K bal f ck bd 2
As   As
0.87 f yk  z bal
0.167  25  260  4402
  438
0.87  500(0.82  440)
 1339  438  1777 mm 2

2.2) DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB

Reinforced concrete slabs are used in floors, roofs and walls of buildings and as the deck of
bridges.

Classification of Slabs
i) By support conditions
• Slabs supported on beams

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 • Slabs supported on columns (Flat slabs)
• Slabs supported on walls or steel beams
ii) By Form Cross-section
• Solid slabs
• Ribbed slabs
iii) By Spanning Method
• One way spanning slabs
• Two way spanning slabs
iv) By Fixing
• Simply supported slabs
• Continuous slabs

Solid slabs spanning in one direction

The slabs are designed as if they consist of a series of beams of 1m breadth. The main steel is in
the direction of the span and secondary or distribution steel is required in the transverse
direction. The main steel should from the outer layer of reinforcement to give it the maximum
lever arm.
The calculations for bending reinforcement follow a similar procedure to that used in beam
design. The area of tension reinforcement is given by
M
As 
0.87 f yk z

Example: Design of a simply supported slab

The slab of depth of 200mm shown in figure below is to be designed to carry a variable load of
3.0 KN / mm 2 plus floor finishes and ceiling loads of 1.0 KN / m 2 . The characteristic material
strengths are f ck  25 N / mm 2 and f yk  500 N / mm 2 . Basic span-effective depth ratio  19 for
a lightly stressed slab for class C25/30 concrete and   0.5% . cover  30mm .
For simplicity, take the effective span to be 4.5m between centre lines of supports.
H10-300

H10-150
300
4.5m

21
 Simply supported slab example
(a) Slab loading
Self-weight of slab  200  25  103  5.0 KN / m 2
Total permanent load  1.0  5.0  6.0 KN / m 2
For a 1m width of slab:
Ultimate load  (1.35g k  1.5q k )4.5
 (1.35  6.0  1.5  3.0)4.5  56.7 KN
M  56.7  4.5 / 8  31.9KNm

(b) Bending reinforcement

M 31.9  106
K   0.044  K   0.167
bd 2 f ck 1000 1702  25
From the lever arm equation
z  d [0.5  (0.25  K / 1.134) ]  d[0.5  (0.25  0.044 / 1.134) ]  0.96d  0.95d
Therefore, adopt upper limit of 0.95d and lever arm z  0.95d  0.95170  161mm :
M 31.9  106
As    455mm 2 / m
0.87 f yk z 0.87  500  161
Provide H10 bars at 150mm centres, As  523mm 2 / m (as shown in table 8.3).

(c) Shear
At the face of the support
56.7
Shear V Ed   28.35KN
2
100  523
1   0.31
1000 170
VRd ,c  vRd ,c bd where v Rd ,c from table 8.1  0.55 (note: no concrete strength adjustment since
1  0.4% ). Thus:
VRd ,c  0.55 1000170  93.5KN
as V Ed is less than V Rd ,c then no shear reinforcement is required.

(d) Check span-effective depth ratio

100As ,req 100  455
   0.268% ( 0.13% Minimum requirement)
bd 1000 170
From figure 7.2, this corresponds to a basic span-effective depth ratio of 32. The actual ratio
 4500/ 170  26.5 ; hence the chosen effective depth is acceptable.

22
2.3) DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN

The columns in a structure carry the loads from the beams and slabs down to the foundations,
and therefore they are primarily compression members, although they may also have to resist
bending forces due to the continuity of the structure.
Columns carrying only axial forces can be designed based on the equations.
Columns carrying axial forces plus bending moments are designed with the aid of design charts.
Columns may be square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, and cruciform or of other shapes.
Initial dimensions are normally determined by taking into account requirements for durability
and fire resistance (table 9.1).

