Nandi–Markweta languages

The Nandi languages, or Kalenjin proper, are a dialect cluster of

the Kalenjin branch of the Nilotic language family.
Nandi–Markweta
Kalenjin
In Kenya, where speakers make up 18% of the population, the name
Ethnicity Kalenjin people,
Kalenjin, a Nandi expression meaning "I say (to you)", gained
some Dorobo
prominence in the late 1940s and the early 1950s, when several
Kalenjin-speaking peoples united under it. This ethnic consolidation Geographic East African Rift
created a major ethnic group in Kenya, and also involved a distribution
standardization of the Kenyan Kalenjin dialects. However, since Linguistic Nilo-Saharan?
outside Kenya the name Kalenjin has been extended to related
classification
languages such as Okiek of Tanzania and Elgon languages of Eastern Sudanic
Uganda, it is common in linguistic literature to refer to the languages Nilotic
of the Kenyan Kalenjin peoples as Nandi, after the principal variety.
Southern Nilotic
Kalenjin

Contents Nandi–
Markweta
Varieties
ISO 639-3 kln (http://www-01.
Phonology sil.org/iso639-3/do
Vowels cumentation.asp?id=
Consonants kln)
Tone
Glottolog cent2293 (http://gl
Morphology ottolog.org/resourc
Nouns e/languoid/id/cent2
Verbs
293)
Syntax (Central Kalenjin)[1]
Word Order mark1255 (http://gl
Case ottolog.org/resourc
Negation e/languoid/id/mark1
Topicalization 255) (Markweeta)[2]
Interrogative sentences mosi1247 (http://gl

The Lord's Prayer in Kalenjin ottolog.org/resourc

e/languoid/id/mosi1
References
247) (Akie)[3]
External links

Varieties
The Kenyan conception of Kalenjin includes Kipsigis and Terik but not Markweta, which is as closely
related:

Nandi–Markweta
 Kipsigis
Markweta
Nandi
Naandi (Cemual) (Kenya)
Terik
Keiyo (Kenya)
(North) Tugen (Kenya)

Phonology

Vowels

Kalenjin has a simple five-vowel inventory {a, e, i, o, u}, which is then expanded by the presence of a
contrastive [+/-ATR feature], as well as a phonemic vowel length distinction. In (at least) Kipsigis (Toweett
1979) and Nandi (Creider 1989), all five vowels have both [+ATR], and [-ATR] counterparts, but the
contrast is neutralized for the vowel [a] in Tugen (Jerono 2012). The neutralization of the [+/-ATR] contrast
for this specific vowel is common in other Nilotic languages of the region, such as Maasai of Kenya and
Didinga of South Sudan.[4][5] Kalenjin, like many other African languages, exhibits Advanced Tongue Root
harmony. As a result, all vowels in a word have the same [ATR] value. In the rest of the article, Kalenjin
words with [-ATR] will be spelled in italics.

It is common in the language to use [ATR] distinctions to signal grammatical functions. For example, in
Kipsigis, the word for ‘bird’ tàríit with a [-ATR] feature on the vowels forms its plural by changing the
value of the [ATR] feature to [+ATR] for all its vowels.

Similarly, vowel length is important for certain grammatical distinctions. For example, perfect aspect in the
past is signaled through lengthening of the vowel of the subject agreement prefix. Therefore, the only
difference between simple and perfect aspect in the past is that the subject agreement prefix is short in the
former, but long in the latter.

Consonants

The following table shows the consonant phonemes of the language:

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar

Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Stop p t tʃ k
Sibilant s
Rhotic r
Lateral l
Glide w j

Voicing is not phonemic for consonants, but the velar and bilabial stops [k] and [p] are voiced
intervocalically, and in fast speech there is sometimes lenition of these consonants. The alveolar stop [t],
though, has no voiced allophone.
All nasals apart from [m] assimilate for place to the following consonant.

Tone

Kalenjin is a tonal language. Tone is used both for lexical distinctions and to signal grammatical functions.
For example, nominative case is marked with a special tonal pattern on the noun, while certain singular-
plural distinctions in nouns and adjectives are signaled exclusively through tone.

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns inflect for case (nominative vs. non-nominative) and number (singular-plural). Case is tonal and is
very regular, while number formation is quite irregular, with plural being signaled in a variety of different
ways, including various plural suffixes, changes in the [ATR] specification of the vowels of the stem, or
changes in the tonal pattern of the stem.

