SPE 84306
Realistic Assessment of Proppant Pack Conductivity for Material Selection
R. D. Barree, Barree & Associates, S. A. Cox, Marathon Oil Company, V. L. Barree, Barree & Associates, M. W. Conway,
Stim-Lab Inc.
Copyright 2003, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A., 5 – 8 October 2003.
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Abstract
Proppant selection in hydraulic fracturing is a critical
economic and technical decision that affects stimulation and
field development economics. In many cases the selection is
based on laboratory data from standardized API conductivity
tests on clean packs at specified stress and temperature. These
tests predict conductivities that are optimistic compared to
observed field performance. Often a laboratory measured
conductivity difference of only 5-10% is considered a
significant variance when applied to the producing life of a
well. The significance of these small differences, however, is
often overwhelmed by other factors affecting fracture
performance in the field.
The selection of a particular proppant should be based on
an identifiable difference in performance under field
conditions. This requires an accurate assessment of all the
damage mechanisms that can and do occur during fracturing
and their impact on final conductivity. This paper outlines the
primary damage mechanisms and their effect on conductivity,
fracture cleanup and ultimate stimulation response. The
expected variance in laboratory measurements of conductivity
is also quantified.
Introduction
In hydraulic fracture treatment design one of the most
important decisions is which proppant to use. The choice of
proppant also directly impacts overall job economics,
treatment size, and the ultimate productivity of the well. The
decision is commonly driven by balancing effective fracture
length and conductivity against reservoir flow capacity, as in
the McGuire-Sikora folds-of-increase curves, or through
estimates of dimensionless fracture flow capacity (FCD).1
Any of these methods require an accurate assessment of
proppant pack conductivity under reservoir flow conditions
along with knowledge of reservoir deliverability. Frequently
the proppant pack conductivity is estimated from standardized
API conductivity tests of proppants in a linear flow cell at a
specified pack concentration, closure stress, and temperature.
The impact of time at stress, rate of stress application, and
other factors that affect these “baseline” conductivity tests has
been documented.2
One aspect of these tests that has not been well
documented is the expected statistical variation in laboratory
results when all tests are conducted as similarly as possible in
terms of cell loading, stress application, aging at stress, fluid
compatibility, and flowing conditions. The choice of a
particular proppant, based on superior performance
characteristics, requires that the performance of two different
materials be statistically significant. This paper addresses the
statistical variance in laboratory conductivity measurements
on similar proppant samples at similar stress, temperature, and
flow conditions. In this case “similar” means as close to the
same as can be determined in the lab.
Beyond the reproducibility of laboratory measurements,
some of the principal mechanisms affecting final proppant-
pack conductivity are addressed. Specifically these include:
• Non-Darcy flow: What is the velocity distribution in
the fracture and how does it affect conductivity loss?
• Multiphase flow: What does the two- and three-phase
relative permeability curve for a proppant pack look
like, can it be measured, and how important is it?
• Multiphase non-Darcy flow: How does multiphase
flow in the proppant pack change β, velocity,
apparent flowing density, and viscosity? What is the
effect on final conductivity?
• Gravity and viscous segregation: Do we really know
what the flow path is in a proppant pack, how much
cleans up, and what the local velocity is? How does
this affect conductivity?
• Reservoir flow capacity: Does the reservoir
determine the amount of conductivity required? Is
there ever “too much”?
Models for fracture cleanup, filter-cake deposition and
removal, multiphase flow, regained bulk-pack permeability
and non-Darcy flow must be integrated with reservoir
transient deliverability to determine final fracture
conductivity. An integrated fracture-reservoir model is
presented that offers a method to consistently select proppants
based on realistically attainable, and predictable, ultimate
2 SPE 84306

fracture conductivity. The inclusion of the effects of all
identifiable damage mechanisms is necessary to economically
optimize any stimulation design.
A short note on permeability
The permeability of a porous medium, specifically a proppant
pack, is of critical importance in optimizing fracture
performance. To understand proppant pack conductivity it is
first necessary to understand the nature of permeability.
Darcy’s original work was conducted on unconsolidated
sand packs. His experiments showed that, at least over the
range of conditions he studied, there was a linear relationship
between imposed potential gradient and volumetric flow rate.3
Details of local velocity distribution within the pack, actual
flow-path length, and path geometry were not considered.
Instead “superficial” velocity and overall sample area and
length were used to describe the flow.
Darcy designated the linear constant of proportionality (k)
as the system permeability. Since that time many people have
stated that permeability is an intrinsic material property, when
it is actually an experimental proportionality constant that
describes the overall (statistical) performance of a particular
experiment where the porous medium, fluid, and flow
conditions are fixed. The description of the porous medium
includes its grain size distribution, packing arrangement, and
other factors.
An examination of Darcy’s contrived units of permeability
(cp-cm2/atm-sec) shows that the constant, k, is used to
Statistical variation in proppant data
The choice of one proppant over another should be based on
an expectation of measurable difference in their performance
or cost. To quantify the difference in performance among
materials it is necessary to understand the expected variations
in performance of one material under as close to identical
packing and stress history conditions as possible. Data used in
this study were obtained in cells packed according to
procedures set forth in API-RP61.4 The recommended
procedure states that the pack should be leveled with a blade
and not vibrated or tamped. Stim-Lab has amassed a large
amount of data on many proppant types and sizes, under these
standardized test conditions, that can be used to estimate the
statistical variation in both width and permeability.
Variation in pack width
Numerous measurements of pack width versus stress have
been conducted on many proppant types and sizes with the
same proppant loading (pounds of proppant per square foot)
and stress ramp. Data from a representative series of tests is
shown in Figure 1 for 2#/ft2 16/30 white sand.
White Sand (16/30) 2#/ft2
0.250
0.240
0.230
Pack Width, inches