Classification of Columns

i) Braced and unbraced columns

• A braced column is one where the lateral loads are resisted by shear walls or other forms of
bracing capable of transmitting all horizontal loading to the foundations.
With a braced structure the axial forces and moments in the columns are caused by the
vertical permanent and variable actions only.
• An unbraced column is one where horizontal loads are resisted by the frame action of rigidly
connected columns, beams and slabs.
With an unbraced structure the loading arrangements which include the effects of the lateral
loads must be considered.

ii) Sway and Non sway structures

Both braced and unbraced structures can be further classified as sway or non-sway.
Frames may be classified as non-sway if the first order displacement of the connections do
not increase the bending moments by more than 10%, otherwise they are classified as sway.

iii) Isolated columns

These may be:
a) isolated compression members
• individual isolated columns (figure 9.1 a)
• columns with articulation in a non-sway structure (figure 9.1 b)
b) compression members which are integral parts of a structure but which are considered to be
isolated for design purposes.
• slender bracing element considered as isolated column (figure 9.1 c)
• columns with restrained ends in a non-sway structure (figure 9.1 d)

23
 (a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.2.8 Types of isolated columns

In this chapter only the design of the most common types of columns found in building
structures, namely braced columns, will be described. A column may be considered to be braced
in a given plane if the bracing element or system (e.g. core or shear walls) is sufficiently stiff to
resist all the lateral forces in that plane. Thus braced columns
are assumed to not contribute to the overall horizontal stability of a structure and as such are only
designed to resist axial load and bending due to vertical loading.

Slenderness ratio, Effective height and Limiting slenderness ratio of column

Slenderness ratio of a column

The slenderness ratio  of a column bent about an axis is given by
l l0
 0  (2.3.1)
i ( I / A)
Where
l 0 is the effective height of the column.
i is the radius of gyration about the axis considered.
I is the second moment of area of the section about the axis.
A is the cross-section area of the column.

Effective height l 0 of a column

The effective height of a column, l 0 , is the height of a theoretical column of equivalent section
but pinned at both ends. This depends on the degree of fixity at each end of the column, which
itself depends on the relative stiffness of the columns and beam connected to either end of the
column under consideration.
EC2 gives two formulae for calculating the effective height:
For braced members:

 k1  k2 
l 0  0.5l 1   1   (2.3.2)
 0.45  k1   0.45  k 2 

24
For unbraced members the larger of:

 k k 
l 0  l 1  10 1 2  (2.3.a)
 k1  k 2 
and
 k  k 
l 0  l 1  1 1  2  (2.3.b)
 1  k1  1  k 2 
In the above formulae, k1 and k2 are the relative flexibilities of the rotational restraints at ends
‘1’ and ‘2’ of the column respectively. At each end k1 and k2 can be taken as:

column stiffness ( EI / l ) column ( I / l ) column

k  
 beam stiffness  2( EI / l )beam  2( I / l )beam
It is assumed that any column above or below the column under consideration does not
contribute anything to the rotational restraint of the joint and that the stiffness of each connecting
beam is taken as 2EI / l to allow for cracking effects in the beam.
Once k1 and k2 have been calculated, the effective length factor, F , can be established from
table 9.2 for braced columns. The effective length is then l 0  Fl .

Limiting slenderness ratio-short or slender columns

EC2 places an upper limit on the slenderness ratio of a single member below which second order
effects may be ignored. This limit is given by:
min  20  A  B  C / n (2.3.4)
Where
A  1 /(1  0.2 ef )
B  1  2w
C  1.7  rm
 ef  effective creep ratio (if not known A can be taken as 0.7)
w  As f yd /( Ac f cd ) (if not known B can be taken as 1.1)
f yd  the design yield strength of the reinforcement
f cd  the design compressive strength of the concrete
As  the total area of longitudinal reinforcement
n  N Ed /( Ac f cd )
N Ed  the design ultimate axial load in the column
rm  M 01 / M 02 (if rm not known then C can be taken as 0.7)

25
 M 01 , M 02 are first order moments at the end of the column with M 02  M 01

Example 9.1 Short or slender column

Determine if the column in the braced frame shown in figure 9.2 is short or slender. The concrete
strength f ck  25N / mm 2 , and ultimate axial load  1280KN .
300
300
Length=4.0m each side

500

700
Beam
Length=6.0m Length=4.0m
h col =3.0m

400
Z

300
Y Y

Beam

Note: the beams are continuous

in both direction

Fig.2.9 Column end support details

It can be seen that the column will have the highest slenderness ratio for bending about YY
where h  300mm and also the end restraints are the less stiff 300 500 beams.

Effective column height l 0

I col  400  3003 / 12  900  106 mm 4
I beam  300  5003 / 12  3125 106 mm 4
I col / l col 900  106 / 3.0  103
k1  k 2    0.096  0.1
 (2I beam / lbeam ) 2(2  3125 106 / 4.0  103 )
From table 9.2 effective column height l 0  Fl  0.59  3.0  1.77m

Slenderness ratio 
I   bh 3 / 12  h 300
Radius of gyration, i   col        86.6mm
 Acol   bh  3.464 3.464
Slenderness ratio   l0 / i  1.77 103 / 86.6  20.4
For a braced column the minimum limiting value of  will be given by

26
 min  26.2 / N Ed /( Ac f cd )
where
N Ed /( Ac f cd )  1280103 /(400 300 25 / 1.5)  0.64
thus
min  26.2 / 0.64  32.7 ( 20.4)
Hence, compared with the minimum limiting value of  the column is short and second order
moment effects would not have to be taken into account.

