T2: Quantenmechanik

Sheet 2, Course 17019

Professor: H. Ruhl, Exercises: N. Elkina, S. Rykovanov
Discussion of solutions: Nov. 1-5, 2010

Problem 1: Operations with commutators.

a) Express [AB,C] with the help of the commutators [A,C] and [B,C];
b) Prove the Jakobi identity: [A,[B,C]]+[B,[C,A]]+[C,[A,B]]=0.

Solution 1:
a) [AB,C]=ABC-CAB=ABC-ACB+ACB-CAB=A[BC]+[AC]B;
b) [A,[B,C]] = [A,BC]-[A,CB]=[CB,A]-[BC,A]=C[BA]-[CA]B-B[CA]+[BA]C=[C,[BA]]-[B,[CA]]=
=-[C,[AB]]-[B,[CA]].

Problem 2: Pauli matrices.

Repeat the properties of the Pauli matrices σ0,1,2,3 , where

       
1 0 0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ0 := , σ1 := , σ2 := , σ3 := . (1)
0 1 1 0 i 0 0 −1
P3
Suppose a 2x2 matrix X is written as X = a0 · σ0 + i=1 σi ai , where a0,1,2,3 are numbers.

a) How are a0,1,2,3 related to tr(X) and tr(σk X)?

b) Obtain a0,1,2,3 in terms of the matrix elements Xi,j .

Solution 2.
The properties of Pauli matrices are (obtained simply by multiplication of the matrices):
1) tr(σ1,2,3 ) = 0;
2) tr(σ0 ) = 2, σ0 is the identity matrix;
2
3) σ0,1,2,3 = I wherePthe right part is meant to be a 2x2 identity matrix;
4) σa σb = δa,b I + i εa,b,c σc , for a, b, c running from 1 to 3. Here εa,b,c is the so-called Levi-Civita or antysym-
c
metric symbol, which gives 1 if (a, b, c) = (1, 2, 3),(2, 3, 1) or (3, 1, 2), gives −1 if (a, b, c) = (1, 3, 2),(2, 1, 3) or
(3, 2, 1) and gives 0 otherwise.
For example, σ1 σ2 = −σ2 σ1 = iσ3 .

Now we can answer the question a):

3
X
tr(X) = a0 tr(σ0 ) + ai tr(σi ) (2)
i=1

As the trace of σ1,2,3 is zero, then trX = 2a0 .

1) Obviously nothing changes when we multiply X by σ0 as the latter is the identity matrix.
2) Using property 3) we get tr(σk X) = 2ak , where k = 1, 2, 3.

b) One can explicitly write down the matrix X:

 
a0 + a3 a1 − ia2
X= (3)
a1 + ia2 a0 − a3

And it is easy to calculate how ak are connected to Xi,j :

a0 + a3 = X1,1 a1 − ia2 = X1,2 (4)

a0 − a3 = X2,2 a1 + ia2 = X2,1 (5)

Thus,
X1,1 + X2,2 X1,2 + X2,1
a0 = a1 = (6)
2 2
X1,1 − X2,2 X1,2 − X2,1
a3 = a3 = i (7)
2 2

Problem 3: Operation with traces.

a) Prove that tr(X) is independent of representation;

b) Using the bra-ket algebra prove that tr(XY)=tr(YX).

Solution 3.
Suppose we have a Hilbert space spanned by the eigenvectors {|a0 i} of some Hermitian operator A. Then the
operator X can be represented in the matrix form:
X
X= |a0 >< a0 |X|a00 >< a00 |. (8)
a0 ,a00

Here < a0 |X|a00 > is the matrix element of operator X in the basis of |a0 i. The trace or spur of the operator is
per definition: X
trX = ha0 |X|a0 i. (9)
a0

Now remember the closure or completeness relation:

X
|a0 iha0 | = I. (10)
a0

a) Let’s see now how the trace changes when we go to another representation, meaning when we choose another
basis, say |b0 i. Using the eq. (10) we can put the identity operator anywhere in expression (9), for example:
X X
trX = ha0 |X|a0 i = ha0 |b0 ihb0 |X|b00 ihb00 |a0 i. (11)
a0 a0 ,b0 ,b00