0.220

conveniently describe the observed linear flow relationship 0.210

suggested by his data, and not a material property. In 0.200

0.190
determining the permeability of a proppant pack under varying
0.180
stress conditions this subtle distinction is important. The
0.170
permeability of any proppant pack is dependent on its packing
0.160
arrangement which is not always the same, for the same 0.150
material. As closure stress increases, the packing geometry 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
changes, grains begin to fail and the entire pore and grain Closure Stress, psi
system changes along with pack permeability. It should be
expected that permeability of a proppant pack behave more as Figure 1: Pack width versus stress for 16/30 white sand
a statistical measure of flow capacity, dependent on the
experimental conditions and initial packing state, and not as an The largest variation in width is caused by the original,
intrinsic material property. unstressed packing arrangement. Influence of the initial
packing state is carried through the remaining stress ramp and
Proppant pack conductivity affects pack compression and re-arrangement under increased
Proppant pack conductivity is defined as the product of pack loading. In the test set shown, as in all standard tests, great
permeability and width. Given the expected variance in care has been taken to ensure that the initial grain packing is
permeability already discussed, the conductivity should also as consistent as possible.
be dependent on initial grain packing and grain size 1000 psi 2000 psi 4000 psi 6000 psi 8000 psi
distribution. It should also change with stress as the packing
density and arrangement change and grains break. The same Mean 0.228 0.224 0.217 0.205 0.195
packing re-arrangement will also affect the pack width. Standard Error 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Standard Deviation 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.002
Conductivity, like permeability, is a representation of a St Dev (% of Mean) 1.139 1.139 1.393 1.561 1.051
specific packing condition and grain size distribution, not an Minimum 0.225 0.222 0.211 0.202 0.194
intrinsic material property. To describe conductivity we must Maximum 0.235 0.23 0.223 0.213 0.201
rely on a statistically significant number of observations under Count 13 13 13 11 11
Table 1: Statistical analysis of pack width results for 16/30 white
similar packing conditions and along similar loading paths. sand
The observations can be separated into apparent pack width
and permeability. The statistical range of error in each Even with standardized cell loading procedures there is a
measurement can be quantified. consistent variation in measured pack width using the same
proppant. A summary of a statistical analysis of the data from
SPE 84306 3

the tests shown above is presented in Table 1. These data
indicate that a variation in expected pack width of less than
2% is expected under ideal packing conditions.
Data for 20/40 mesh white sand is presented in Figure 2
and Table 2. Similar data sets have been analyzed for many
other proppant types and sizes. When the tests are conducted
under ideal conditions by the same laboratory using the same
packing techniques the typical standard deviation is less than
2% of the mean value for a set of measurements. Including
data from other laboratories increases the maximum expected
standard deviation to 5% of mean. In general proppant pack
width should be predictable to within 5% for any specified
concentration as long as the pack is relatively consolidated.
White Sand (20/40) 2#/ft2
0.250
0.240
0.230
Pack Width, inches
proppant pack consisting of 5 #/ft2 intermediate-strength
ceramic.
Loss of width to embedment is difficult to quantify and
cannot be observed without disassembly of the proppant pack.
It affects both available flow width, hence internal fluid
velocity in the pack, and conductivity. Its effects are
sometimes accounted for as a decrease in permeability and
sometimes as a change in pack width. The way internal width
losses are handled can significantly affect velocity-dependent
(non-Darcy) conductivity estimates.
The figure also illustrates a second source of effective
pack-width loss that is less readily apparent from outside
measurements: the width loss from spalling of the formation
into the proppant pack. Spalling is essentially the extrusion of
formation material into the proppant pack. The formation
material is usually crushed formation grains or fines generated
by the embedment process as the harder proppant grains are
forced into the fracture wall.

0.220
0.210
0.200
0.190
0.180
0.170
0.160
0.150
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Closure Stress, psi

Figure 2: Pack width versus stress for 20/40 white sand

Figure 3: Embedment and spalling in soft formations

1000 psi 2000 psi 4000 psi 6000 psi 8000 psi
Mean 0.226 0.222 0.215 0.205 0.195
Variation in permeability
Standard Error 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001
Standard Deviation 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 As with the measurement of pack width, the variation in
St Dev (% of Mean) 0.561 0.491 0.783 1.503 1.313 initial packing conditions also influences the measurement of
Minimum 0.224 0.221 0.211 0.199 0.191 pack permeability, but to a larger degree. Again, taking as
Maximum 0.228 0.225 0.217 0.208 0.199
much care as possible to form a consistent initial pack, the
Count 13 13 13 11 11
Table 2: Statistical analysis of pack width results for 20/40
data in Figure 4 show a typical variation in permeability as a
white sand function of closure stress for 16/30 mesh white sand.

Secondary changes in pack width

Permeability of 16/30 White Sand
The changes in width shown above represent the
measurable decrease in external or overall pack width. The 1000.0
primary cause of these changes in width is grain re-
arrangement as packing structure changes under load, and
Permeability, darcy

grain failure at contact points.

Another mechanism that affects external pack width is
grain embedment into the walls of the fracture or facings of 100.0
the laboratory test cell. The Stim-Lab data is generated using
hard Ohio sandstone plates as the pack facings. This sandstone
has a Young’s Modulus of about 5 MMpsi. Embedment at
10,000 psi closure stress reduces the pack width by about 1/8
of a grain diameter on each face, or roughly 0.006-0.008” 10.0
overall. 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Embedment losses increase dramatically for softer rocks. Closure Stress, psi
For nearly unconsolidated sands the pack width loss to
embedment can reach one full grain diameter or more on each Figure 4: Permeability vs. stress for 16/30 white sand
face. Figure 3 shows embedment in a high concentration
The statistical analysis summary for the data set shown is
presented in Table 3. Numerous data sets gathered under ideal
4 SPE 84306

packing conditions on various proppants indicate that a Overall conductivity variations

standard deviation of +/- 10% of the mean expected Taken together the variations in pack width and
permeability at low stress is common. The trend of permeability show that conductivity variations of +/- 20%
permeability reduction with stress is also slightly affected by about a mean are within laboratory accuracy for a given
initial packing. The changes in onset of pack compaction and proppant type and size
grain failure are included in the observed variance in
permeability at higher stresses. With all materials, the error Packing of granular materials
as a percentage of the mean increases and easily reaches +/- The effects of stress on observed pack width and
25% at high stress. This is a natural consequence of the permeability are caused by the development of a non-uniform
properties of granular materials under stress. Therefore, a stress distribution in the proppant pack. This observation has
representation of the properties of a granular pack is, by been confirmed by several studies of the properties of granular
definition, statistical in nature and must be the product of materials in various areas of industrial research. In these areas,
replicate measurements. as in hydraulic fracturing, the packing arrangement, flow
capacity, mechanical structure and ability to withstand stress
1000 psi 2000 psi 4000 psi 6000 psi 8000 psi are key properties of granular materials. Pioneering work with
photoelastic (birefrigent under stress) disks, clearly shows that
Mean 510.54 450.08 279.69 123.73 46.62
Standard Error 12.79 8.34 9.30 7.14 3.60 granular systems are dominated by stress chains corresponding
Standard Deviation 46.13 30.09 33.52 23.67 11.93 to the paths along which the majority of the force is carried.5
St Dev (% of Mean) 9.04 6.68 11.98 19.13 25.59 The stress chains lead to high intergranular stresses at grain
Sample Variance 2128.13 905.11 1123.50 560.42 142.27
Minimum 422.92 395.24 242.26 88.79 26.04
contacts, and to areas of very low stress in the same pack.
Maximum 585.28 505.91 338.57 150.00 63.94 Observations confirm that forces in granular systems are
Count 13 13 13 11 11 inhomogeneous and intermittent, if the system is deformed by
Table 3: Statistical analysis of permeability results for 16/30 the application of an external load such as the closing of the
white sand
fracture. This leads to local grain failure even under conditions
Similar data for the 20/40 mesh white sand tests are shown where the average stress appears to be below the strength of
in Figure 5 and Table 4. The variations in measured the granular material. The result is an increasing inconsistency
permeability are very similar for these, and other, proppant in behavior of granular packs at elevated stress.
types. Changes in pack concentration have little apparent
affect on the error in permeability measurement. Mechanisms affecting field conductivity
Statistical variations in proppant pack conductivity are a
function of packing arrangement and the development of a
Permeability of 20/40 Whie Sand non-uniform stress field in the pack, when subjected to outside
loads. When a proppant pack is placed in a fracture several
1000.0
other damage mechanisms also affect the final conductivity.
These include the effects of filter-cake, gel residue, non-Darcy
flow, and multiphase flow including gravity and capillary
Permeability, darcy

gradients. The impact of these potential damage mechanisms

is cumulative.
100.0

Filter-cake and gel residue damage

The data shown above represents the conductivity of a
clean proppant pack containing only compatible brine such as
10.0
2% KCl. Additional changes to conductivity result from the
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
addition of a polymeric frac fluid. During fracturing an
aqueous suspension of polymer deposits a filter-cake of
Closure Stress, psi
concentrated polymer on the fracture wall.6 The thickness of
Figure 5: Permeability vs. stress for 20/40 white sand the filter-cake can reach almost 0.055” (1.4 mm), or more than
one proppant grain diameter for 20/40 mesh proppant.7 The
ultimate thickness of the filter-cake depends on formation
1000 psi 2000 psi 4000 psi 6000 psi 8000 psi
permeability, fluid efficiency, local shear rate causing erosion
Mean 223.77 191.65 135.86 68.73 29.98 of the deposited cake, and many other factors.8 The filter cake
Standard Error 6.33 4.77 4.36 4.09 2.48 deposition decreases the effective fracture width during
Standard Deviation 20.99 15.81 14.48 12.26 7.44 pumping and causes the proppant to be contained between the
St Dev (% of Mean) 9.38 8.25 10.66 17.83 24.82
Sample Variance 440.71 249.94 209.58 150.22 55.38
layers of gel cake on the fracture walls. The polymer in the
Minimum 186.83 168.60 114.13 50.73 20.47 filter cake can reach concentrations equivalent to 300-400
Maximum 264.58 226.01 157.23 84.81 39.59 lbs/Mgal.
Count 11 11 11 9 9 During fracture closure the filter cake is extruded into the
Table 4: Statistical analysis of permeability results for 20/40 proppant pack and invades the pore space of the pack. Using
white sand
an average porosity of 40% for the proppant pack, the 0.055”
wall filter cake can extrude to a depth of up to 0.137” (2.33
SPE 84306
mm) in the pack. The concentrated gel can extrude to a depth
of more than 4 grain diameters into the pack from each wall.
Under the worst-case conditions the concentrated gel cake can
fill a 2 lb/ft2 proppant pack.
The polymer gel residue behaves essentially as a solid
once it has come to rest, and may develop a substantial yield-
point that resists flow. This makes displacement of the gel by
produced fluids very difficult. The presence of the gel cake
occludes pore space and flow capacity within the proppant
pack and, primarily, decreases the available cross-sectional
flow area or effective pack width. Open channels for fluid
flow through the proppant pack, or between the gel-invaded
zones, represent a small fraction of the total pack cross-
section. This results in decreased conductivity and increased
flow velocity in the available pore channels.
As with formation spalling, width losses to gel filer-cake
extrusion are internal losses and cannot be easily quantified
from external pack-width measurements. The impact on
conductivity damage and the manner in which it is
apportioned between pack width and permeability damage is
not reported in any standardized way. Specific measurements
have been made to determine the effects of gel filter-cake on
cleanup and proppant pack conductivity. These tests show that
the presence of a filter-cake has a much more significant
impact on the conductivity of a narrow (low concentration)
pack than on a thicker (high concentration) pack. Given the
same overall regained permeability in the portion of the pack
actually available for flow, this observation is consistent with
a decrease in effective flow width inside the pack.
Data from a series of cleanup tests in 1, 2, and 4# lb/ft2
proppant packs using the same fluid and proppant is shown in
Figure 6. In these tests a dynamic filer-cake was first
deposited in a fixed-width cell. The proppant slurry was then
placed in the conditioned cell and the closure stress increased
with continuous leakoff until the cell was closed on the
proppant pack. The closure stress was then ramped at
consistent rate to the test conditions. Regained pack
permeability to 2% KCl brine was then measured at a series of
increasing flow rates. In general the removal of gel damage
and filter-cake can be correlated to the pack effective, or
pseudo-Reynolds number (Rep) established during clean-up.
The correlating parameter is termed a pseudo-Reynolds
number because the term ρv/µ is not a dimensionless group. A
true Reynolds number requires the inclusion of a characteristic
length in the numerator.
The data points on the plot show the actual measured
regained permeability compared to a clean pack with no gel
residue. The lines are generated by a model of the cleanup
process that accounts for the presence of gel filter-cake
through a reduction of pack width that is independent of the
reduction in bulk permeability. Both the filter-cake and the
dispersed bulk gel residue are assumed to clean-up as a
function of increasing Rep. Clean-up rates for the two damage
mechanisms are different. The amount of damage from the
two mechanisms is a strong function of pack width, given the
same filter-cake and gel residue in the same proppant. The
conductivity multiplier resulting from regained permeability is
given by Frp and the factor for filter-cake loss is Ffc.
5
100
90
80
70
% Regained Permeability
60
4#/ft2 Pack
50
40
2#/ft2 Pack
30
20
10
0
1#/ft2 Pack
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Effective Reynold's Number, rho*v/mu
Figure 6: Variation in cleanup in different concentration packs
caused by filter-cake
One problem with the interpretation of these results is that
the actual flow velocity, hence the effective pseudo-Reynolds
number is not known since the open channel width is
indeterminate. During clean-up the actual flow width changes
as filter-cake is eroded or displaced. The lab data can only be
based on an apparent (external) pack width and superficial
velocity. Note that the combined effects of filter-cake and gel
residue can account for conductivity damage ranging from
about 20% up to a factor of 10 or more. In extreme cases,
where the entire pack is filled with filter-cake material, the
conductivity can be completely eliminated.
Non-Darcy flow effects
The same difficulty in accounting for superficial versus
interstitial velocity occurs when dealing with non-Darcy flow
effects in a fracture containing gel residue, filter-cake, and
possibly multiple flowing phases. Non-Darcy flow is usually
represented by the Forchheimer equation.
dP µv
= + βρ v 2 ……………………………………(1)
dL k
Darcy’s Law predicts a linear relation between pressure
gradient and flow rate. At high flow rates a deviation from
linearity is commonly observed and a second-order term is
invoked to account for the non-linearity. In Forchheimer’s
equation, the first term represents the Darcy linear pressure
gradient in terms of superficial velocity (v), fluid viscosity (µ),
and the inverse of permeability (k). The second term
represents the deviation from linearity caused by inertial
losses as flowing fluid expands and contracts while moving
from pore throats to pore bodies and back again. The non-
linear pressure gradient is expressed as a function of fluid
density (ρ), the square of the superficial velocity, and a
constant (β). As with the Darcy permeability, the constant β is
a contrived proportionality constant with units of atm-sec2/g.
Note that, as with the definition of permeability, the constant
contains the gravitational acceleration and accounts for
conversion of mass to force, among other things.
The primary difficulty in estimating the effect of non-
Darcy flow is that only the superficial velocity, as defined by
6 SPE 84306

the external pack width, can be estimated from the volumetric 0.005
flow rate. The impact on interstitial velocity of internal pack- 0.0045
width changes caused by gel filter-cake and spalling, along
0.004
with areal variations in flow, caused by gel residue and
0.0035
saturation profiles, cannot be readily determined. Instead, the

Beta, atm-sec 2/g

relationship of observed superficial velocity to total pressure 0.003

drop must be used to estimate an effective value of β that may 0.0025

be a function of many variables. The apparent value of β is 0.002

used to describe the change in apparent conductivity at high 0.0015
velocity, but does not account for the increased interstitial 0.001
velocity caused by occlusion of pore space and elimination of
0.0005
flow area.
0
The inclusion of a second (or third) flowing phase in the 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1
pore system, or the presence of an immobile gel residue also Gas Fractional Flow, fg
changes the geometry of the pore system and affects the actual
Figure 8: Apparent variation of β with gas fractional flow
flow path. In some cases this results in a decrease in inertial
losses that partially offsets the expected increase in non-Darcy The impact of non-Darcy flow effects on overall pack
pressure drop. conductivity, or total pressure drop, can be expressed as a
The data plotted in Figure 7 were obtained in a series of multiplier on the Darcy pressure drop or divisor of pack
flow experiments on one proppant pack under conditions of conductivity. The appropriate multiplier, the non-Darcy factor
steady-state flow with gas and water at various fractional
(Fnd), is obtained by factoring the term µv/k out of both terms
flows. Once steady-state conditions were established the total
in the Forchheimer equation. The total non-Darcy pressure
flow rate was varied at constant fractional flow and the
drop can be expressed in terms of the expected Darcy pressure
apparent permeability was determined. The results are shown
gradient as shown in equation (2).
as a Forchheimer plot with a separate line for each fractional
flow. The slope of each line is β for that flow condition and
 dP     
  = 1 + β kρ v  ×  dP 
the intercept is the inverse of the apparent Darcy permeability.
……………...(2)
0.1
     