Reinforcement details
The rules governing the minimum and maximum amounts of reinforcement in a load bearing
column are as follows.

Longitudinal steel
1. A minimum of four bars is required in a rectangular column (one bar in each corner) and
six bars in a circular column. Bar diameter should not be less than 12mm.
2. The minimum area of steel is given by
0.10N Ed
As   0.002Ac
0.87 f yk
3. The maximum area of steel, at laps is given by
As ,max
 0.08
Ac
Where As is the total area of longitudinal steel and Ac is the cross-sectional area of the column.
As ,max
Otherwise, in regions away from laps:  0.04 .
Ac
Links
1
1. Minimum size   size of the compression bar but not less than 6mm.
4
2. Maximum spacing should not exceed the lesser of 20  size of the smallest compression bar
or the least lateral dimension of the column or 400mm. This spacing should be reduced by
a factor of 0.60.
(a) for a distance equal to the larger lateral dimension of the column above and below a beam
or slab, and
(b) at lapped joints of longitudinal bars  14mm diameter.
3. Where the direction of the longitudinal reinforcement changes, the spacing of the links
should be calculated, while taking account of the lateral forces involved. If the change in
direction is less than or equal to 1 in 12 no calculation is necessary.
4. Every longitudinal bar placed in a corner should be held by transverse reinforcement.
5. No compression bar should be further than 150mm from a restrained bar.

27
Design of slender columns
A column is classified as slender if the slenderness ratio about either axis exceeds the value of
min . If   min then the column may be classified as short and the slenderness effect may be
neglected.
A slender column with   min must be designed for an additional moment caused by its
curvature at ultimate conditions.

2.4) DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS

A building is generally composed of a superstructure above the ground and a substructure which
forms the foundations below ground.
The foundations transfer and spread the loads from a structure’s columns and walls into the
ground. The safe bearing capacity of the soil must not be exceeded otherwise excessive
settlement may occur, resulting in damage to the building and its service facilities. Foundation
failure can also affect the overall stability of a structure so that it is liable to slide, to lift
vertically or even overturn.

(a) (b)
Fig.2.10. Foundation failures: (a) sliding failure; (b) overturning failure

Foundation types
There are many types of foundations which are commonly used, namely strip, pad and raft. The
foundations may bear directly on the ground or be supported on piles. The choice of foundation
type will largely depend upon (1) ground conditions (i.e. strength and type of soil) and (2) type
of structure (i.e. layout and level of loading).
Pad footings are usually square or rectangular slabs and used to support a single column
(Fig.2.11). The pad may be constructed using mass concrete or reinforced concrete depending on
the relative size of the loading. Continuous strip footings are used to support loadbearing walls or
under a line of closely spaced columns (Fig. 2.12). Strip footings are designed as pad footings in
the transverse direction and in the longitudinal direction as an inverted continuous beam subject
to the ground bearing pressure.

28
 N N N N
= = =
A B C D

Elevation

Plan

(a) (b) (a) (b)

Fig.2.11 Pad footing: Fig.2.12 Strip footing: (a) footing supporting columns;
(a) plan; (b) elevation (b) footing supporting wall

Where the ground conditions are relatively poor, a raft foundation may be necessary in order to
distribute the loads from the walls and columns over a large area. In its simplest form this may
consist of a flat slab, possibly strengthened by upstand or downstand beams for the more heavily
loaded structures (Fig. 2.13).

(a) (b) (c)

Plan Typical sections through raft foundations

Fig.2.13 Raft foundations. Typical sections through raft foundations:

(a) flat slab; (b) flat slab and downstand; (c) flat slab and upstand

Where the ground conditions are so poor that it is not practical to use strip or pad footings but
better quality soil is present at lower depths, the use of pile foundations should be considered
(Fig. 2.14).

29
 Soft strata

Hard strata

Fig.2.14. Piled foundations.

