Weathering of Rocks

FORMATION OF ROCKS
Rock can be classified into three groups based on their formation or origin.
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
These rocks are directly formed from the cooling or solidification of molten rock or magma.
Types of Igneous rocks
a) Extrusive or Volcanic rocks – these are formed by the solidification of molten
material that has come out of the interior of the earth onto the surface of the earth.
An example is basalt.
b) Intrusive or Plutonic rocks – these are formed when magma cools more slowly
underground often at very great depths. They are different from volcanic rocks
because they have larger crystals because of their slower rate of cooling. Examples
include granite and Dolorite. Granite covers large areas of Zimbabwe and forms
beautiful landforms on the landscape when later exposed e.g. Ruwares in
Domboshawa, Castle kopjes in Matopo, Balancing rocks in Epworth.
Economic Uses of Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks usually withstand the effects of weathering very well and are therefore use for
building memorials, roads, bridges and buildings.
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 These are formed from the accumulation of rock particles or sediments derived from
other rocks and are therefore called Derived rocks.
 The materials have been deposited in layers or strata by agents such as water, wind
and ice and the layers are cemented together due to pressure.

Characteristics of Sedimentary rocks

1. They are stratified or layered.
2. All sedimentary rocks are non crystalline(not formed of crystals)
3. Some sedimentary rocks contain fossils

Economic value of sedimentary rocks

1. Coal - this is used as a fuel both in homes and industry and it has by products which
are used in the chemical industry.
2. Limestone – it is used as a flux in the processing of iron ore
3. Clay – this is used in the manufacture of cement, bricks and china (cups, plates e.t.c)

3. MERTAMOPHIC ROCKS
 These are either igneous or sedimentary rocks which have become changed when
subjected to great heat and pressure.
 Under such forces, the rocks are mertamophosised into other rocks of another type.

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 Weathering of Rocks

Examples
Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks
Bituminous becomes Anthracite, Graphite(pencil)
Limestone Becomes Marble
Clay Becomes Slate
Sandstone Becomes Quartzite
Granite(igneous) Becomes Gneiss
Shale Becomes Schist

Importance of Rocks
1. Soil vital for farming activities is formed from the weathering of rocks
2. Some rocks contain minerals which are mined in various parts of Zimbabwe creating
employment and generating foreign currency.
3. Rocks provide raw materials for the construction industry e.g. road making, bridge
construction, e.t.c
4. Rocks are used for decorative and artistic work e.g. emeralds and diamond are used
for jewellery and soapstone is used for carvings.
5. The physical features on the surface are determined by rock type and these may form
spectacular landforms which attract tourists creating employment and generating
foreign currency. E.g. granite forms balancing rocks and limestone forms spectacular
curves.

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 Weathering of Rocks

WEATHERING PROCESSES
 Def: This is the break down and decay of rocks in situ
 There are two types of weathering;

a) Physical or Mechanical weathering

Def: It involves the break up or disintegration of rocks by physical processes e.g. by temp
changes
b) Chemical weathering
 This is the decay or decomposition of rocks
 This is achieved by water acting as a dilute acidic solution which causes chemical
reactions within the mineral constituents of rocks.

NOTE: Some authorities identify a third type of weathering they call Biological weathering.
This is either physical or chemical weathering but involves the action of living organisms.
E.g. where rocks are broken up due to the penetration of roots or when humans break up
rocks when using they machinery.

 As weathering breaks down rocks into smaller particles or new stable minerals, the
weathered materials forms a weathering mantle called regolith.
 This regolith sits on the unweathered rock beneath and the boundary between the
weathered and the unweathered bedrock is called the weathering front.
 The regolith may finally form soil.
Factors affecting the rate and type of weathering
The rates of weathering at any place will depend upon the interrelationships between time,
topography, climate and rock type.
a) Climate – this is an important factor in the nature and rate of weathering processes
operating.
 As temperature increases, so does the rate of chemical reactions and therefore
chemical weathering increases
 Water is also necessary for chemical reactions to take place. Maximum rates of
chemical reactions take place in the humid tropics where there is a constant supply of
water and temperatures are high. If water is in short supply, chemical weathering will
be limited.
 Temperature fluctuations between day and night and from season to season also
affects the type and rate of physical weathering. High temperature ranges cause
expansion and contraction in rocks which causes the build up of stresses within the
rock leading to the physical break up of the rock. These temperature changes may
also cause the freezing and thawing of water in cracks leading to more physical
weathering.
b) Rock porosity and structural weakness