0.09
fg=0.939
 dL total  µ   dL  Darcy
0.08
fg=0.970
In equation (2), the term (1+βkρv/µ) is the non-Darcy factor
Inverse Permeability, 1/k

0.07

0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 5 10 15
Pseudo Reynold's Number, ρ v / µ
Figure 7: Forchheimer plot for various gas fractional flows
The data clearly shows decreasing effective gas
permeability and increasing β as gas fractional flow decreases.
The first result is the expected impact of two-phase relative
permeability. The second result implies that the presence of
the water in the pore system changes both the velocity
distribution and the interconnected pore system in which the
phases flow.
Plotting the slopes of each curve against their respective
gas fractional flow values generates an empirical correlation
of β with fg. Because of the limited data available, it is not
clear whether this correlation is general, but it provides insight
into one possible impact of saturation on the internal flow
dynamics of a proppant pack.
(Fnd) which is the ratio of the total pressure gradient to the
Darcy pressure gradient. Detailed numerical modeling of the
fg=0.988 flow profile along the length of the fracture shows that the
fg=0.994
appropriate superficial velocity for use in equation (2) is about
2/3 of the velocity at the fracture-wellbore interface. This
adjustment accounts for the decrease in velocity toward the tip
of the fracture as overall volumetric rate decreases.
fg=1.0
It is interesting to note that the non-Darcy pressure-drop
20 25 30 35 multiplier, Fnd, is 1+Re where the term βk serves as the
apparent characteristic length in the dimensionless group, as
suggested by Jones.8,9 Application of typical values for the
terms in Fnd shows that the ratio of the total pressure drop to
the Darcy pressure drop can range from 1.0 to as high as 15 or
more under normal field conditions.
Multiphase flow and relative permeability
Under virtually all realistic field conditions, the proppant
pack contains more than one fluid phase, whether there is only
one mobile phase or several. The proppant is placed in a
fracturing fluid that may be aqueous or oil-based. This fluid
always leaves a residual saturation behind, determined by the
relative-permeability and capillary pressure curves for the
specific proppant pack. Additional liquids may be produced
from the reservoir as mobile phases or through condensation
in the proppant pack, or even in the wellbore. Wellbore fluids
can be introduced into the proppant pack during shut-in
periods or when the well rate falls below the loading rate for
the tubular configuration.
SPE 84306
Historically the effects of relative permeability in the
proppant pack have been largely ignored. In recent years some
attempts have been made to characterize the relative
permeability of a proppant pack, at least for two-phase gas-
water flow. Figure 9 shows a Cartesian plot of a typical
relative permeability curve for 20/40 mesh light-weight
ceramic proppant. These data were obtained by Stim-Lab
through a series of steady-state and unsteady-state
displacements under 4000 psi closure stress using a 2#/ft2
proppant pack.
The rapid decline in brine permeability at very low gas
saturation is fundamentally important to proppant pack clean-
up. Once the gas saturation in the pack becomes mobile, the
rate of water desaturation decreases dramatically. At the same
time, the relative permeability to gas remains at a low value
until the gas saturation can increase above about 40%. At this
gas saturation the water relative permeability is less than 0.05
and its mobility is very small.
1 0.189. This will reduce the overall proppant pack conductivity
0.9
0.8
0.7
Relative Permeability
0.6
0.5
0.4
krw
0.3
krg
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Gas Saturation
Figure 9: Gas-water rel-perm data for a typical proppant pack
It is important to stress the difference between relative
permeability and fractional flow. The fractional flow of a
phase is defined as the phase flow rate divided by total flow
rate. It is determined by the ratio of phase mobilities which
include both the relative permeability and viscosity of each
flowing phase. The fractional flow of gas, fg, is given by
equation (3).
1 Gravity segregation and capillary effects
fg = ……………………….……………(3)
 
 kw µ g 
1+   balance of capillary, viscous and gravitational forces
k µ 
 g w
The total multi-phase system pressure gradient is
determined by the total mobility of the system, which varies
with the fractional flow. The multi-phase conductivity
multiplier, or inverse of the multiphase pressure-drop
multiplier, is given by equation (4). This relationship is
derived from the calculation of the pressure drop under single-
phase flow divided by the pressure drop for multi-phase flow
using Darcy’s Law.
7
k µ +k µ  k
 