The piles may be made of precast reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete or in-situ reinforced
concrete. Loads are transmitted from the piles to the surrounding strata by end bearing and/or
friction. End bearing piles derive most of their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance
of the soil at the toe of the pile, while friction piles rely on the adhesion or friction between the
sides of the pile and the soil.

Foundation design
Foundation failure may arise as a result of (a) allowable bearing capacity of the soil being
exceeded, or (b) bending and/or shear failure of the base.
The first condition allows the plan-area of the base to be calculated, being equal to the design
load divided by the bearing capacity of the soil, i.e.
design load
Ground pressure   bearing capacity of soil
plan area
Since the settlement of the structure occurs during its working life, the design loadings to be
considered when calculating the size of the base should be taken as those for the serviceability
limit state (i.e. 1.0Gk  1.0Qk ). The calculations to determine the thickness of the base and the
bending and shear reinforcement should, however, be based on ultimate loads (i.e.
1.35Gk  1.5Qk ).

Pad footings
The footing for a single column may be made square in plan, but where there is a large moment
acting about one axis it may be more economical to have a rectangular base.

30
Assuming there is a linear distribution the bearing pressures across the base will take one of the
three forms shown in figure 10.6, according to the relative magnitudes of the axial load N and
moment M acting on the base.

1. In figure 2.15(a) there is no moment and the pressure is uniform

N
p (2.4.1)
BD
2. With a moment M acting as shown, the pressures are given by the equation for axial load plus
bending. This is provided there is positive contact between the base and the ground along the
complete length D of the footing, as shown 2.15(b) so that
N My
p 
BD I
where I is the second moment area of the base about the axis of bending and y is the distance
from the axis to where the pressure is being calculated.

Breadth of footing = B Eccentricity (e)=M/N

N N N

M M

D D Y/3 e
Centroid
p2
p p1 p

Y
e0 e  D/6 e  D/6
N N 6M 2N
p p  p
B D B  D B  D2 B Y
D 
where: Y  3  e
2 
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.2.15. Pad-footing- pressure distributions

Substituting for I  BD 3 / 12 and y  D / 2 , the maximum pressure is

N 6M
p1   (2.4.2)
BD BD 2
and the minimum pressure is

31
 N 6M
p2   (2.4.3)
BD BD 2
There is positive contact along the base if p2 from equation 10.3 is positive.
When pressure p2 just equals zero
N 6M M D
 2
0 or 
BD BD N 6
So that for p2 always to be positive, M / N  or the effective eccentricity, e  must never be
greater than D / 6 . In these cases, the eccentricity of loading is said to be within the ‘middle third’
of the base.
3. When the eccentricity, e is greater than D / 6 there is no longer a positive pressure along the
length D and the pressure diagram is triangular as shown in figure 2.15(c). Balancing the
downward load and the upward pressures
1 2N
pBY  N therefore, maximum pressure p 
2 BY
where Y is the length of positive contact. The centroid of the pressure diagram must coincide
with the eccentricity of loading in order for the load and reaction to be equal and opposite. Thus
Y D D 
 e or Y  3  e 
3 2 2 
2N
therefore, in the case of e  D / 6 , maximum pressure p  (2.4.4)
3 B ( D / 2  e)

Dowels

lap length

d h
h

D
Maximum
shear 2.0d Punching shear perimeter
= column perimeter +4pd

B As Shear

Bending 1.0d

Fig.2.16 Pad footing reinforcement details Fig.2.17 Critical sections for design

The principal steps in the design calculations are as follows:

32
1. Calculate the plan size of the footing using the permissible bearing pressure and the critical
loading arrangement for the serviceability limit state.
2. Calculate the bearing pressures associated with the critical loading arrangement at the ultimate
limit state.
3. Assume a suitable value for the thickness (h) and effective depth (d). Check that the shear
force at the column face is less than 0.5v1 f cd ud  0.5v1 ( f ck / 1.5)ud where u is the perimeter of
the column and v1 is the strength reduction factor, v1  0.6(1  f ck / 250) .
4. Carry out a preliminary check for punching shear to ensure that the footing thickness gives a
punching shear which is within the likely range of acceptable performance.
5. Determine the reinforcement required to resist bending.
6. Make a final check for the punching shear
7. Check the shear force at the critical sections.
8. Where applicable, both foundations and the structure should be checked for overall stability at
the ultimate limit state.
9. Reinforcement to resist bending in the bottom of the base should extend at least a full tension
anchorage length beyond the critical section for bending.