Moreover, each noun in the language has two different forms, called “primary” and “secondary” forms in
the literature. For example, the primary form of the word for ‘bird’ in Kipsigis is tàríit, while its secondary
form is tàrìityét. Nouns have primary and secondary forms in both the singular and plural number. The
semantic difference between these two forms is currently not well understood. Hollis (1909) characterized
the primary and secondary forms as indefinite and definite forms of the noun respectively, but this is not the
correct treatment of these forms according to Toweett (1979) and Creider (1989). The former author refers
to the primary form as an ‘inclusive’ form, and to the secondary one as an ‘exclusive’ form, while the latter
author simply explains that it is not clear what the correct characterization of these forms is. The language
has no overt articles and it seems like these two forms are related to definiteness and/or specificity in some
way.

Derivational and inflectional affixes associated with nouns are always suffixes, with the exception of the
prefixes kip – and che:p -, which denote male and female gender respectively. Gender is not expressed in all
nouns, and does not participate in agreement.

Verbs

The verbal morphology of Kalenjin is extremely rich. Moreover, nouns and adjectives follow the verbal
inflection paradigm when they are predicates.

Kalenjin verbs show a distinction between past and non-past tense, with three degrees of past being
distinguished (based on distance from the present). Moreover, there is a difference between perfective and
imperfective aspect, and within each one of these aspects there is a further distinction between simple and
perfect aspect. In the non-past only, the perfect aspect also shows a distinction for simultaneous versus non-
simultaneous actions.

The verb agrees with both the subject and the object in person and number. The order of morphemes is that
of tense – subject agreement – (aspect) – stem – (aspect), with a lot of aspectual work being done by
changes in the tonal pattern and/or vowels of the subject agreement prefix and/or the verbal stem.

Finally, there is a series of suffixes that can be attached to the verb to change its argument structure or add
extra meaning. Toweett (1979:129) gives for Kipsigis the following list of verbal suffixes and other
phonological changes that target verbal meaning:
 –tʃi: applicative morpheme (it introduces and applied argument, such as a recipient or a
beneficiary)
tonal and/or vowel change of the stem: the action is towards the speaker
–aan: action and movement towards the speaker
–ta: action is ‘off’ the speaker
–ak: used for dispositional middles (and possibly other middles and/or some anticausatives)
–chiin: there are two events of what the verb denotes which take place simultaneously
Reduplication of the stem (with a vowel intervening between the two occurrences of the
stem): the action is repeated several times
–iis/-sa: antipassive
-een: instrumental (it introduces an instrument)
-ya: there are two or more agents involved in the event denoted by the verb
-kee: reflexive or reciprocal
-taaita: comitative

The above suffixes show different behavior with respect to ATR harmony (some take the ATR value of the
vowels of the stem, while others change the ATR value of the vowels of the stem). The above suffixes can
co-occur on the same verb, yielding complex meanings.

Syntax

Word Order

The predominant word order in the language is Verb – Subject – Object (VSO), a common word order in
Nilotic. An example of a simple VSO sentence in Nandi can be seen in (1).

(1) kêerey Kípe:t làakwéet - see.3sg Kibet.nom child - ‘Kibet sees the child.’ (Nandi, Creider 1989: 124)

The order in sentences with nominal or adjectival predicates is Predicate – Subject, as can be seen in (2) and
(3).

(2) aa-náantíiintèt áne:. - 1sg-Nandi pron.1sg.nom - ‘I am Nandi.’ (Nandi, Creider 1989: 121)

(3) páypây ínee - happy pron.3sg.nom - ‘He is happy.’ (Nandi, Creider 1989: 123)

For locative predicates, a special locative copula is used, in which case the order is Verb-Subject-Locative
predicate.

(4) mìitey Kíiproono kitâali - is-at.3sg Kiprono.nom Kitale - ‘Kiprono is in Kitale.' (Nandi, Creider
1989:123)

In the presence of an indirect object, the order is Verb – Subject – Indirect Object – Direct Object.

(5) kíi-sôoman-tʃi Kípe:t làakwéet púukúut - past-read-applicative Kibet.nom child book - ‘Kibet read the
book to the child.’ (Nandi, Creider 1989: 126)

VP adverbs, such as always, are usually placed after the direct object in Kalenjin.

Finally, Kalenjin is unusual among verb-initial languages, in expressing possession with a transitive verb
HAVE. Other verb-initial languages of the Nilotic language family, such as Maasai, also express possession
with the use of a transitive verb HAVE.
Case

Kalenjin is a marked nominative language: nominative case is the only case that is marked in the language,
while all other cases (accusative, genitive, dative etc.) are left unmarked. Nominative case is marked
through tone only.

Negation

Negation is expressed with the prefix ma-/maa-, which attaches to the verb. It precedes the subject
agreement prefix, but it follows the tense prefixes.

Topicalization

There are two strategies for topicalization in the language, according to Creider (1989). In the unmarked
case, a topicalized subject appears at the end of the sentence, retaining its nominative case marking. In the
marked case, the topicalized element appears at the beginning of the sentence and is followed by the topic
marker kò. In this case, if the topicalized element is a subject, it loses its nominative case.

(6) chepyóséet kó rúey - woman topic-marker sleep.3sg - ‘The woman is sleeping.’ (Nandi, Creider 1989:
125)

Interrogative sentences

Yes-no questions are formed by attaching the question particle –í to the last word of a sentence.

There are three ways of forming wh-questions in Kalenjin. In the first one, the wh-word remains in situ (and
retains any case marking it has). In the second one, the wh-word appears in topic position (it is followed by
the topic marker kó and it loses its nominative case marking if it is a subject). The third strategy is only
possible with predicative sentences, in which case the predicate appears in topic position, with the wh-word
remaining in situ. The three strategies for a predicative sentence are illustrated in (7-9) below for Nandi
(Creider 1989: 143).

(7) teetà inkorò? - cow.nom which.nom - ‘Which one is the cow?’

(8) teetá kó ínkoró? - cow topic-marker which - ‘Which one is the cow?’

(9) inkoró kó teetà? - which topic-marker cow.nom - ‘Which one is a cow?’

The Lord's Prayer in Kalenjin

Kwandanyo ne mi kipsengwet,
Ingotililit kaineng'ung.
Ingonyo bounateng'ung.
Ingoyaak eng' ng'ony mageng'ung',
Ko u ye kiyaei eng' kipsengwet.
Konech rani amitwogikyok che bo ra.
Ak inyoiywech kaat lelutikyok,
ko u ye kinyochini kaat che lelwech.
Amemutech ole mi yomset,
ago soruech eng' ne ya.
Amu neng'ung' bounatet, ak kamuktaet, ak torornatet, agoi koigeny.
Amen.

References
1. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Central Kalenjin" (htt
p://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cent2293). Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck
Institute for the Science of Human History.
2. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Markweeta" (http://gl
ottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mark1255). Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck
Institute for the Science of Human History.
3. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Akie" (http://glottolog.
org/resource/languoid/id/mosi1247). Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the
Science of Human History.
4. http://pages.uoregon.edu/dlpayne/maasai/ATR.htm
5. http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/58715

Creider, Chet A., and Jane Tapsubei Creider. 1989. A grammar of Nandi.
Franciscar, Kamuren, and Bartoo Phylis. 2012. The Morpho-syntactic Differences among
Kalenjin Dialects: An Analysis of Kipsigis, Tugen and Pokot. Research on Humanities and
Social Sciences 2.7 : 56-65.
Hollis, Alfred Claud. 1909. Nandi: Their Language and FolkLore. Negro Universities Press.
Jerono, Prisca. 2012. Tugen word order. A Minimalist Program. Unpublished PhD.
Dissertation: University of Nairobi.
Rottland, Franz. 1982. Die Südnilotischen Sprachen: Beschreibung, Vergelichung und
Rekonstruktion (Kölner Beiträge zur Afrikanistik vol. 7). Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.
Toweett, Taaitta. 1979. A study of Kalenjin linguistics. Kenya Literature Bureau.

External links
Kalenjin–English Dictionary (http://dictionaryq.com/kalenjin/)
Kalenjin Word of the Day (https://kln.kasahorow.org/subscribe)
A Kalenjin website (https://web.archive.org/web/20070519163723/http://kalenjin.net/)
PanAfrican L10n page on Kalenjin (http://www.panafril10n.org/wikidoc/pmwiki.php/PanAfrLoc/
Kalenjin)

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