The expressions of the kind ha|bi are just numbers so we can move them inside the sum. Remembering that
hb0 |b00 i = δb0 ,b00 , we finally get
X X
trX = ha0 |X|a0 i = hb0 |X|b0 i, (12)
a0 b0
which means that the trace of the operator is independent of its representation.
b) Operators X and Y in some basis {|a0 i} can be expressed with the help of eq. (8), then for tr(XY ) one can
write: X
tr(XY ) = ha(1) |a(2) iha(2) |X|a(3) iha(3) |a(4) iha(4) |Y |a(5) iha(5) |a(1) i. (13)
a(1) ,a(2) ,a(3) ,a(4) ,a(5)

Using the orthonormality of eigenvectors and the fact that ha(k) |Z|a(m) i is a number, we can rearrange the sum
and get that tr(XY )=tr(Y X).

Problem 4: Functions of the operator.

Suppose A is a Hermitian operator and its eigenvalues and eigenvectors are known. In ket-bra form find the
expression for:

exp[i · f (A)] =? (14)

Solution 4.
First of all one has to understand what a function of the operator means.
∞
X
g(A) = cn An , (15)
n=0

where cn are such that

∞
X
cn xn = g(x), (16)
n=0

for real x.
Next, we observe that
An |a0 i = (a0 )n |a0 i. (17)
0
That means that in the matrix form any function of operator A in the basis of its eigenfunctions {a } will be
X
g(A) = |a00 iha00 |g(A)|a0 iha0 |. (18)
a00 ,a0

Using eqns. (15) and (17) we can conclude that in equation (18) instead of g(A) we can write g(a0 ) which is a
number. Thus finally we get
X
g(A) = g(a0 )|a0 iha0 |. (19)
a0

As we did everything for arbitrary function g(A) we can now easily put in the function exp[i · f (A)].

Problem 5: Eigenvectors and eigenvalues.

Consider a ket-space spanned by the eigenkets |a0 i of a Hermitian operator A. There is no degeneracy.

Prove
Q that:
a) (A − a0 ) is the null-operator;
a0
Q (A−a00 )
b) What is a significance of this operator: a0 −a00 ;
a00 6=a0
c) Illustrate a) and b) using A set to equal to Sz of a spin 1/2 system. Hint: Sz = h̄2 (|+ih+| − |−ih−|).
Solution 5.
First of all, one should notice that operators (A − a0 ) and (A − a00 ) commute when a0 and a00 are numbers.
a) Any ket can be represented as a linear combination of eigenkets |a0 i. That is whyQ it is enough to see what
this operator does to the arbitrary eigenket. As all the components of the product (A − a0 ) commute, while
a0
acting on |a000 i we can always put the (A − a000 ) operator last in the product.
(A − a000 )|a000 i = A|a000 i − a000 |a000 i = (a000 − a000 )|a000 i = 0|a000 i.
Q (A−a00 ) 0
b) It is obvious that acting with X = a0 −a00 on any eigenstate other that |a i will give the 0-ket according
a00 6=a0
to the previous point. Let’s see what happens if we act on the |a0 i state. Any of the components of the product
will yield:
A − a00 0 a0 − a00 0
|a i = |a i = 1|a0 i. (20)
a0 − a00 a0 − a00
P
If we have a system in a state that is given by the linear combination |bi = ca |ai of the eigenkets of Hermitian
a
operator A, then acting with operator X on this state will yield:

X|bi = ca0 |a0 i. (21)

c) Eigenvectors of the Sz operator are |+i and |−i with respective eigenvalues h̄/2 and −h̄/2.
The null-operator O takes the form:

O = (Sz − h̄/2)(Sz + h̄/2) = h̄2 (|+ih+| − |−ih−| − 1)(|+ih+| − |−ih−| + 1) (22)

Taking into account the orthonormality of |+i and |−i it easy to see that this is indeed the null-operator. Using
operator O on |+i state one gets”

O|+i = h̄2 (|+ih+| − |−ih−| − 1)(|+ih+| − |−ih−| + 1)|+i = (23)

2 2
= h̄ (|+ih+| − |−ih−| − 1) · 2|+i = 2h̄ (1|+i − 0|+i − 1|+i) = 0|+i (24)

Analogously one can see that acting operator O on the |−i state yields 0.
Illustration of the second operator b) is done in the similar way.