Example: Design of a pad footing

The footing (figure 2.18) is required to resist characteristic axial loads of 1000 kN permanent and
350kN variable from a 400mm square column. The safe bearing pressure on the soil is
200KN / m 2 and the characteristic material strengths are f ck  30 N / mm 2 and f yk  500N / mm 2
.Assume a footing weight of 150kN so that the total permanent load is 1150kN.
400 sq
d=520
h=600

12H16@225 e.w.
2.8m. sq

Fig.2.18 Pad footing example

1. For the serviceability limit state
Total design axial load  1.0Gk  1.0Qk  1150  350  1500KN
1500
Required base area   7.5m 2
200
Provide a base 2.8m square  7.8m 2

33
2. For the ultimate limit state
Column design axial load, N Ed  1.35Gk  1.5Qk
 1.351000 1.5  350  1875KN
1875
Earth pressure  2
 239KN / m 2
2.8
3. Assume a 600mm thick footing and with the footing constructed on a blinding layer of concrete
the minimum cover is taken as 50mm. Therefore, take mean effective depth  d  520mm .
At the column face
  f  f
Maximum shear resistance, VRd ,max  0.5ud 0.61  ck  ck
  250  1.5
  30  30
 0.5(4  400)  520  0.61    103
  250  1.5
 4393KN ( N Ed  1875KN )
4. Punching shear
The critical section for checking punching shear is at a distance 2d as shown in figure 10.8.
Critical perimeter  column perimeter  4d
 4  400  4  520  8134mm
Area within perimeter  (400  4d ) 2  (4   )(2.0d ) 2
 (400  4  520) 2  (4   )(2.  520) 2
 5.22  106 mm 2
Therefore
Punching shear force VEd  239(2.82  5.22)  626KN
VEd 626 103
Punching shear stress v Ed    0.15N / mm 2
perimeter d 8134 520
This ultimate shear stress is not excessive, (see table 8.1) therefore h  600mm will be a
suitable estimate.
5. Bending reinforcement-see figure
At the column face which is the critical section
1.2
M Ed  (239 2.8  1.2)   482KNm
2

34
 1.2 m 0.68 m 1.0d=0.52 m

2.8 m

(a) Bending (b) Shear

Fig.2.19 Critical sections

For the concrete
M bal  0.167 f ck bd 2
 0.167  30  2800 5202 106  3793KNm ( 482)
M Ed
As 
0.87 f yk z
M Ed 482  106
  0.021
bd 2 f ck 2800 5202  30
From the lever arm equation
z  d[0.5  (0.25  K / 1.134) ]  d[0.5  (0.25  0.021/ 1.134) ]  0.98d  0.95d
Therefore, adopt upper limit of 0.95d and lever arm z  0.95d  0.95 520  494mm :
M Ed 482106
As    2243mm 2
0.87 f yk z 0.87  500 494
Provide twelve H16 bars at 225mm centres, As  2412 mm 2 . Therefore
100As 100  2412
  0.165( 0.15 - see table 7.6)
bd 2800 520

That is, the minimum steel area requirement is satisfied.

Maximum bar size
The steel stress should be calculated under the action of the quasi-permanent loading which can
be estimated from the equation,
f yk (Gk  0.3Qk )
fs 
1.15(1.35Gk  1.5Qk )
500(1000  0.3  350)
  256N / mm 2
1.15(1.35  1000  1.5  350)
Therefore, from table below the maximum allowable bar size is 16mm. hence, minimum area
and bar size requirements as specified by the code for the purposes of crack control are met.

35
QUESTIONS

1. A simply supported concrete beam section of 250mm by 500mm spanning 5 meters carry a
uniformly distributed dead load of 50 kN/m and imposed load of 14.06 kN/m. Determine
flexural and shear reinforcement, given the characteristic material strengths are

f yk  500Nmm 2 , f ck  25Nmm 2 , cover is 40mm and assume bar diameter 20mm

for main bars and 8mm for links.

2. An internal column of 0.3m square in a multi-storey building stabilized by shear walls is

subjected to an ultimate axial load N Ed  1700kN and bending moment

M Ed  70kNm including effect of imperfection. Design the main vertical reinforcement

and shear links assuming f ck  30Nmm for the concrete and f yk  500Nmm for the
2 2

steel, the nominal cover to the links (H8) is 30mm and diameter of main steel to be 25mm.

3. One-way spanning concrete solid slab floor of 150mm thick, spans 2.85m clear distance
between 150mm thick walls. The slab is to be designed for an imposed load of 11.4 kN/m2,
assuming the concrete class C25/30 of density 25kNm-3 and grade 500 steel is used, the
nominal cover to the 8mm links is 25mm and assume diameter of main steel to be 10mm.
Design the bending and shear reinforcement for the solid slab.

4. The beam section which spans 7m and fixed at both ends b  230mm, h  550mm , is

subjected to an ultimate load of 22KN/m, characteristic material strength f ck  25Nmm

2

for the concrete and f yk  500Nmm for the steel. Assuming cover to main steel (H20) is
2

50mm and (H8) for links.

i. Determine the effective depth of the beam.
ii. Calculate the applied moment at the support.
iii. Calculate the area of reinforcement at the supports.

36
5) A 175 mm thick slab is required to support screed, finishes, an office variable action and
demountable partitions. The slab is supported on load-bearing block walls, assuming
f ck  30Nmm 2 for the concrete and f yk  500Nmm 2 for the steel, the nominal cover to
the main steel (H12) is 25mm and (H8) for links.

i. Design both the longitudinal, transversal and shear reinforcement for the slab.
ii. Check that the slab satisfies the deflection limit state in accordance with EC 2.

6) A simply supported rectangular beam 300mm wide by 600mm deep spans 6.7m clear
distance between 300mm thick wall and carries a characteristic permanent action of
19.5KN/m and an imposed load of 7.5KN/m. Assuming grade 30 concrete, high yield
reinforcement of grade 500, 8mm links of grade 250, 20mm cover, 20mm longitudinal steel
(i) Determine the ultimate load.
(ii) Moment reinforcements in the concrete section.
(iii) Shear reinforcement in the concrete section.
(iv) Detail the beam section.

7) A column forms part of a building which is stabilized by shear walls alone. The column is
loaded only by beams on one axis. The height of the column section between the floors is 4m
and the column is 0.35m square. An elastic analysis has been undertaken and the bottom
story ultimate bending moment at the bottom of the column is 57kNm (anticlockwise-M01)
and the ultimate bending moment at the top is 80kNm (anticlockwise-M02). The ultimate
axial force on the column is 2400kN. The effective length of the column may be taken as
0.85l. Assuming concrete grade C30/37 and grade 500 steel is used. Cnom = 30mm

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 i. Determine the slenderness of the column
ii. Calculate the limiting slenderness and classify the column as either stocky or slender.
iii. Calculate the design bending moment, incorporating eccentricity.
iv. Design the main vertical reinforcement (assuming main diameter is 32mm)
v. Design the shear links

8) A one-way spanning solid slab floor shown below is to be designed for an imposed load of
4 kN/m2, assuming the concrete class C30/37 of density 25kNm-3 and grade 500 steel is used,
the nominal cover to the main steel (H10) is 25mm.

i. Design the bending reinforcement for the solid slab.

ii. Solid slabs seldom contain shear reinforcement. Check that the shear resistance of
concrete in the solid slab above is sufficient for the shear forces generated in the slab.

9) A single span beam fixed at its ends, 400mmx700mm deep carries a permanent load
inclusive of
its self-weight of 25KN/m and a variable load of 10KN/m. given that the beam is 8m long with

38
concrete strength of 30 N /mm2. longitudinal steel of 500 N /mm2 and diameter 20mm. 25mm
cover, 8mm links of 250 N /mm2 steel (mild steel).
(i) Determine the ultimate load
(ii) Determine the ultimate moment and shear force acting on the beam
(iii) Determine the reinforcement required to resist the ultimate moment at supports
(iv) Design shear reinforcement at the support assuming cot𝜃=2.5 and only 2 bars at the
top and 2 bars at the bottom continue to support

10) A rectangular beam 7m long is simply supported and supports an ultimate load of
28.2KN/m. From flexural design calculations, the required area of steel reinforcement is
1009mm2 and the provided steel reinforcement is 4H20. The section of the beam is 0.275m
width and the depth to the tensile reinforcement is 0.45m. The concrete class C25/30 and
grade 500 steel is used.
i. Design the shear reinforcement for the beam
ii. Check that the beam satisfies the deflection limit state.

11) Design the bending reinforcement for a simply supported rectangular beam of height 0.37m,
width of 0.23m and a span of 9m, carrying a permanent load of 4kNm-1 and a variable load of
5kNm-1, assuming that the cover to the main steel (H25) is 40mm. The concrete class C25/30
and grade 500 steel is used.