Fmp =  g w w g  =
g
……………………….(4)
 µw
  fg
Given an observed gas fractional flow it is sometimes
difficult to estimate the saturations in the proppant pack or the
effective permeability for the multi-phase system. It is the
overall system effective permeability that determines the
effective conductivity of the proppant pack. As an example,
note that at 40% gas saturation, for the gas-water relative perm
data shown in Figure 9, fg is 0.997, krg is approximately 0.224
and krw is 0.032. Under the conditions given, the water flow
rate is almost insignificant, yet the overall system permeability
is only 22% of the expected proppant pack permeability,
ignoring all other damage factors. To put this effect in field
terms, a gas well producing water at 10 bbl/MMSCF with a
flowing bottom-hole pressure of 2000 psi has a gas fractional
flow of 0.995 and an expected gas relative permeability of
by a factor of more than five. Figure 10 is a plot of the
conductivity multiplier generated by the relative permeability
data set from Figure 9 over the range of gas fractional flow
from 0.9 to 1.0. The data in the plot show that a 10%
volumetric liquid flow can cut proppant pack conductivity by
a factor of 20.
1
Effective Conductivity Multiplier
0.8 1
0.1
0.01
0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1
Gas Fractional Flow, fg
Figure 10: Conductivity reduction caused by multiphase flow
The equilibrium water saturation established in a proppant
pack in a vertical hydraulic fracture is determined by the
established during production. In general, the gravitational and
capillary gradients are large enough to dominate the system in
linear flow, and the viscous gradients induced by flow, are
relatively small by comparison. The vertical gravity head for a
gas-water system is approximately 0.4 psi/ft while the lateral
viscous pressure gradient for a typical gas well producing 1.0
MMSCF/D may be in the range of 0.2 psi/ft in the fracture.
Capillary forces are important at all discontinuities in the
reservoir-fracture system. At each boundary between the
reservoir and proppant pack, and the proppant pack and
wellbore, there is a distinct change in the capillary pressure
8 SPE 84306
caused by a change in the average pore size of the medium.
This causes a discontinuity in the pressure gradient of the
wetting phase that must be dissipated by a buildup of
saturation at the boundary. The increased wetting phase
saturation, and associated gradient away from the boundary, is
called the capillary end-effect. The impact of the high wetting
phase saturation and its generation is described by several
authors.11-13 While these end-effects are usually only
considered important in laboratory systems, they are important
in any cases where capillary forces are large and pressure
gradients are small. Holditch noted that the combination of
relative permeability and capillary forces in a low
permeability reservoir system, with small pore-size
distribution, can result in a severe reduction in post-frac
deliverability.14 The tendency for tight, water-wet reservoirs to
hold high water saturation along the fracture face, resulting in
zero effective gas permeability over a large part of the created
fracture surface area, may be a noteworthy source of damage
to post-frac production in some cases.
A similar study to that presented by Holditch was
conducted for this paper using a multiphase 3-D numerical
reservoir simulator, including the effects of gravity and
capillary forces with a discontinuity at the fracture-formation
face. Representative relative permeability and capillary
pressure curves were used for the reservoir and proppant pack.
The model was used to predict gas and water saturation
distributions in and around the fracture during cleanup. The
model was initialized by injecting water into the fracture and
surrounding reservoir, then putting the well on production.
70
60
50 Initial
Fracture Height, feet
Day 1
40
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
30
Day 5
Day 6
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Water Saturation, fraction
Figure 11: Vertical water saturation distribution in a fracture
during clean-up
Figure 11 shows the computed water saturation
distribution for a point approximately mid-way along the
length of the fracture from the wellbore to the frac tip. The
various curves show the progression of desaturation as a
function of producing time. In this case the fracture was filled
with water (1 cp) assuming no polymer residue, filter-cake, or
residual gel viscosity. The saturation profile curves reach a
near-equilibrium state after about one week of production and
the saturation distribution becomes static.
The model results show a tendency for some gravity
segregation within the fracture. The water saturation in the top
15 feet of the fracture decreases to 40-50% (50-60% gas
saturation). The bulk of the fracture height retains a water
saturation of about 55% while the bottom few feet of the
fracture remain almost completely water saturated. Super-
imposing the gas-water relative permeability relationship on
this saturation distribution clearly shows that the gas flow
distribution will be non-uniform across the height of the
fracture. The expected gas relative permeability may approach
75% in the top few feet of the fracture, yet stay as low as 25%
over 80% of the fracture height. The saturation and resulting
velocity profile will lead to a distribution of non-Darcy effects
across the fracture height and can make any accurate estimate
of overall effective conductivity difficult.
The behavior of the water saturation distribution along the
fracture face during this clean-up period is also interesting to
observe. During the first week of gas flow the water saturation
along the face of the fracture drops from nearly 100% to about
70%. The saturation distribution along the height of the
fracture is effectively constant. Some of the water contained in
this invaded zone around the fracture is produced. A
significant amount of the water is imbibed further back into
the reservoir, although this water flow direction is counter-
current to production. The spontaneous imbibition of water
results in an increase in water saturation from about 40% to
more than 50% in the reservoir 2-5 feet from the fracture face.
This counter-current imbibition can only occur when the
capillary forces pulling water into the matrix exceed the
viscous forces driving the water into the fracture.
Impact of reservoir deliverability
In many cases the conductivity of a proppant pack has been
described in the absence of the effect of reservoir behavior.
The preceding review of the impact of various mechanisms on
proppant pack conductivity shows clearly that it is not possible
to fully separate reservoir deliverability from proppant
performance. It is the reservoir deliverability, including
transmissibility (kh/µ), available drawdown and saturation
state that determines the rate of flow of each phase in the
fracture, hence the velocity and density of the fluid stream.
This sets the value of the pseudo-Reynolds number at any time
during fracture cleanup and production, and controls the
relationship of viscous to gravity and capillary gradients.
The available pseudo-Reynolds number controls the
degree of fracture clean-up, both for bulk gel residue
1 1.2 displacement and filer-cake removal. For these mechanisms a
large value of Rep improves clean-up and conductivity. At the
same time a large value of Rep causes an increase in non-Darcy
pressure drop, resulting in a drop in effective conductivity.
Balancing these competing factors requires knowledge of the
dominant fracture damage mechanism. In some cases the
composition and characteristics of the fracturing fluid impact
the stimulation efficiency as much (or more) than the choice
of proppant.
The impact of reservoir deliverability and clean-up rate
makes establishment of high conductivity very difficult in a
low permeability or depleted reservoir. It also points out why
the same fluid and proppant combination can perform very
differently in different wells.
SPE 84306
Gel yield-point and critical FCD
The combined effect of all the damage mechanisms discussed
up to this point results in an adjusted proppant pack
permeability and effective pack width. Together these
parameters determine the effective proppant pack
conductivity, kfwf. To characterize the performance of the
fracture in a specific reservoir, the relative flow capacity of the
fracture must be compared to the flow capacity of the
formation. The relative conductivity of the fracture and
formation can be described by the dimensionless fracture flow
capacity, FCD, given by equation (5).
k f wf
FCD = ………………………………………(5)
kXf
In general, an FCD of 30 and above is taken to represent
an infinite conductivity fracture, where the effective length is
equal to the physically propped length. For any value of FCD
the infinite conductivity half-length can be determined from
equation (6) or the plot in Figure 12. The equation presented
here is based on data originally published by Prats and Cinco-
Ley.15,16 It has been adapted to give a consistent representation
of effective fracture half-length compared to created or
propped half-length.
X eff 1 and the overall flow length, which also increases with distance
= …………......…....(6)
X created
(
1 + FCD
1 .7
)
−1.01
1
Effective Length Ratio,
0.1
Xfeff /Xfcreated
0.01
0.001
0.01 0.1 1 10
Fracture Conductivity, FCD
Figure 12: Effective fracture length ratio from FCD
In Figure 12 and equation (6) the created or propped
fracture half-length is Xcreated and the effective infinite-
conductivity half-length is Xeff. This relation assumes that the
entire created fracture length is contributing to flow with a
diminishing flow rate, pressure gradient, and effective FCD as
length increases away from the wellbore. In reality, there is
probably a cut-off point at which the fracture ceases to
contribute flow. This cut-off is caused by the development of a
gel pseudo-yield-point.
Like a drilling mud, a concentrated polymer gel tends to
behave more like a solid than a liquid, once it becomes static
in a proppant pack. A minimum pressure differential is
required to “break circulation” and induce shear and flow in
9
the gel mass. If the available pressure differential at some
point along the fracture length is too small, the gel mass
remains as a solid plug and cannot be displaced. The
remaining fracture length, from that point to the propped
fracture tip, remains gel-plugged and unavailable for flow.
The pseudo yield-point, or minimum pressure gradient to
initiate flow, is difficult to measure in the laboratory. Ideally
the test should be done under slowly varying shear stress, until
flow begins. Current procedures give a maximum observed
pressure drop at a constant low flow rate. The values obtained
by these two measurements are different, but the initiation
pressure obtained from the constant-rate test can be correlated
to gel “stiffness” and can be used to describe yield-point
behavior.
This effect can be empirically represented using a fluid-
dependent model input parameter, FCDcrit. The input value
specifies the minimum dimensionless flow capacity (FCD)
that will effectively clean-up and contribute to production. The
smaller FCDcrit becomes the more fracture length will
contribute to flow and the longer the effective half-length will
be.
This concept is illustrated in Figure 13. With increasing
distance from the wellbore the fracture conductivity, kfwf,
decreases as the fluid velocity in the fracture drops. The
decrease in velocity also causes a decrease in the local
pressure gradient available to displace gel. The computed
incremental value of FCD depends on both the conductivity
from the well. These combined factors cause a rapid decline in
apparent FCD with length, as shown in the figure. When FCD
drops below the critical FCD for clean-up, the remaining
fracture length remains gel-plugged.
100 1000
Figure 13: Illustration of critical FCD for clean-up
The apparent producing fracture half-length, including the
effect of gel plugging, is calculated from the effective infinite-
conductivity fracture half-length given by equation (6). The
final apparent producing half length, given by equation (7), is
based on the assumption that an infinite conductivity fracture
is represented by FCD=30. The impact of FCDcrit is shown by
the ratio of the critical clean-up value to an infinite-
conductivity fracture response.
10
X eff
X app = −1.01
……...……………… (7)
 