Problem 6: Spin 1/2 system revisited.

Using the orthonormality of |+i and |−i prove the commutation and anticommutation relations of Si :

h̄2
[Si , Sj ] = iεijk h̄Sk , {Si , Sj } = δi,j . (25)
2
use:
h̄
Sx = (|+ih−| + |−ih+|) (26)
2
ih̄
Sy = (−|+ih−| + |−ih+|) (27)
2
h̄
Sz = (|+ih+| − |−ih−|) (28)
2

Solution 6. Let’s illustrate the commutation and anticommutation relationship using only Sx and Sy - other
components are done analogously.
 h̄2
Sx Sy = i (|+ih−| + |−ih+|)(−|+ih−| + |−ih+|) = (29)
4
h̄2
=i (−|+ih−|+ih−| + |+ih−|−ih+| − |−ih+|+ih−| + |−ih+|−ih+|) (30)
4
Note that h±|∓i = 0 and h±|±i = 1, thus
h̄2 h̄
Sx Sy = i (|+ih+| − |−ih−|) = i Sz (31)
4 2
One can also find that Sy Sx = −i h̄2 Sz . Thus,

[Sx , Sy ] = ih̄Sz {Sx , Sy } = 0 [Sy , Sx ] = −ih̄Sz . (32)

Now, let’s find Sx Sx :
h2 h̄2
Sx Sx = (|+ih−| + |−ih+|) = (|+ih+| + |−ih−|), (33)
4 4
where |+ih+| + |−ih−| can be seen to be the identity operator I. Doing same calculations for other operators
one can see that the relations given in the problem description are indeed valid.
Problem 7: Finding eigenvectors and eigenvalues.

A certain observable in Quantum Mechanics has a 3x3 matrix representation:

 
0 1 0
1 
A= √ 1 0 1  (34)
2 0 1 0
Find the normalized eigenvectors of this observable and the corresponding eigenvalues.

Solution 7.
Finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors is a standard procedure. One wants to find such λ and x that Ax = λx.
In other words one wants to find solutions to the equation
(A − λI)x = 0. (35)
Note that λ is a number and I is the identity operator. In order the system of linear equations (35) has the
solutions it is necessary that the determinant of its matrix is 0, so det(A − λI) = 0, which is called secular or
characteristic equation. In our case, finding the determinant yields:

λ(λ2 − 2) = 0 (36)
which has three roots λ1 = 0, λ2 = 1 and λ3 = −1.
Now one can plug each of the three roots into the set of equations (35) and find three solutions, i.e. three
corresponding eigenvectors. For λ1 = 0 one gets:

  
0 1 0 x1
1 
√ 1 0 1   x2  = 0 (37)
2 0 1 0 x3
with solution X1 = √12 (1, 0, −1).
For λ2 = 1 one gets:
 √  
− 2 √1 0 x1
1 
√ 1 − 2 √1   x2  = 0 (38)
2 0 1 − 2 x3
 √
with the solution X2 = (1/2, 2/2, 1/2). √
For λ3 = −1 one can find the solution X3 = (1/2, − 2/2, 1/2).

Problem 8: Anticommuting operators.

Two Hermitian operators anticommute {A, B} = AB + BA = 0. Is it possible to have a simultaneous eigenket

of A and B? If yes, find an example.

Solution 8.
Example:
   
0 0 0 00 0
A= 0 0 1  B =  0 0 − i . (39)
0 1 0 0 i 0

The eigenvector is (1, 0, 0) and the eigenvalue is 0.

Problem 9: Exponent of the sum of the operators.

Show that if [A, B] = ic, then

 c
exp(A + B) = exp(A) · exp(B) · exp −i . (40)
2

Solution 9. This is the well-known Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula.

Let’s introduce the operator eλ(A+B) . We are allowed to write it in the following form:
2
eλ(A+B) = eλA eλB e−iλ c/2
G(λ), (41)

where G is the function that one needs to find. Differentiating both parts over λ and using the equality

eλA B = (B + iλc)eλA (42)

(which can be evaluated by expanding the eλA and using [A,B]=ic), we find that dG/dλ = 0. That means
that function G is independent of λ. Putting λ = 0 one gets G = 1 and then putting λ = 1 one gets the
Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula.