Crankshaft From Intro

CHAPTER-1
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INTRODUCTION
Today, typical combustion engines have efficiencies ranging from 20%-30% at part-load
operating conditions, resulting in wasted energy. New internal combustion engines being
developed have the potential to reach part-load brake thermal efficiencies of 50% [1]. Internal
combustion engines have been prevalent since 1890, but emission laws established in the
twentieth century led to the downfall of these engines as they were environmentally unfriendly.
They consumed a lot of fuel resulting in many emissions. The technology then was unable to
handle these emissions – catalyst plugging made it hard to convert nitrogen oxides. Today, they
are being reconsidered for use due to their potential thermal efficiency, low emissions, power
density, and cost advantages. Developments for such engines are underway as seen in opposed
piston two strokes, split cycle types, and variable-compression-ratio engines. This report will
focus on the advantages of the opposite-piston engine. The focus in the new design is thermal
and emission management.
In this design, two pistons operating with opposed motion are placed in one cylinder. As
the pistons move away from each other, the intake and exhaust ports are activated. This enables
efficient air scavenging. As the pistons move towards each other, the fuel-air mixture gets
compressed, and ignition occurs. These results in the power stroke, which movies the pistons
away from each other, and the cycle repeats. Firstly, many significant improvements were
applied to cylinder bore materials and finishing to reduce oil consumption . Piston rings now
have a different location in the engine and are made of steel rather than cast iron in order to
account for the high temperatures it must withstand. This, coupled with the use of synthetic oils,
and the proper management of cylinder bore oil impingement have made reduced oil
consumption possible.
Secondly, selective catalytic reduction techniques were implemented in order to

efficiently convert nitrogen oxides. By introducing oils that are low in ash and phosphorous
content, catalyst plugging was notably reduced. Thirdly, the simplicity of manufacturing
ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..1

(DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)
asymmetrical nozzle hole injectors coupled with higher fuel injection pressures allows the
injected fuel to find more air within the combustion chamber. Better mixing of the fuel and air
results in advantages in power transmission, emissions, and fuel consumption. Lastly, it was
noted that in the current engine style, the cylinder head was a key source of losses in the engine
. In an opposed piston engine, two pistons with opposed motion work in one cylinder with
no use for a cylinder head. Experimenting with different cylinder configurations worked
favorably. All the configurations performed exceptionally, and some were found to have added
benefits such as zero cyclic torque recoil.
1.1 POWER CYCLE
The aim of this report is to introduce the fundamentals of Internal Combustion Engines
(ICE). The report traces the mechanism of operation of ICE and its different kinds based on the
operation mechanism, specially the two stroke and four stroke engines. It also involves the
thermodynamics relations that govern the processes of these engines, highlighting two main
important cycles, which are: Otto Cycle and Diesel cycles. Thus, it uses both cycles to introduce
the second categorization of ICE based on the thermodynamic relations, introducing Gasoline
engines and Diesel engines. There are two main cycles based on which we can categorize
internal combustion engines, which are: Otto cycle and Diesel cycle
1.2 OTTO CYCLE
Otto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the cars internal combustion engines that work
using gasoline as a fuel. Otto cycle is exactly the same one that was described for the four-stroke
engine. It consists of the same four major steps: Intake, compression, ignition and exhaust.

Fig 1.2 PV Diagram of Otto cycle
On the PV-diagram,
1-2: Intake: suction stroke
2-3: Isentropic Compression stroke
3-4: Heat addition stroke
4-5: Exhaust stroke (Isentropic expansion)
5-2: Heat rejection
The distance between points 1-2 is the stroke of the engine. By dividing V2/V1, we get:
Where is called the compression ratio of the engine. The efficiency is taken to be:
1.3 DIESEL CYCLE
In the Diesel Cycle, named after Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (1858-1913), only air is
admitted in the intake stroke. The air is then adiabatically compressed, and fuel is injected into to
the hot air in the form of many small drops (not a vapor). Each drop burns over a small time,
giving an approximation of a isobaric explosion. The explosion pushes the cylinder outwards.
The power stroke, valve exhaust, and exhaust stroke which follow are identical to those in the
Otto Cycle.

Fig 1.3 P-V diagram of Diesel cycle
A - 1 to 2: Isentropic compression
B - 2 to 3: Reversible constant pressure heating
C - 3 to 4: Isentropic expansion
D - 4 to 1: Reversible constant volume cooling
In other words, the only difference between is the Otto engine and diesel engine is that the
latter does not require a spark plug to ignite the fuel; the fuel here is ignited under the effect of
increase in pressure and temperature. In Diesel engines, compression ratios are as high as 22.5 to
1, where for Otto engines it normally does not reach even one fifth that number.
1.4 HISTORY OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
17th century: Christian Huygens designs gunpowder to drive water pumps, to supply
3000 cubic meters of water/day for the Versailles palace gardens, essentially creating the first
idea of a rudimentary internal combustion piston engine.1798: Tippu Sultan, the ruler of the city-
state of Mysore in India, uses the first iron rockets against the British Army.
The internal combustion engine was invented by Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir (Belgian
Born). Lenoir made the first internal combustion engine that provides a reliable and continuous
source of power, which was the gas engine using coal gas, in 1860, in France.

The first practical internal combustion engine based heavily on experience from the
production of steam engines. The engine had a horizontal cylinder; slide valves were used to
draw in the fuel-air mixture; and it was double acting, the mixture being fed into the cylinder
alternately at either end of the piston. Once it is in the cylinder the mixture was ignited by
electric sparks generated at spark plugs by a coil and a battery. This ignition system, a primitive
ancestor of modern electric ignition, was unreliable. Because the first internal combustion engine
was unreliable, many later pioneers made improvements of the first internal combustion engine.
As a result many new engines were made. Such engines were the two and four stroke engine and
the petrol engine. Siegfried Marcus in Austria in 1864 was able to create an engine that uses
petrol as a fuel. The first internal combustion engine is the basic form for modern car engines.
Now a day’s all engines and industries use the connecting rods for power transmission purpose.
1.5 TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
1.5.1 Compression Ignition Engine:
Fig1.5 compression
ignition engine
 The Compression Ignition

(CI) engines work on the principle founded by Rudolf Diesel in the year 1892.
 In a diesel engine, compression ratios ranging from 14:1 to as high as 24:1 are commonly used.
The higher compression ratios are possible because only air is compressed, and then the fuel is
injected. This is one of the factors that allow the diesel engine to be so efficient.

 Diesel engines are not self-speed-limiting because the air (oxygen) entering the engine is always
the maximum amount
1.5.2 Spark Ignition Engine:
Fig1.5.1 spark ignition engine.
 The Spark Ignition (SI) engines work on the principle of cycle of operations invented by Nicolas
A. Otto in the year 1876.
 In a gasoline engine the compression ratio (which controls the compression temperature) is
limited by the air-fuel mixture entering the cylinders. The lower ignition temperature of gasoline
will cause it to ignite (burn) at a compression ratio of less than 10:1. The average car has a 7:1
compression ratio.
 Gasoline engines are self-speed-limiting, due to the method the engine uses to control the
amount of air entering the engine.
1.6 STROKE CATEGORIZATION

The stroke is defined as the length of the path that the piston goes through inside the
cylinder. The upper end of the cylinder is referred to as the Top Dead Centre (TDC), and the
lower end is referred to as the Bottom Dead Center (BDC). Using the crankshaft mechanism, the
linear motion that comes out from the piston due to the combustion is converted into rotational
motion.
Following is the explanation of the two-stroke and four-stroke engines.
1.6.1 Two-stroke engines
Two stroke engines are normally found in low power vehicles, such as: garden
equipment, jet skis, and some motorcycles engines. From its name, the two-stroke engine refers
to a type of an engine in which the process of combustion of a fuel and the liberation of
mechanical energy takes place in only two strokes of the piston, the first goes from the top dead
centre to the bottom Dead centre, and vice versa for the second stroke. Starting from the point at
which compressed fuel/air/oil mixture exists inside the piston, a spark is ignited from the spark
plug, hence combustion. Combustion produces large energy that pushes the piston downward
and exhaust gases are formed out of the combustion. Thus, the engine starts its first stroke in
which it delivers power using the Crankshaft and exhaust gases are liberated out of the cylinder
from the exhaust valve. A two-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that completes the
process cycle in one revolution of the crankshaft (an up stroke and a down stroke of the piston.

Fig 1.6 two stoke engine
1st stroke
The compressed fuel-air mixture ignites and thereby the piston is pressed down. At the
same time the intake port is covered by the piston. Now the new mixture in the crankcase
becomes pre-compressed. Shortly before the piston approaches the lower dead centre, the
exhaust port and the overflow conduit are uncovered. Being pressurized in the crankcase the
mixture rushes into the cylinder displacing the consumed mixture (exhaust now).
2nd stroke
The piston is moving up. The overflow conduit and the exhaust port are covered; the
mixture in the cylinder is compressed. At the same time new fuel-air mixture is sucked into the
crankcase. By means of a crank shaft the up and down motion is converted into a rotational
motion. As the piston proceeds downward, another valve is opened which is the fuel/air valve.
Air/fuel/oil mixtures come from the carburettor, where it was mixed, to rest in an adjacent fuel
Chamber. When the piston moves downward more and the cylinder has no more gases, fuel

mixture starts to flow to the combustion chamber and the second process of fuel compression
starts. It is worth mentioning that the design carefully considers the point that fuel-air mixture
should not mix with the exhaust. Therefore, the processes of fuel injection and exhausting should
be synchronized to avoid the concern. It should be noted that the piston has three functions in its
operation:
1. The piston acts as the combustion chamber with the cylinder, and it also compresses the
air/fuel mixture and receives back the liberated energy and transfers it to the crankshaft.
2. The piston motion creates a vacuum in order to such the fuel/air mixture from the carburettor,
and pushes it from the crankcase (adjacent chamber) to the combustion chamber.
3. The sides of the piston are acting like the valves, covering and uncovering the intake and
exhaust ports drilled into the side of the cylinder wall.

1.6.2 Four stroke engines
Fig1.6.1 four stroke engine
1) Suction stroke: At the start of the suction stroke the piston is located at top dead centre
position. As it moves down, the inlet valve located in the cylinder head opens, while the
exhaust valve remains closed. From the inlet valve, air is drawn into the cylinder which
continues until the piston reaches bottom dead centre or the bottom most position inside
the cylinder. At this Point the suction stroke completes and the suction or inlet valve
closes.
2) Compression stroke: During the compression stroke the piston starts moving in upward
and compresses the air in the clearance volume. While in the case of spark ignition (SI)
engines, the compression ratio is about 6-10, the CI engine this ratio is about 16-20. This

clearly indicates that the compression pressure exerted in the CI engines is much more
than in SI engines.
3) Expansion stroke: Towards the end of the compression stroke, the fuel is injected into the
clearance volume. Due to excessively high pressures, the fuel starts burning instantly, creating
large amounts of thermal energy, which further raises the pressure. Because of this pressure the
piston starts moving down. The fuel injection rate is such that the pressure inside the cylinder is
maintained constant even though the piston moves down. The expansion stroke ends when the
piston reaches the bottom position. During this stroke the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed.
4) Exhaust stroke: After the expansion stroke a number of residual gases are left in the cylinder
and need to be cleared from of the cylinder. During the exhaust stroke the exhaust valve opens
due to the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure of exhaust gases inside
the cylinder. As the piston moves from the bottom to the top position the exhaust gases are swept
out of the cylinder. When the piston reaches the topmost position all the exhaust gases are
released. As the piston starts moving down, the inlet valves open and fresh air is drawn into the
cylinder.
In this way, the cycle of operation of the CI engine keeps on repeating without any hindrance.
Since large amounts of pressure are generated inside the CI engines these engines, there is a need
to have CI engines be sturdier than SI engines.
1.7 ADVANTAGES:
1.7.1 Two stroke
1. High power to weight ratio

2. Less number of stroke per circle
3. Less moving parts eg no valve mechanism
4. High speed engine due to less moving parts
5. Low service and overhaul cost due to less number of parts
1.7.2 Four stroke
1. More torque even at idling speed

2. No scavenging problems
3. No fresh mixture escaping with exhaust gases.
1.8..DISADVANTAGES
1.8.1 Two stroke
1. Scavenging problem
2. Fresh mixture is escaping with exhaust gases during exhaust stroke
3. Non stable at idling speed
1.8.2 Four stroke
1. Low power to weight ratio

2. More moving parts, not suitable for high speed
3. More number of stroke per circle
4. High service and overhaul cost due to more parts.
1.9 Main components of the engine

1.9.0 Piston
Piston is one of the main parts in the engine. Its purpose is to transfer force from expanding
gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a connecting rod. Since the piston is the main reciprocating part
of an engine, its movement creates an imbalance. This imbalance generally manifests itself as a
vibration, which causes the engine to be perceivably harsh. The friction between the walls of the
cylinder and the piston rings eventually results in wear, reducing the effective life of the mechanism. The
sound generated by a reciprocating engine can be intolerable and as a result, many reciprocating
engines rely on heavy noise suppression equipment to diminish droning and loudness.

Figure1.9.0 Piston
Pistons are commonly made of a cast aluminium alloy for excellent and lightweight thermal
conductivity. Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct and transfer heat. Aluminium
expands when heated and proper clearance must be provided to maintain free piston movement in the
cylinder bore. Insufficient clearance can cause the piston to seize in the cylinder. Excessive clearance can
cause a loss of compression and an increase in piston noise.
A piston pin is a hollow shaft that connects the small end of the connecting rod to the piston. The skirt
of a piston is the portion of the piston closest to the crankshaft that helps align the piston as it moves in
the cylinder bore. Some skirts have profiles cut into them to reduce piston mass and to provide
clearance for the rotating crankshaft counterweights.
1.9.1 Piston Rings

A ring groove is a recessed area located around the perimeter of the piston that is used to retain a
piston ring. Ring lands are the two parallel surfaces of the ring groove which function as the sealing
surface for the piston ring. A piston ring is an expandable split ring used to provide a seal between the
piston an the cylinder wall. Piston rings are commonly made from cast iron. Cast iron retains the
integrity of its original shape under heat, load, and other dynamic forces. Piston rings seal the
combustion chamber, conduct heat from the piston to the cylinder wall, and return oil to the crankcase.
Piston ring size and configuration vary depending on engine design and cylinder material. A piston ring
must provide a predictable and positive radial fit between the cylinder wall and the running surface of
the piston ring for an efficient seal. The radial fit is achieved by the inherent pressure of the piston ring.
The piston ring must also maintain a seal on the piston ring lands.

Figure1.9.1: Piston Rings
In addition to inherent pressure, a piston ring seals the combustion chamber through applied pressure.
Applied pressure is pressure applied from combustion gases to the piston ring, causing it to expand.
Some piston rings have a chamfered edge opposite the running surface. This chamfered edge causes the
piston ring to twist when not affected by combustion gas pressures.
1.9.2 Connecting Rod

The connecting rod is a major link inside of a combustion engine. It connects the piston to the
crankshaft and is responsible for transferring power from the piston to the crankshaft and sending it to
the transmission. There are different types of materials and production methods used in the creation of
connecting rods. The most common types of connecting rods are steel and aluminum. The most
common type of manufacturing processes are casting, forging and powdered metallurgy. The most
common connecting rod found in production vehicle engines is a cast rod. This type of rod is created by
pouring molten steel into a mold and then machining the finished product. This type of rod is reliable for
lower horsepower producing engines and is the least expensive to manufacture. The cast rod has been
used in nearly every type of engine, from gasoline to diesel, with great success.
Figure1.9.2: Connecting Rod

1.9.3 Crankshaft
The crankshaft is the part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation.
To convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has crankpins, additional bearing
surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the “big ends” of the connecting rod from
each cylinder attach. It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the
fourstroke cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the
torsion vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the
output end acting on the torsion elasticity of the metal.
Figure1.9.3: Crank shaft

The engine's crankshaft is made of very heavy cast iron in most cases and solid steel in very high-
performance engines. The crankshaft's snout must be made very strong to withstand the stress of
placing the crankshaft pulley and the stress created from driving all of the components off of that single
pulley.
1.9.4 Camshaft
Camshaft is frequently called “brain” of the engine. This is so because its job is to open and closed at
just the right time during engine rotation, so that the maximum power and efficient cleanout of exhaust
to be obtained. The camshaft drives the distributor to electrically synchronize spark ignition. Camshafts
do their work through eccentric "lobes" that actuate the components of the valve train. The camshaft
itself is forged from one piece of steel, on which the lobes are ground. On single-camshaft engines there
are twice as many lobes as there are cylinders, plus a lobe for fuel pump actuation and a drive gear for
the distributor. Driving the camshaft is the crankshaft, usually through a set of gears or a chain or belt.

Figure1.9.4: Camshaft
On "overhead valve" engines the lifters move pushrods that move rocker arms that move valve stems.
Lifters can be of several types. The most common are hydraulic, mechanical and roller lifters. Hydraulic
lifters fill with oil that acts as a shock absorber to eliminate clearance in the valve train. These are used
in high-rpm applications. Roller lifters use a roller device at one end and can be hydraulic or mechanical.
They are used in applications where a very fast rate of valve lift is required. The camshaft material
should combine a strong shaft with hard cam lobes. The most widely used material at present is chilled
or forged cast iron.

Chapter 2
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Crankshaft
Crankshaft is a large component with a complex geometry in the engine, which converts the
reciprocating displacement of the piston to a rotary motion with a four link mechanism. Since the
crankshaft experiences a large number of load cycles during its service life, fatigue performance
and durability of this component has to be considered in the design process. Design
developments have always been an important issue in the crankshaft production industry, in
order to manufacture a less expensive component with the minimum weight possible and proper
fatigue strength another functional requirements. These improvements result in lighter and
smaller engines with better fuel efficiency and higher power output.
2.1Function of Crankshafts in IC Engines
The function of the crankshaft is to translate the linear reciprocating motion of a pistons into the
rotational motion required by the automobile. The crankshaft, connecting rod, and piston
constitute a four bar slider-crank mechanism, which converts the sliding motion of the pistoa
rotary motion. Since the rotation output is more practical and applicable for input to other
devices, the concept design of an engine is that the output would be rotation. In addition, the
linear displacement of an engine is not smooth, as the displacement is caused by the combustion
of gas in the combustion chamber. Therefore, the displacement has sudden shocks and using this
input for another device may cause damage to it. The concept of using crankshaft is to change
these sudden displacements to a smooth rotary output, which is the input to many devices such
as generators, pumps, and compressors.
2.2 Stress on crankshaft
The various forces acting on the shaft but failure takes place in two positions, bending and
twisting. Firstly, failure may occur at the position of maximum bending; this may be at the centre
of the crank or at either end. In such a condition the failure is due to bending and the pressure in
the cylinder is maximal. Second, the crank may fail due to twisting, so the connecting rod needs

to be checked for shear at the position of maximal twisting. The pressure at this position is the
maximum pressure, but only a fraction of maximal pressure.
2.3 Service Loads and Failures Experienced by Crankshafts
Crankshaft experiences large forces from gas combustion. This force is applied to the top of the
piston and since the connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft, the force will be
transmitted to the crankshaft. The magnitude of the force depends on many factors which consist
of crank radius, connecting rod dimensions, and weight of the connecting rod, piston, piston
rings, and pin. Combustion and inertia forces acting on the crankshaft cause two types of
loading on the crankshaft structure; torsional load and bending load.
Fig 2.3 crankshaft
2.4 History of crankshaft

The earliest evidence, anywhere in the world, for the crank combined with a connecting rod in a
machine appears in the late Roman Hierapolis sawmill from the 3rd century AD and two Roman
stone sawmills at Gerasa, Roman Syria, and Ephesus, Asia Minor (both 6th century AD).On the
pediment of the Hierapolis mill, a waterwheel fed by a mill race is shown powering via a gear
train two frame saws which cut rectangular blocks by the way of some kind of connecting rods
and, through mechanical necessity, cranks. The accompanying inscription is in Greek.

2.5 Dynamic stress analysis of the Crankshaft
The crankshaft experiences a complex loading due to the motion of the connecting rod, which
transforms two sources of loading to the crankshaft. The main objective of this study was the
optimization of the forged steel crankshaft which requires accurate magnitude of the loading on
this component that consists of bending and torsion. The significance of torsion during a cycle
and its maximum compared to the total magnitude of loading should be investigated to see if it is
essential to consider torsion during loading or not.

CHAPTER 3
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LITERATURE REVIEW
An extensive literature review on crankshafts was performed Zoroufi and Fatemi et.al[1].
Their study presents a literature survey focused on fatigue performance evaluation and
comparisons of forged steel and ductile aluminium alloy crankshafts. Their survey included a
review of the effect of influential parameters such as residual stress on fatigue behaviour and
methods of inducing compressive residual stress in crankshafts. The common crankshaft material
and manufacturing process technologies in use were compared with regards to their durability
performance. This was followed by a discussion of durability assessment procedures used for
crankshafts, as well as bench testing. In their literature review, geometry optimization of
crankshafts, cost analysis and potential cost saving opportunities are also briefly discussed
Fig 3.1 Automotive Crank shaft

3.1 Materials and Manufacturing Processes
The major crankshaft material competitors currently used in industry are forged steel, and cast
iron. Comparison of the performance of these materials with respect to static, cyclic, and impact

loading are of great interest to the automotive industry. A comprehensive comparison of
manufacturing processes with respect to mechanical properties, manufacturing aspects, and
finished cost for crankshafts has been conducted by Zoroufi and Fatemi (2005). Crankshaft are
made of forged steel.Forged crankshafts are frequently used in situations where a superior
product is required. Custom forged crankshafts are used in many industrial applications,
including the pump industry and the oil & gas industry. Forged crankshafts are generally
superior to cast crankshafts or turned crankshafts, but more costly to mass produce and are often
custom-made by open die forging crankshaft manufacturers.
3.2 Forging Process and the Influencing Parameters

Forging is the term for shaping metal by plastic deformation. Cold forging is do neat low
temperatures, while conventional hot forging is done at high temperatures, which makes metal
easier to shape. Cold forgings are various forging processes conducted at near ambient
temperatures, such as bending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining, and extrusion to produce
metal components to close tolerances and net shape. Warm forging is a modification of the cold
forging process where the work piece is heated to a temperature significantly below the typical
hot forging temperature, ranging from 500º C to 750º C.
3.2.1 Lubrication
In hot forging, in addition to lubrication effects, the effects of die chilling or heat transfer from
the host material to the colder dies must be considered. Therefore, values of the friction factor, or
coefficient of friction, obtained under certain forging conditions may not be applicable under
other conditions. For example, for a given lubricant, friction data obtained in hydraulic press
forging cannot be useful in mechanical press or hammer forging, even if the die and billet
temperatures.
3.2.2 Shape complexity in forging

Metal forming fundamental and application carried out by Alan et.al [2] on cylinder crankshaft is
consider to have a complex geometry. The main objective of forging process design is to ensure
adequate flow of the metal in the dies so that the desired finish part geometry can be obtained

without any external or internal defects. Metal flow is greatly influenced by part or dies
geometry. Often, several operations are needed to achieve gradual flow of the metal from an
initially simple shape (cylinder or round cornered square billet) into the more complex shape of
the final forging.
3.2.3 Heat treatment

All hot forged parts receive a certain amount of heat treatment in the process of being forged
and, thereafter, may be used without additional heat treatment. For maximum usefulness,
however, many forgings are heat treated one or more times before being put into service. For
instance, bearing sections and fillet areas on crankshafts are heat treated in order to improve
fatigue and wear properties of the material at these certain locations. Usually forgings are heat
treated before and after their machining. The purpose of the initial treatment is to secure uniform
structure of the metal and contribute to ease of machining of the forged part. For example, forged
tools must be hard and tough; consequently, they must receive final hardening and tempering
treatments.
3.2.4 Straightening and coining

When the flash is trimmed from the drop forging, the shape may become distorted, which
common in forged crankshafts because of geometry section changes and non-uniform is cooling
during forging process. Correction of this condition may be necessary. Correction to a certain
degree may be accomplished by hammering the distorted forging in a special re-striking die. The
correction is made while the forging cools. Other re-striking operations, called coining, are
conducted on powerful and accurate presses after the forgings have cooled to room temperature.
The forgings are brought to the correct size and shape in these presses, and final machining
operations ordinarily performed are either entirely or partially eliminated
3.3 Operating Conditions and Failure of Crankshafts