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3) DESIGN OF WALLS AND MASONTRY STRUCTURES

Masonry can be regarded as an assemblage of structural units, which are bonded together
in a particular pattern by mortar or grout. Masonry may be unreinforced, reinforced or
pre-stressed

Structural Units
There are seven types of structural unit referred to in BS 5628 they are:
• Calcium silicate (sandlime and flintlime) bricks.
• Clay bricks.
• Dimensions of bricks of special shapes and sizes.
• Stone masonry.
• Precast concrete masonry units.
• Reconstructed stone masonry units.
• Clay and calcium silicate modular bricks.

The selection of a particular type of unit for any given structure is dependent on a number of
criteria, e.g. strength, durability, adhesion, fire resistance, thermal properties, acoustic properties
and aesthetics.
The structural units may be solid, solid with frogs, perforated, hollow or cellular as indicated in
Figure below.

Dimensions and Sizes

The sizes of bricks are normally referred to in terms

of work sizes and co-ordinating sizes as shown in Figure 1.5. When using clay or calcium
bricks the standard work sizes for individual units are 215 mm length × 102.5 mm width ×
65 mm height. In most cases the recommended joint width is 10 mm resulting in coordination
sizes of bricks equal to 225 mm × 112.5 mm × 75 mm.

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When designing it is more efficient and economical to specify dimensions of masonry
minimizing the cutting of brickwork. Wherever possible the dimensions of openings, panels
return, piers etc. should be a multiple of the co-ordinating size, plus or minus the joint thickness
where appropriate.

Mortar:

Mortar is the medium which binds together the individual structural units to create a continuous
structural form e.g. brickwork, stonework etc. Mortar serves a number of functions in masonry
construction, i.e. to:
• Bind together the individual units,
• Distribute the pressures evenly throughout the individual units,
• Infill the joints between the units and hence increase the resistance to moisture
penetration,
• Maintain the sound characteristics of a wall,
• Maintain the thermal characteristics of a wall.

Present day mortars are specifically manufactured to suit the type of construction involved. In
most cases they are mixtures of sand, cement and water. The workability is often improved by
the inclusion of lime or a mortar plasticiser.

Lime is used in mortar for several reasons:

• To create a consistency which enables the mortar to ‘cling and spread’,
• To help retain the moisture and prevent the mortar from setting too quickly,
• To improve the ability of the mortar to accommodate local movement.

41
Modern mortars containing lime should not be confused with lime mortars. True lime mortars
are mortars in which lime is used instead of Portland cement as the primary binder material.
There are two types, hydrated (non-hydraulic) lime and hydraulic lime mortars.

Bonds:

Walling made from regular shaped units is constructed by laying the units in definite, specific
patterns called bonds, according to the orientation of the long sides (stretchers) or the short sides
(headers).

Normally all bricks, solid and cellular blocks are laid on a full bed of mortar with all cross joints
and collar joints filled. (A cross joint is a joint other than a bed joint, at right angles to the face
of a wall. A collar joint is a continuous vertical joint parallel to the face of a wall.)

It is essential when constructing brickwork walls to ensure that the individual units are bonding
together in a manner which will distribute the applied loading throughout the brickwork. This is
normally achieved by laying units such that they overlap others in the course below. The
resulting pattern of brickwork enables applied loads to be distributed both in the horizontal and
vertical directions as shown in Figure 1.8(a) and (b).

A number of bonds have been established which provide brickwork walls with the required
characteristics, i.e.:
• Vertical and horizontal load distribution for in-plane forces,
• Lateral stability to resist out-of-plane forces,
• Aesthetically acceptable finishes.

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Damp-Proof-Courses:

The purpose of a damp-proof course (d.p.c.) is to provide an impermeable barrier to the

movement of moisture into a building. The passage of water may be horizontal, upward or
downward.
The material properties required of d.p.cs are;
• An expected life at least equal to that of the building,
• resistance to compression without extrusion,
• resistance to sliding where necessary,
• adhesion to units and mortar where necessary,
• resistance to accidental damage during installation and subsequent building
operations,
• workability at temperatures normally encountered during building operations, with
particular regard to ease of forming and sealing joints, fabricating junctions, steps and
stop ends, and ability to retain shape.

STRUCTURAL FORMS OF MASONRY

Masonry is constructed by building up structural units in horizontal layers called courses, which
are bonded together by intermediate layers of mortar. Walling made from stone is generally one
of two types, rubble walls or ashlar walls, whilst walling from bricks/blocks can be one of many
forms such as; solid, cavity, collar jointed, diaphragm, fin, reinforced or pre-stressed walls.