 30 
1+  
 1.7 FCD
 crit 
In equation (7) the apparent fracture length approaches the
infinite-conductivity length as FCDcrit approaches zero. This is
equivalent to having no loss of fracture length to gel plugging
and no minimum cut-off value for FCD. The final apparent
fracture half-length, Xapp, is the fracture half-length that
represents stimulation performance in an infinite-conductivity,
Darcy-flow reservoir model. While FCDcrit is a fluid-
dependent parameter, a value near 30 appears to represent
many systems. A fluid that leaves a very light gel residue, or a
residue that is easily dispersed, may have a value as low as 10.
Development of a laboratory procedure to quantify this
parameter and correlate it to specific fluid properties is one of
the most important and challenging tasks left in the process of
optimizing a stimulation design.
Integration of damage, cleanup and reservoir
deliverability
To effectively evaluate the combined dynamic interactions of
reservoir transient flow, gel clean-up, multiphase and non-
Darcy flow, a complex model is required that can account for
the often competing effects of all these processes. The Predict-
K simulator combines reservoir transient production
forecasting for an arbitrary shape, rectangular, bounded
reservoir with a damaged hydraulic fracture. The effects of
closure stress, embedment, spalling, filter-cake deposition and
erosion, bulk gel damage, multiphase flow, and non-Darcy
flow are accounted for.
Because of the impact of fracture conductivity on well
production and the effect of reservoir and well flow rate on
conductivity, the solution requires multiple iterations to reach
a stable converged solution for fracture conductivity at each
producing time. The model allows the selection of proppant
and fluid system based on a complete economic analysis of
material costs and generated discounted cash-flow
from production.
The correlations used to drive predictions of conductivity
versus stress, multiphase flow, non-Darcy flow, and clean-up
are based on more than 15 years of laboratory measurements
conducted by the Stim-Lab proppant consortium. The model is
available to members of the consortium.
Field application: Predicted post-frac performance
An example of predicting post-frac production by accounting
for all damage mechanisms is shown in the following field
example. The well is a tight-gas producer with an initial
reservoir pressure of 10,700 psi. Production analysis indicates
an average reservoir permeability of 0.069 md for a net pay
thickness of 18 feet. The zone was hydraulically fractured
with 300,000 lbs of high-strength 20/40-mesh ceramic
proppant and a zirconate crosslinked premium-grade
fracturing fluid. A post-frac history match of the job using a
planar 3-dimensional fracture geometry model showed good
height containment and a very long created length (about 1500
SPE 84306
feet), only part of which was effectively propped. Figure 14
shows the predicted proppant concentration distribution at the
end of the job.
Figure 14: Proppant concentration profile for example case
A clean-up and production model was run using the total
propped length for this job (1500 feet) with an average
concentration of 1.3 lb/ft2. The reservoir properties determined
from long-term production analysis were used in the forecast
of post-frac performance. The average proppant concentration
and propped length from the model were input to Predict-K
for the analysis. The actual post-frac production and the rates
determined from the combined fracture and reservoir clean-up
model are shown in Figure 15.
7000
6000
Actual Rate
Rate-1000 WHP
Gas Rate, MSCF/D and WHP, psi
WHP
5000
Rate-3000 WHP
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00
Days on Production
Figure 15: Observed and modeled post-frac production rates
The model was run for two cases of WHP, 3000 psi and
1000 psi, while the actual well produced for the first 70 days
with a variable wellhead pressure. In Figure 15 the red line is
the actual WHP over the producing time and the magenta
squares are the actual well flow rate. The dark blue line is the
model predicted flow rate assuming a constant WHP of 1000
psi and the dashed light-blue line is the calculated well rate for
3000 psi WHP. In general the model accurately matches the
observed flow rate.
Even with a created fracture half length of almost 1500
feet, using an average concentration of 1.3 lb/ft2, the model
matches the performance with an effective infinite-
conductivity fracture half-length of 140 feet. While the
undamaged “baseline” conductivity of this proppant was
calculated to be almost 2000 md-ft, the effective conductivity
after accounting for all damage mechanisms in this simulation
was less than 60 md-ft, giving an FCD of 0.578. The overall
final conductivity is computed from equation (8), where the
SPE 84306 11

values of kf and wf are first adjusted for the effects of closure
stress, embedment, and spalling. Equation (6) gives an
infinite-conductivity effective length of 377 feet, ignoring the
impact of gel tip-plugging. The correction for gel plugging,
from equation (7) further reduces the apparent length to
140 feet.
consortium for their support in the development of this
technology. We would also like to acknowledge Marathon Oil
Company for the contribution to the numerical simulation of
multiphase flow. Many model cases were run to provide
insight into gravity and capillary effects which could not be
included here.

k f w f Frp F fc Fnd Fmp Nomenclature

FCD = ……………………….(8)
k X created fg = fractional flow of gas
Ffc =filter-cake conductivity factor
Fmp =multi-phase flow conductivity factor
Note that most of the damage factors are dependent on the Frp =regained permeability factor
flow velocity in the fracture, and its influence on Rep. The final Fnd =non-Darcy flow conductivity factor
conductivity determination, therefore, requires an iterative k =Darcy permeability
solution. The initial damage conditions are estimated and the kw = relative permeability to water
reservoir deliverability is determined for the given effective kg = relative permeability to gas
fracture length and conductivity. The new estimate of L = Flow path length
deliverability is used to re-calculate Rep and the various P =Pressure
damage factors. The iteration proceeds until the system Rep =pseudo-Reynolds number
converges at a balanced reservoir deliverability and fracture v =superficial flow velocity
clean-up state. w = fracture or pack width
The resulting FCD gives the dimensionless fracture Xapp =apparent producing fracture half-length
conductivity in the created frac. The effective fracture half- Xcreated =created fracture half-length
length, Xeff, is calculated from equation (6). The final Xeff = effective infinite-conductivity length
adjustment for gel plugging is made by application of equation Xf = fracture half-length
(7) and a fluid-dependent value of FCDcrit, here assumed to β =Forchheimer coefficient
be 30.
µ =viscosity
The relative magnitude of the damage factors for the
example case is shown in Table 5. Each of these damage
ρ =density
mechanisms results from the combined influence of the
References
selected proppant, fluid, reservoir, and well
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operating conditions. Fractures on Well Productivity,” Trans., AIME, v. 253.
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Conductivity Remaining 1986-2003.
Damage Factor Multiplier Conductivity 3. Muskat, M.: The Flow of Homogenous Fluids Through
Porous Media, J. W. Edwards, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Ffc 0.63 0.63 Michigan, 1946.
Fmp 0.85 0.54 4. “Recommended Practices for Evaluating Short Term
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Frp 0.69 0.37 61, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1989.
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Conclusions 6. McGowen, J.M., Vitthal, S., Parker, M.A., Rahimi, A., and
Clean pack “baseline” data for proppant pack conductivity are Martch Jr., W.E.: “Fluid Selection for Fracturing High-
Permeability Formations,” paper SPE 26559 presented at
optimistic. Small variations in proppant properties (less than the 68th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of
15 to 20% difference in conductivity) may not be statistically the Society of Petroleum Engineers held in Houston, Texas,
significant when applied to field measurements of 3-6 October 1993.
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and these various damage mechanisms are cumulative. presented at the 1996 SPE Annual Technical Conference
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of reservoir flow to fracture cleanup, in conjunction with October 1996.
8. McGowen, J. M., Barree, R. D., and Conway, M. W.:”
proppant characteristics. Field conductivity is much lower Incorporating Crossflow and Spurt-Loss Effects in
than generally believed or expected. Filtration Modeling Within a Fully 3D Fracture-Growth
Simulator,” paper SPE 56597 presented at the 1999 SPE
Acknowledgements Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Houston, Texas, 3-6 October 1999.
member companies of the Stim-Lab proppant conductivity
12 SPE 84306

9. Jones, S. C.: “A Rapid Accurate Unsteady-State

Klinkenberg Permeameter,” SPEJ, p. 383, 1972.
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