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 Weathering of Rocks

 Porous rocks allow water to enter within the rock through small spaces between rock
particles. Porous rocks will therefore besubjected to more chemical weathering
within and outside the rock. Porosity also improves physical processes such as freeze
thaw action.
 Structural weaknesses occur in the form of joints and bedding planes which allow
water to pass water to enter the rock and increase rates of weathering.
c) Rock Type - Rock type determines the rock minerals which are decomposed by
weathering processes and any zones or lines of weakness in the rock.
 Vulnerability of rocks to chemical weathering will depend on the mineral
composition of the rock. E.g.
o Limestone contains much calcium carbonate which is easily attacked by dilute
carbonic acid to produce a distinctive Karst landscape.
o Granite consists of quartz, mica and feldspar. It is the decomposition of mica
and feldspar which help to weaken the rock. Felspar decomposes to China clay
which has a high economic value. Quartz may not weather at all and may
form the loose particles of sand when the clay is washed away.
 Rocks formed under conditions of high pressure and heat underground will be
weakened greatly if exposed to different conditions on the surface. They will
therefore easily breakup.
 Some rocks have structural weaknesses because of their type. Sedimentary rocks will
naturally have bedding planes and joints because they are laid down in layers during
their formation. These joints will affect rate of chemical weathering.
d) Local conditions - there are many factors which affect the rate of weathering at a
local scale. E.g.
 Topography and slope both influence the rate of water movement through the
regolith to the unweathered bed rock. Steep slopes loose water quickly and these
reduces the rate of weathering.
 Aspect (the direction faced by the slope) also affects the rate of chemical weathering
especially in temperate regions. South facing slopes will be warmer in the northern
hemisphere than north facing slopes. This means that chemical weathering will be
higher on the south facing slopes than on the north facing ones because of the higher
temperatures.
 Vegetation cover on the surface affects the rate of weathering. A canopy of vegetation
increases the rate at which water sinks into the ground while on bare ground most of
the water will flow off. Decaying vegetation also releases acids and chemicals which
speed up chemical weathering. Exposed rock outcrops will be protected from the
direct effects of the sun which will reduce the effects of physical weathering.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

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 Weathering of Rocks

1. Insolation Weathering (Exfoliation)

 In arid regions, the alternating expansion (day) and contraction (night) of rock
surfaces result in the final breakup of the rocks.
 During the day the outer surface expands faster than the inside and this leads the
stresses within the rock which results in the outer layers peeling off. Cracks parallel
to the surface develop as a result.
 At night the outer surface is exposed to cooler temperatures will the inside is still
expanding. This leads to cracks which develop at right angles to the surface.
 Eventually angular boulders known as scree will fall off from the main rock and pile
up at the foot of the slope.
 This process is called block disintergration as it leads to the formation of large angular
boulders.
Diagram

Results of Insolation weathering

i. Large rounded boulders known as exfoliation domes with large visible cracks in the
outer surfaces.
ii. Scree mounds of angular material at the foot of the slope. The scree continues to
break up due to heating and cooling.

Note: In rocks made of different rock minerals where other minerals are lighter in color and
others are darker, the minerals will expand and contract at different rates. This will lead to
the build up of stress within the rock leading to the weakening of the rock. This is called
Thermal shattering. The rock is eventually broken down by other processes into individual
grains, a process called granular disintegration.

2. Frost action/Freeze Thaw Action

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 Weathering of Rocks

 When water freezes, its volume increases. If water freezes in rock crevices and cracks,
it exerts some lateral and vertical forces within the cracks.
 These forces will widen and deepen the cracks . the alternate freezing and thawing
will continue to widen and deepen the cracks until the rock is broken up into angular
blocks and other smaller fragments.

Diagram

The Results of Frost Action

i. The rocks from which the scree breaks off develop into large rectangular shaped
blocks.
ii. Angular Scree is deposited at the bottom of the slope and through time may form
scree slopes.
NOTE: Where the rock is porous and water enters the rock and then freezes while within
the rock, this causes stresses within the rock which lead to granular disintegration. This is
what is called Frost shattering.

3. Pressure Release
 When rocks are are formed underground, they are under great pressure because of
the crustal rocks above them. When eventually the material is removed by agents
of denudation, the rocks will heave and cracks parallel to the surface will develop
within them as they adjust to the lesser pressure above them. These cracks can be
used by other forms of weathering to further weaken the rock.
4. Salt Crystallisation
 Ocuurs where salty water enters pore spaces in rocks and eventually evaporates
forming salt crystals. As the crystals become larger, they exert stresses upon the
rock causing it to break down. This is common in hot deserts and in coastal areas.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

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 Weathering of Rocks

1. Oxidation – occurs in rocks which contain iron as one of their mineral constituents.
Oxygen in air and water reacts with iron in rocks to form a weak iron oxide. The rock
is therefore weakened and crumbles easily.
2. Carbonation – carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form a weak carbonic acid. This
acid reacts with rocks with rocks which contain calcium carbonate turning it into
calcium bi carbonate which easily dissolves in water. This is how limestone is
weathered and is carried away in solution.
3. Hydrolysis – in this case hydrogen in water reacts with rock minerals such as feldspar
to form a residual clay known as china clay. This weakens a granite rock as the other
minerals are no longer bonded together.
4. Hydration – this is the reaction between water and rock minerals which causes rocks
to swell and become vulnerable to other forms of weathering.

Results of Chemical Weathering in Granite Areas

 Granite is an igneous rock formed when molten magma solidified within the
earth’s crust.
 The rate of cooling was slow leading to the formation of large crystals of Quartz,
Feldspar and Mica.
 As the granite contracted during cooling, a series of vertical and horizontal cracks
developed within the rock.
 The cracks were later widened by pressure release.
 Water entered these cracks and chemical weathering, mostly hydrolysis, acted on
the feldspar and mica changing them into clay.
 Eventually the regolith above the rock and the weathered material along the
cracks was washed away exposing the remaining boulders which form castle
kopjes bonhadhts, and tors.

Diagram

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 Weathering of Rocks

Chemical weathering in Limestone areas

 Limestone is a rock consisting of at least 80% calcium carbonate.

 When calcium carbonate reacts with a weak carbonic acid, it changes into calcium
bicarbonate, which is soluble in water.
 Limestone is found in thick separated by almost horizontal bedding planes with joints
at right angles. It allows water to pass through the joints and bedding planes but the
rock itself is not porous.
 When it rains, carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form a weak acid. The acid reacts
with the rock to make it soluble in water. As water continues to flow it enlarges the
bedding planes and the joints enlarging them forming spectacular landscape as
follows;
o On the surface – Grikes and Clints
Joints reaching the surface in limestone areas are widened by acid rain water
to leave deep gashes called grikes. Between the grikes are flat topped yet
dissected blocks known as clints. In time the grikes widen and the clints are
weathered down until a lower bedding plane is exposed and the process starts
all over again.
Diagram

o Drainage features – rivers starting from surrounding impermeable rocks may

disappear down swallow holes or sinks as soon as they reach the limestone.
Streams will flow underground following enlarged bedding planes. They may
enlarge vertical joints and form a new path along new lower bedding planes
abandoning their earlier paths producing underground caves and potholes.
The river comes back to the surface when it meets impermeable rock.
o Underground depositional features – water seeping through the roof of a curve
will loose some of the carbon dioxide leading to the crystallization of calcium
bi carbonate back to calcium carbonate. This will lead to the formation of

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 Weathering of Rocks

stalactites on the roof of caves and stalagmites at the bottom. The stalactites
and stalagmites may in time join to form pillars inside the curves.

The Importance or Value of Weathering.

1. It is responsible for the formation of soil which supports agriculture and settlement.
2. Weathering shapes the landscape as we know it today e.g. valleys, spurs, hills and
mountains. Some of the landforms become tourist attractions which create
employment and generate foreign currency
3. It provides much of the material from which sedimentary rocks are formed.

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