1. Rubble Walls
Rubble walls are built from irregular and coarsely jointed quarried stone. Overlapping stones in
successive adjacent courses achieve longitudinal bond in such walls. The variation in size of
stones used results in laps of differing, random lengths. Transverse bonding through the
thickness of walls is achieved by using larger stones known as bonders. These are normally
placed one for every square metre of wall in each face. To avoid the passage of moisture through
the full width of a wall, bonders do not extend through the full width. The spaces between the
lapping stones and bonders in each face are filled with small pieces of stone as shown in Figure
1.30.

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 2. Ashlar Walls
Built from carefully shaped and set stone blocks with close, fine joints Ashlar walls are
normally constructed with a brick backing using stone as a front face as shown in
Figure 1.31. The stone blocks are cut to sizes which correspond to a set number of
brickwork courses. It is important to protect the ashlar wall from any salts, which may
leech from the brickwork and consequently any ashlar stones which are in contact with the
backing wall should be painted with a coating of bitumen or proprietary alternative.

3. Solid Walls and Columns

The form and construction of solid walls and columns can take one of numerous alternatives.
Bonded single-leaf walls as shown in Figure 1.32 (a) are primarily used externally for earth
retaining structures or boundary walls and internally for loadbearing walls supporting beams

44
and/or floor and roof slabs. They can be of any thickness but typically are one half brick (102.5
mm), one brick (225 mm) or one-and-one half brick (327.5 mm) thick.

In situations where structural requirements dictate that a wall thickness should be greater than
one half brick thick and architectural requirements dictate that fair faced, stretcher bond
brickwork is required on both faces, double-leaf (or collar jointed) walls as shown in Figure
1.32(b) are often used.

4. Cavity Walls
Cavity walls have been adopted universally as exterior walls in buildings to resist both vertical
and lateral loading. They provide strength and stability, resistance to rain penetration, thermal
and sound insulation in addition to fire resistance. The construction of a cavity wall normally
comprises two parallel single-leaf walls at least 50 mm apart and tied together with metal ties
(see section 1.2.7). The outer leaf is usually one half-brick thick with a similar inner leaf or an
inner leaf of light-weight concrete blocks as shown in Figure 1.35(a) and (b).

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REINFORCED AND PRESTRESSED BRICKWORK

The processes of reinforcing and pre-stressing brickwork are generally straightforward and in
most cases involve less effort than in concrete. In essence these involve taking advantage of the
gaps which can be created using specific bonding patterns in which to place the reinforcement
and providing anchorage plates where required as shown in Figures 1.40 and 1.41.

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Masonry is a non-homogeneous, non-isotropic composite material which exists in many

forms comprising units of varying shape, size and physical characteristics. The parameters which
are most significant when considering structural design relate to strength and elastic properties,
e.g. compressive, flexural and shear strengths, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of friction,
creep, moisture movement and thermal expansion,
Tensile strength is generally ignored in masonry design.

The workmanship involved in constructing masonry is more variable than is normally

found when using most other structural materials and consideration must be given to this
at the design stage.

1.Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of masonry is dependent on numerous factors such as:
• The mortar strength,
• The unit strength,
• The relative values of unit and mortar strength,
• The aspect ratio of the units (ratio of height to least horizontal dimension),
• The orientation of the units in relation to the direction of the applied load,
• The bed-joint thickness.

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 The failure mode of masonry in compression is usually one in which a tensile crack
propagates through the units and the mortar in the direction of the applied load as shown in
Figure 1.42. This crack is caused by secondary tensile stresses resulting from the restrained
deformation of the mortar in the bed joints of the brickwork

The tensile stresses inducing the crack are developed at the mortar-unit interfaces and are due to
the restrained deformation of the mortar. In most cases masonry strength is considerably less
than the strength of the individual units, it can, however, be considerably higher than the mortar
strength.

2.Flexural Strength
The non-isotropic nature of masonry results in two principal modes of flexural failure which
must be considered:
• Failure parallel to the bed-joints, and
• Failure perpendicular to the bed-joints.
As shown in Figures 1.43 (a) and (b).

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3. Shear Strength
The shear strength of masonry is important when considering wall panels subject to lateral forces
and structural forms such as diaphragm and fin walls where there is the possibility of vertical
shear failure between the transverse ribs and flanges during bending.
Shear failure is most likely to be due to in-plane horizontal shear forces, particularly at the level
of damp-proof courses.

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