Crankshaft is one of the largest components in the internal combustion engine that has a complex
geometry consisting of cylinders as bearings and plates as the crank webs. Geometry section

changes in the crankshaft cause stress concentration at fillet areas where bearings are connected
to the crank webs. In addition, this component experiences both torsional and bending load
during its service life. Therefore, fillet areas are locations that experience the most critical
stresses during the service life of the crankshaft. As a result, these locations are main sections of
fatigue failure of the component. The size of a crankshaft depends on the number of cylinders
and horsepower output of the engine. The size of the crankshaft could range from 3.2 kg for a
single cylinder engine with the output power of 12 hp, to 300 tons for a four-cylinder diesel
engine with the output power of108,920 hp.
3.4 Manufacturing, and Cost Considerations

Crankshaft is among large volume production components in the internalcombustion engine
industry. Weight and cost reduction of this component will result inhigh cost savings. Weight
reduction of a crankshaft will also increase the fuel efficiency of the engine.
3.5 Geometry optimization

Development of the DCI crankshaft for the Nissan 60° V-6 engine was studied by Uchida and
Hara (1984). It was aimed to reduce the web thickness while maintaining the performance of the
crankshaft used before. This resulted in shortening the engine length. They used the finite
element method to perform structural analyses. The analyses were necessary to set the absolute
minimum dimensions for the cylinder pitch as well as each of the parts.
3.6 Material and cost optimization
An extensive study was performed on material alternatives for the automotive crankshaft based
on manufacturing economics. They considered steel forging, nodular cast iron, micro-alloy
forging, and tempered ductile iron casting as manufacturing options to evaluate the cost
effectiveness of using these alternatives for crankshafts.

FIG 3.2 casting of crank shaft
CHAPTER 4
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MODELLING OF CRANKSHAFT
4.1 Introduction of CATIA

CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application) is a multi-platform
CAD/CAM/CAE commercial software suite developed by the French company Dassault
Systems. CATIA completes in the CAD/CAM/CAE market with Siemens NX, Pro/E, Autodesk
Inventor, and Solid Edge as well as many others.
4.2 Industries using CATIA:

CATIA can be applied to a wide variety of industries, from aerospace and defense, automotive,
and industrial equipment, to high tech, shipbuilding, consumer goods, plant design, consumer
packaged goods, life sciences, architecture and construction, process power and petroleum, and
services.CATIA V4, CATIA V5, Pro/E, NX (formerly Unigraphics), and Solid Works are the
dominant systems
4.3 Scope of application:
Commonly referred to as 3D Product Lifecycle Management software suite, CATIA supports
multiple stages of product development (CAX), from conceptualization, design (CAD),
manufacturing (CAM), and engineering (CAE). CATIA facilitates collaborative engineering
across disciplines, including surfacing & shape design, mechanical engineering, equipment and
systems engineering.
4.4 Mechanical engineering:

CATIA enables the creation of 3D parts from 3D sketches, sheet metal, composites, and molded,
forged or tooling parts up to the definition of mechanical assemblies. It provides tools to
complete product definition, including functional tolerances, as well as kinematics definition.
4.5 Equipment design:
CATIA facilitates the design of electronic, electrical as well as distributed systems such as fluid
and HVAC systems, all the way to the production of documentation for manufacturing.
4.6 Supported operating systems and platforms:
 CATIA V6 runs only on Microsoft Windows and Mac OS with limited products.
 CATIA V5 runs on Microsoft Windows (both 32-bit and 64-bit), and as ofRelease 18Service
Pack4 on Windows Vista 64.
 CATIA V4 is supported for those Unixes and IBM MVS and VM/CMS mainframe
platforms up to release 1.7.
 CATIA V3 and earlier run on the mainframe platforms.
4.7 Design procedure:
To start CATIA there may be icon on the desktop or you may have to look in start menu at the
bottom of leaf of the screen windows taskbar.

Fig 4.1 CATIA SCREEN
Now click to the start button at the top of the toolbar it shows different modules as shown in
below figure for modelling select ‘mechanical design’ in that again select it shows options as
shown below select ‘part design’.
4.7.1 Selecting the module
After selecting the part design module screen is as shown is below figure 1 in the screen there
will be three planes XY, YZ and ZX planes. The XY plans represent top or bottom view, the YZ

plane represent front or back view and ZX plane represent right side or left side view. In that
three planes select zx-plane and select sketcher.
Fig 4.2 selecting the model
4.7.2 Selection of plane and draw a circle
Draw the circle diameter of 30 mm in a front plane:

Fig 4.3 selection of plane and draw a circle
4.7.3 Padding the circle:

Fig 4.4 apply pad option

4.7.4 After padding the circle:
Fig 4.5 padding the circle
4.7.5 Draw the elongated hole of 20mm and the center distance 27mm

Fig 4.6 Draw elongated hole
4.7.6 Draw the circle 30mm from the front plane:

Fig 4.7 Draw circle
4.7.7 Now repeat the previous steps to form the first half of the crankshaft.

Fig 4.8 First half of the crankshaft
4.7.8 Now mirror image the semi-finished part body.

Fig 4.9 Mirror image of the crankshaft

4.7.9 Complete part body of crankshaft:
Fig 4.10 final part of the crankshaft

CONCLUSION-6
_________________________________________________________________
In the present project a Modified crankshaft has been designed and Using catia v5 r20 software
design the crankshaft with standard measurements and observing the above design creating the
2D sketches using catia sketcher workbench then converting into 3D solid model using part
design. Complete model design using catia software with standard measurements

REFERENCE-6
__________________________________________________________
1.Zoroufi and fatemi et.al[1], focused on fatigue performance evaluation and comparsion
materials.
2.Altan, et.al[2]“Metal Forming Fundamentals and Applications,” American Society
for Metals, Metal Park, OH, USA.
3.Baxter, W. J., 1993, “Detection of Fatigue Damage in Crankshafts with the Gel
Electrode,” SAE Technical Paper No. 930409, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, USA.
4.Borges, A. C., Oliveira, L. C., and Neto, P. S., 2002, “Stress Distribution in a Crankshaft
Crank Using a Geometrically Restricted Finite Element Model,” SAE Technical Paper
No. 2002-01-2183, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
5.Burrell, N. K., 1985, “Controlled Shot Peening of Automotive Components,” SAE
Technical Paper No. 850365, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
6.Chien, W. Y., Pan, J., Close, D., and Ho, S., 2005, “Fatigue Analysis of Crankshaft
Sections Under Bending with Consideration of Residual Stresses,” International Journal
of Fatigue, Vol. 27, pp. 1-19.
7.Nallicheri et.al on material alternatives for the automotive crankshaft based on manufacturing
economics.


Crankshaft From Intro

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CHAPTER-1

Secondly, selective catalytic reduction techniques were implemented in order to

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..1

1.1 POWER CYCLE

1.2 OTTO CYCLE

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..2

1.3 DIESEL CYCLE

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..3

1.4 HISTORY OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..4

1.5 TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1.5.1 Compression Ignition Engine:

 The Compression Ignition

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..5

1.5.2 Spark Ignition Engine:

Fig1.5.1 spark ignition engine.

1.6 STROKE CATEGORIZATION

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..6

Following is the explanation of the two-stroke and four-stroke engines.

1.6.1 Two-stroke engines

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..7

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..8

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..9

Fig1.6.1 four stroke engine

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..10

1.7.1 Two stroke

1. High power to weight ratio

1.7.2 Four stroke

1. More torque even at idling speed

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..11

1.8.2 Four stroke

1. Low power to weight ratio

1.9 Main components of the engine

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..12

1.9.1 Piston Rings

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..13

1.9.2 Connecting Rod

Figure1.9.2: Connecting Rod

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..14

Figure1.9.3: Crank shaft

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..15

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..16

2.1Function of Crankshafts in IC Engines

2.2 Stress on crankshaft

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..17

2.3 Service Loads and Failures Experienced by Crankshafts

Fig 2.3 crankshaft

2.4 History of crankshaft

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..18

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..19

Fig 3.1 Automotive Crank shaft

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..20

3.2 Forging Process and the Influencing Parameters

3.2.2 Shape complexity in forging

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..21

3.2.3 Heat treatment

3.2.4 Straightening and coining

3.3 Operating Conditions and Failure of Crankshafts

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..22

3.4 Manufacturing, and Cost Considerations

3.5 Geometry optimization

ELLENKI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY pg..23

4.1 Introduction of CATIA