SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Osteology (study of bony skeleton) of head and neck creates the foundation to understand this region
 The skeletal system of an adult comprises of approximately 206 bones

TYPES OF SKELETON
 Bones are classified according to their position
1. Axial Skeleton
 Consists of 80 bones involving those that make the axis of the body
 Functions to support as well as protects the organs present in the head, neck, and trunk
2. Appendicular Skeleton
 Involves 126 bones that form the upper and lower limbs along with bony girdles
 Functions to provide anchorage for appendages to the axial skeleton
AXIAL SKELETON (80)
Skull & Associated Bones (29)
Cranium 8
Adult Skull (22)
Face 14
Hyoid 1
Auditory Ossicles (03 in each Ear) 6 Malleus, Incus, Stapes
Vertebral Column (26)
Cervical – 7
Vertebrae 24 Thoracic – 12
Lumbar – 5
Sacrum 1
Coccyx 1
Thorax (25)
Sternum 1
Vertebrocostal ribs (ribs 1–7)
Ribs 24 Vertebrochondral ribs (ribs 8-10)
Floating ribs/Vertebral ribs (ribs 11 & 12)
APPENDICULAR SKELETON (126)
Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle (04)
Clavicle (Collar bone) 2
Scapula 2
Upper Extremities (60)
Humerus 2
Ulna 2
Radius 2
Proximal bones – Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetral, Pisiform
Carpals 16
Distal bones – Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate
Metacarpals 10
Phalanges 28
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle (02)
Pelvic or Hip Bone 2
Lower Extremities (60)
Femur 2
Fibula 2
Tibia 2
Patella 2
Tarsals 14 Calcanium, Talus, Cuboid, Navicular, Medial, Intermediate,
 Lateral cuniforms
Metatarsals 10
Phalanges 28
TOTAL 206

FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM

1. Support - framework for the body

2. Blood cell formation – haematopoiesis

3. Leverage - bones are levers, joints are fulcrums
4. Lipid Storage (yellow marrow)
5. Mineral storage (calcium)
6. Protection - skull, vertebrae, ribcage
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

According to Position
Type Location
Axial Skull bone, vertebrae, ribs, sternum
Upper limb - pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula), free bones
Appendicular
Lower limb - pelvic girdle (hip bone), free bones

According to Ossification

Type Features Location

Intramembranous Occurs directly in primitive Connective

Bones of face & Skull, Clavicle
Ossification Tissue without cartilage formation
Intracartilagenou Involves all the bones of the body
Replacement of cartilage of bone
s / Endosteal developing by cartilage Except Bones of
Cartilage destruction is a pre-requisite
Ossification face & Skull, Clavicle
According to Shape

Type Features Location

Femur
Tibia
Typical long bone
Fibula
Long bones It presents a diaphysis and at least two epiphyses, one
Humerus
Greater length than at each end
Ulna
width
Radius
Comprises of a variable
Modified long bones
number of endings
Devoid of Medullary cavity, mostly ossified in Clavicle
(extremities) and a shaft
membrane.
Miniature or short long bones Metacarpals
Presents a single epiphysis at one end only Metatarsals
Roughly cubical in shape Ankle
Short bones
Have around equal length and width Wrist bones
Flat bones Consists diploes with two plates of compact bone Cranial bones
with intervening spongy bone and marrow Sternum & Ribs
 Scapulae
Vertebrae and some facial
Irregular bones Have complicated shapes
bones
Form in some tendons present in places subjected to Patellae (kneecaps) in
Sesamoid bones
significant friction, tension and physical stress quadriceps Femoris muscle
Very small bones situated in the sutural joints b/w At sutural joints between
Sutural bones
cranial bones cranial bones
Frontal
Contains air filled spaces which are lined by mucous Maxillary
Pneumatic bones
membrane Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Group of small intrasutural bones which are located between the cranial sutures made by
the bones of the skull vault
Wormian bones 
Wormian bones is a term depicting abnormal intrasutural bones characteristically found in the
lambdoid suture
According to Bone Gross Structure
 With irregular branching bony spicules forming a network of interconnecting spaces
 Thin trabeculae made up of irregular lamellae of bone with lacuna containing
osteocytes
Spongy  Absence of Haversian systems
(Cancellous)  Trabeculae is lined by endosteum containing
 Osteoprogenitor
 Osteoblast
 Osteoclast
 Arranged as parallel column made up of concentric layer surrounding the Haversian
system/canal
 Between lamellae are osteocytes in lacuna
 Haversian system/canal (osteon) - channel with concentric lamellae of bone
 Periosteal / External Circumferential Lamellae - outermost portion of compact bone
Compact (Cortical)  Endosteal / Internal Circumferential Lamellae - surround the central Medullary
cavity
 Interstitial Lamellae - between the Haversian system because of continued resorption
and re-deposition of bones
 Volkmann’s channel - found at the right angle of osteon
 Canaliculi - intercommunicating lacunae
Based on Calcification
Woven bone /
Immature bone / Newly calcified
Primary bone / Bundle Found in Developing and growing bones; hard callus of bone fractures
bone
Lamellar bone / Mature Remodeled from woven bone
bone / Secondary bone Seen in all normal adult bone

PARTS OF A LONG BONE

 Dense regular fibrous CT covering outer surface of bone.
Periosteum  Specialized CT layer with osteogenic cells & role in repair of bone fracture.
 Bound to underlying bone by Sharpey's fibers (bundle of periosteal collagen fibers)
 Thin cellular layer with Osteogenic properties around marrow cavity
Endosteum
 Lines inner bony cavity
Diaphysis / Shaft  Hollow elongated central portion of the bone positioned between the Methaphyses
 Composed of compact tissue
  Encloses the medullary cavity
 Expanded articular ends
 Epiphyseal plate separates it from the shaft during bone growth
Epiphysis
 Seen in end of long bones, composed of spongy bone
 Enclosed by a thick cortex of compact bone
 Separation of epiphysis from diaphysis
Epiphyseal plate /  Site of Endochondral ossification
Growth plate  Seen in children and adolescents
 Adults, for whom growth has ceased, the plate is substituted by an epiphyseal line
 Transitional zone connecting the Epiphyseal plate & diaphysis
 Consists of the connecting cartilage thereby allowing bone growth
Metaphysis  In adulthood, it dissappears
 Categorized by vascular stasis and a rich vascular supply. These characteristics poses an increased risk
of hematogenous spread of infection in bone for children.

Parts of Long Bone

Longitudinal Bone Growth

 In long bone, Epiphyseal plate represents the zone of growth
 Cartilage forms at the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate
 Ossification of cartilage occurs on the diaphyseal side resulting in lengthwise growth of diaphysis
 Epiphyseal plate is made up of four zones of cells and activity

Histology
Epiphyseal plate zone
(from epiphysis to Description
diaphysis)

Zone of reserve Quiescent chondrocytes seen at the epiphyseal end

Zone of proliferation Chondrocytes go through rapid mitosis under stimulus of growth hormone

Zone of maturation and Chondrocytes stop mitosis, and undergoes hypertrophy by accumulation of glycogen, alkaline
hypertrophy phosphatase and lipids

Zone of calcification Chondrocytes undergo apoptosis. Cartilaginous matrix then undergo calcification

Calcified cartilage is broken down by osteoclast and osteoblasts from the diaphyseal side and is
Zone of ossification
replaced with mineralized bone tissue.

Appositional Growth – Growth in Diameter

STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE

Osteon
 Fundamental cylindrical structure of the compact bone
 Basic structural unit of bone
 Runs parallel to longest axis of bone
 Surrounds and opens into Haversian canal

Haversian Canal
  central vertical canal of the osteon that encloses blood vessels and nerves

Volkmann’s Canals
 Perforating canal
 Transverse canals of the compact bone - enclose blood vessels and nerves
 Interconnects the Haversian canals with the medullary cavity and the periosteum

Medullary Cavity
 Cylindrical central cavity of the bone enclosing the bone marrow – contains lipid-rich yellow bone marrow

Periosteum
 Fibrous membrane enveloping the bone.
 Rich in blood vessels
 Contributes to the thickness of bone during its growth
 Bits of collagen called Sharpey’s perforating fibers anchors periosteum to the bone

Concentric Lamellae
 Layers of osteon that is made of collagen fibers
 Arranged in a concentric fashion around the Haversian canal
 Forms as the bones grow

Articular Cartilage
 Smooth resistant elastic tissue that covers the terminal end of the bone
 Enables movement and absorbs shocks

Blood Vessel
 Channels through which the blood circulates
 Carries nutrients and mineral salts required for the bone

Bone Marrow
 Soft substance present in bone cavities , responsible for production of blood cells
 Two types
 Red
 Yellow
 Red marrow: situated within the cancellous tissue extending into the Haversian canals that contain blood
vessels
 White or yellow marrow: fills up the medullary cavities of the shafts in the long tubular bones
 BONE CELLS

Cells Features Location

Free body surfaces
Undifferentiated cell, pale staining
Osteoprogenitor cells Endosteum
Divide - Osteoblast (bone forming)
Periosteum
Unite - Osteoclast (bone destroying)
Lining of the Haversian canal and Epiphyseal plate
Osteoblasts Responsible for the development of matrix Surface of developing bones
Cells of fully formed bone
Osteocytes Flat, almond-shaped, long-living cells Lacuna of calcified matrix of a fully formed bone
Involved in the maintenance of bony matrix
Giant multinucleated cell closely associated
with areas of resorption & remodeling of
bone tissue Concavities of the bone surface called Howship’s
Osteoclasts
Forms a ruffled border Lacunae
Has clear zone (Cytoplasmic zone devoid of
organelles)
BONE MATRIX
 Organic  : Collagen, Glycoproteins, Proteoglycans
 Inorganic: Hydroxyapatite - Calcium phosphate salts; CaCO3, Mg, Na, K, Fl, SO4

BLOOD SUPPLY OF TYPICAL LONG BONE

1. Nutrient artery and vein
 A single pair of large blood vessels passes into the diaphysis via the nutrient foramen
 Divided into ascending & descending branches in medullary cavity
2. Metaphyseal vessels
 Supply the epiphyseal cartilage where bone growth occurs
3. Periosteal vessels
 Provide blood to superficial osteons and secondary ossification centres

OSTEOGENESIS & OSSFICATION

 Osteogenesis: process of bone formation
 Osteogenesis continues throughout life
 Embryo responsible for laying down of bony skeleton (ossification well started by 8th week)
 Bone growth carries on until early adulthood
 Remodeling & repair occurs throughout for life
 Ossification: process of replacing other tissues with bone
 Calcification: process of calcium salts deposition. Take place during bone ossification as well as in other
tissues

Types of Ossification
1. Intramembranous (dermal ossification)
 Formation of majority of flat bones of the skull and the clavicles arise from a fibrous membrane
 Mesenchymal cells form fibrous connective tissue membranes

2. Endochondral
 Development of bone from hyaline cartilage

 Both bring about the formation of same type of bone

 Both commence with migration of mesenchymal cells from connective tissue to zones of bone formation

Intramembranous Ossification
Step – 1: Mesenchymal cells aggregate
 Osteoblast differentiation
 Commencement of ossification at the ossification center
 Development of projections called spicules
Step – 2: Blood vessels grow into the area
 To supply the osteoblasts
 Interconnection of spicules inter and contain the blood vessels inside bone

Step – 3: Spongy bone develops and is remodeled into

 Osteons of compact bone
 Periosteum or marrow cavities
Endochondral Ossification
 Commences in the 2nd month of development
 hyaline cartilage act as models for development of bone
 breakdown of hyaline cartilage is necessary prior to ossification

Step – 1: Chondrocytes in the center of hyaline cartilage

 Increase in size
 Form struts and calcify
 Die and leave cavities in cartilage

Step – 2: Growing blood vessels

 Growth of blood vessels around the edges of cartilage
 Cells present in perichondrium differentiate to osteoblasts and form a layer of superficial bone around
the shaft which continues to grow into a compact bone

Step – 3: Blood vessels enter the cartilage

 Recruit fibroblasts that differentiate into osteoblasts
 Development of spongy bone at the primary ossification center

Step – 4: Remodelling
 Remodelling produces a marrow cavity
 Cartilage is replaced by bone at the metaphyses

Step – 5: Capillaries and osteoblasts enter the epiphyses

  Create secondary ossification centres

Step – 6: Epiphyses fill with spongy bone

 Cartilage within the joint cavity is termed articulation cartilage
 Cartilage at the metaphysis is termed epiphyseal cartilage

Centers of Ossification
Primary Centers
 The primary centers of ossification appear first during the 2nd month of the intrauterine life,
 These primary centers form in the metaphyses and in the shafts or diaphyses of tubular bones.
 Ossification occurs by perichondral and endochondral osteogenesis

Secondary and Accessory Centers

 Secondary points of ossification just before birth or during the first years after birth.
 They form by endochondral osteogenesis
 Accessory points of ossification appear in the appophyses of bones (e.g. tubercles, trochanters, the accessory
processes of the lumbar vertebrae) for children, adolescents, and even adults

Ossification Centers
 Bone No of Ossification Centres

Occipital Bone 02
 Parietal Bone 02

Frontal Bone 02

Temporal Bone 08
Pre-Sphenoid – 06
Sphenoid Bone
Post-Sphenoid – 08
Ethmoid Bone 03

Inferior Nasal Concha 01

Lacrimal Bone 01

Nasal Bone 01

Vomer 02

Zygomatic Bone 01

Maxilla 01

Palatine Bone 01

Mandible 02

Hyoid Bone 06

SKULL – IN GENERAL
ANATOMICAL POSITION OF SKULL
1. Orbitomeatal plane / Frankfort plane: inferior margin of orbit and superior margin of external auditory meatus
are in level
2. Reid’s Base line: Infraorbital margin and centre of external auditory meatus (auricular point) are along same
line

FUNCTIONS
1. Protection of the brain and its coverings (meninges)
2. Provides space for adjustment of organs of special senses
 3. Provides openings for the passage of air and food
4. Adapts teeth and jaws for mastication

FEATURES
 Skull has 22 bones, not including the ossicles of the ear
 Due to the attachment of bones of the skull by sutures, they are immobile, with the exception of the
mandible at Temporomandibular joint
 Skull is oval broadened posteriorly by the parietal eminences.
 In children, the prominent frontal eminences together with the parietal give the skull a square shape.

PARTS OF SKULL

Neurocranium Splanchnocranium / Viscerocranium

 Enclose cranial cavity & contain brain, protects meninges,  Forms Facial skeleton, with orbit to protect organ of vision
respective blood vessels – eyes
 Formed by cranial base and cranial vault  Nasal cavity with olfactory epithelium
 Roof of cranial vault is Calvaria  Oral cavity - with organ of taste, the taste buds on the
 Made up of 8 bones tongue.
Paired Unpaired Paired Unpaired
1. Temporal bone 1. Frontal bone 1. Nasal 1. Mandible
2. Parietal bone 2. Sphenoid bone 2. Lacrimal 2. Vomer
3. Ethmoid bone 3. Zygomatic
4. Occipital bone 4. Maxilla
5. Palatine
6. Inferior Nasal Concha

IMPORTANT LANDMARKS
Sagittal suture (serrated Joins two parietal bones
type)
Coronal suture Joins Frontal and Parietal bones
Lambdoid suture Joins Parietal and Occipital bones
Metopic suture Occasionally present (3 – 8% individuals)
Lies in the median plane and separates the 2halves of the frontal bone
Fuses by 6years of age
Bregma Intersection of Coronal and Sagittal sutures
Lambda Intersection of Sagittal and Lambdoid suture
Vertex Most superior part of skull, located near centre of Sagittal suture
Pterion Corresponds to H shaped suture where Frontal, Temporal, Greater Wing of
Sphenoid and Parietal bones meet
Beneath which lies anterior branch of middle cerebral vessels and stem of lateral
sulcus called Sylvian point

BETWEEN FOETAL SKULL AND ADULT SKULL

Characteristics Foetal skull Adult skull

Size 1/4th as long as the entire body 1/8th of the total body
There are fontanelles made of fibrous
Tissue of the skull cartilage, in between the cranial bone Entire skull is bony
They close by 20-22months of age
Forehead More prominent Comparatively less prominent
Orbits larger Small in size ,relative to that of the face
Jaw and nasal cavity Small Comparatively large
 Sinuses Incompletely formed Completely formed
Comparatively thinner and softer (so less Harder and thicker
Skull bones
chances of fracture) Ossification is complete
Number of bones More (as they are unfused) Less
Teeth Tooth crypts are formed Formed and erupted

EXTERIOR VIEWS

Exterior View Bones Features

Frontal Parietal eminence
Norma Verticalis
Parietals Bregma
(Superior View)
Occipital (squamous part) Lambda
Norma Frontalis Frontal Super ciliary arches
 Glabella
Nasal Nasion
(Anterior View) Maxilla Orbit
Zygomatic Anterior nasal aperture
Anterior nasal spine
Frontal Pterion
Parietal Superior and Inferior temporal lines
Sphenoid (greater wing) Supramastoid crest
Norma Lateralis
Temporal (Squamous part, Mastoid Temporal fossa
(Lateral View)
part and Styloid processes) Infratemporal fossa
Occipital Pterygopalatine fossa
Zygomatic Zygomatic arch
Maxilla External acoustic meatus
External occipital protuberance
Parietals
Norma Occipitalis Superior nuchal line
Occipital
(Posterior view) Inferior nuchal line
Temporal (mastoid part)
Inion
Norma Basalis Maxilla (Palatine processes, Alveolar Incisive fossa
(Inferior View) processes), Palatine (Horizontal plate) Posterior nasal spine
Sphenoid (Body, Greater wings, Pharyngeal tubercle
Medial and Lateral Pterygoid plates) Pterygoid fossa
Temporal (Squamous, Petro mastoid Scaphoid fossa
and Tympanic parts) Pterygoid hamulus
Occipital (Basilar and Squamous Infratemporal crest
parts) Spine of sphenoid,
Mandibular fossa
Articular tubercle
Pharyngotympanic tube (auditory tube)
Jugular fossa
Styloid process
Mastoid process
Mastoid notch
Occipital condyle
External occipital protuberance
External occipital crest
Superior and inferior nuchal lines
SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SKULL

Features Males Females

Weight Heavier Lighter
Size Larger Smaller
Capacity Greater in males 10% less than the males
Walls Thicker Thinner
Structures Prominence More marked structures Less marked structures
Tympanic Plate Larger and margins are more roughened Smaller and margins are less roughened
Supraorbital Margin More rounded Sharp
Forehead Sloping (receding) Vertical
Frontal and Parietal Tuber Less prominent More prominent
Vault Rounded Somewhat flattened
Contour of Face Longer due to greater depth of the jaws Rounded, facial bones are smoother

CRANIAL FOSSAE
 Cranial base consistis of 3 levels  Anterior, Middle and Posterior cranial fossae
  Each fossa is to some extent inferior to one rostrum

Cranial Fossae Contents Bony contributions Foramina

Frontal (orbital plates)
Anterior Cranial Fossa Frontal lobes of Ethmoid (cribriform
Cribriform plate foramina
Extends upto posterior edge cerebral plate)
Foramen caecum
of lesser wing of sphenoid hemispheres Sphenoid (lesser wings
& jugum)
Middle Cranial Fossa Optic canal
Extends from by posterior Sphenoid (body and Superior orbital fissure
Temporal poles
edge of lesser wing of greater wings) Foramen rotundum
and more than half
sphenoid to dorsum sellae Temporal (petrous & Foramen ovale
of inferior surface
(medially) and superior squamous parts) Foramen spinosum
of temporal lobe
border of petrous part of Parietal Foramen lacerum
temporal bone (laterally) Fissures for greater and lesser petrosal nerves
Occipital bone (major Foramen magnum
Pons contribution) Jugular foramen
Posterior Cranial Fossa
Cerebellum Sphenoid and Hypoglossal (anterior condylar) canal
Medulla oblongata Temporal bones (minor Internal auditory (acoustic) meatus
contribution) Posterior condylar canal
Frontal crest
Inner aspect of the Frontal Groove for superior sagittal sinus
Calvaria (vault) Parietal Groove for branches of middle meningeal
Occipital vessels
Depressions for arachnoid granulations
 FORAMINAE OF THE SKULL

FORAMEN STRUCTURES PASSING

Anterior view

Supra-orbital foramen Supra-orbital nerve and vessels

Infra-orbital foramen Infra-orbital nerve and vessels

Mental foramen Mental nerve and vessels

Lateral view

Zygomaticofacial foramen Zygomaticofacial nerve

Superior view

Parietal foramen Emissary veins

Inferior view
Nasopalatine nerve
Incisive foramina
Sphenopalatine vessels
Greater palatine foramen Greater palatine nerve and vessels

Lesser palatine foramina Lesser palatine nerves and vessels

Tympano-mastoid suture Auricular branch of vagus

Pterygoid canal Pterygoid nerve and vessels

M - Mandibular nerve
A - Accessory meningeal artery
Foramen Ovale
L - Lesser Petrosal Nerve
E - Emissary veins connecting cavernous sinus with pterygoid venous plexus

M - middle meningeal artery

Foramen Spinosum M - meningeal branch of Mandibular nerve
M - middle meningeal sinus

Foramen lacerum Filled with cartilage

Carotid canal Internal carotid artery and nerve plexus

Continuation of brain and spinal cord
Vertebral arteries and nerve plexuses
Anterior spinal artery
Foramen magnum
Posterior spinal arteries
Roots of accessory nerve
Meninges
Condylar canal Emissary veins

Hypoglossal canal Hypoglossal nerve and vessels

in anterior part – Inferior Petrosal sinus
in intermédiate part – IX, X, XI nerves & meningeal branch of Ascending
Jugular foramen
pharyngeal artery
in posterior part – Internal Jugular Vein (superior bulb)
Stylomastoid foramen Facial nerve
Canaliculus innominatus
Occasionally present between foramen Lesser Petrosal nerve
spinosum and ovale
Foramen vesali / emissary
Sphenoidal foramen
Emissary vein
Occasionally found medial to foramen
ovale
Anterior Cranial fossa
(other than that, mentioned in inferior aspect of skull)
Foramen Caecum Nasal emissary veins (present in children and 1% of adults)

Foramina in Cribriform plates Axons of olfactory cells

Anterior & Posterior Ethmoidal
Anterior & posterior ethmoidal vessels and nerves
foramina
Middle Cranial fossa
Optic nerve
Optic canals
Ophthalmic artery

Superior Orbital Fissure
Foramen Rotundum
Inferior orbital fissure
All innervations to the orbit, EXCEPT the Optic Nerve - Oculomotor, Trochlear,
Ophthalmic, and Abducent nerves
Divided by tendinous ring of Zinn into 3 parts
1. Infero-medial compartment – Inferior Ophthalmic Vein
2. Intermediate compartment – Oculomotor nerve, Nasociliary nerve (branch
of V1), Abducent nerve
3. Supero-lateral compartment – Lacrimal, Frontal and Trochlear nerves
Maxillary nerve
Infraorbital Nerve
Infraorbital Artery (an anastomostic branch between the Angular and Maxillary
Artery)

Sternberg Canal
 It’s the lateral craniopharyngeal canal connecting middle cranial fossa with the nasopharynx
 Sternberg canal is antero-medial to the foramen rotundum
 Located at the attachment of posterior root of lesser wing to the body of sphenoid
 Thought to be the congenital origin for the intra-sphenoidal meningocele
 First identified by Sternberg (1988) between the ossification centers of the 3 parts of sphenoid bone
 His studies showed the constant presence of the canal in children at the age of 3-4 years and an incidence of
4% in adults.
 It is in the para-sellar region of middle cranial fossa and connects with the sphenoid sinus and the
pterygopalatine fossa and/or the nasopharynx depending upon the course of the canal
 Infection (D) may be carried from the nasopharynx towards the sphenoidal sinus via the canal
 Other Foramina Contents

Mastoid foramen Mastoid emissary vein and meningeal branch of occipital artery
Mental foramen Mental nerve and vessels
Mandibular foramen Inferior alveolar nerve and vessels
Petrotympanic fissure Chorda tympani nerve and anterior tympanic artery
Pterygomaxillary fissure Maxillary nerve
Zygomatic foramen Zygomaticofacial nerve

OCCIPITAL BONE
 Forms much of the base and posterior aspect of the skull
 Morphologically, formed via union of 3 or 4 pre-cervical vertebrae.
 Fused body  basi - occiput
 Fused transverse process  jugular process
 Inter vertebral foramen  hypoglossal canal
 Fused laminae  squamous part up to highest nuchal line
 Thecal plate of otic capsule  rest of squamous part above highest nuchal line

 Parietal Bones (02) Articulations

 Temporal Bones (02)
6 bones
 Sphenoid (01)
 Atlas (01)
 Parts

Squamous/ Squama Basilar Condylar/Lateral

External surface Supero lateral border

External Occipital Protuberance
prominent point on it called ‘Inion’ Lambdoid suture
Highest and Superior Nuchal Lines
Superior Nuchal Line muscle attachments
Trapezius
Sternocleidomastoid Superior Angle
Splenius Capitis Lambda
External Occipital Crest
Inferior Nuchal Line

Superior Surface
Squamous Part Forms Clivus
Provides support to Pons and Medulla
Internal surface Oblongata
Inferior Angle
Internal Occipital Protuberance Asterion
Divides the inner surface into 4 fossae
2 superior (occupied by occipital lobes of
Cerebrum) Basilar Part
2 inferior (related to Cerebellar
Hemispheres)
Sagittal Sulcus -attached To Falx Cerebri
with Superior Sagittal Sinus Inferior Surface
Infero lateral border
Internal Occipital Crest- attached to the
Falx Cerebelli with Occipital Sinus Pharyngeal tubercle Articulates with mastoid part of temporal
1 cm in front of the Foramen Magnum bone
Transverse grooves, one on either side-
attached to the tentorium cerebelli with
transverse sinuses

Condylar Part

Occipital Condyles
Articulate with the superior facets of the
atlas-Atlanto-occipital joints
Co
Depression
 Hypoglossal canal
(anterior condyloid
foramen) J
At the base of the condyle

PARIETAL BONE

 Quadrilateral, Form the sides and roof of the cranium

Articulations
 Opposite Parietal Bone (01)
 Occipital Bone (01)
5 bones
 Temporal Bones (02)
 Sphenoid Bone (01)
Superior Border
Saggital suture

External surface
Parietal Eminence Anterior border
Corresponds to upturned
end of posterior ramus of Coronal suture
lateral sulcus surrounded by
supramarginal gyrus 
Parietal Bone
Wernicke’s sensory speech
area
Superior& Inferior
Temporal Lines
Internal surface
Parietal Foramen

Concave with depressions for

cerebral convolutions, and
numerous furrows for the
middle meningeal vessels
 Angles

Angles Corresponds to Related to

Antero Superior / Frontal Bregma Superior Sagittal Sinus

Postero Superior / Occipital Lambda Superior Sagittal Sinus
Antero Inferior / Sphenoidal Pterion Middle Meningeal Vessels
Postero Inferior / Mastoid Asterion Transverse Sinus

FRONTAL BONE
 Broad plate of bone, conves in shape forming the front of the cranium and roof of the orbits
 In foetal skulls, a metopic suture divides the frontal bone in to two halves

Articulations
 Sphenoid Bone (01)
 Ethmoid Bone (02)
 Nasal Bones (02)
12 bones
 Maxillae (02)
 Lacrimal Bones (02)
 Zygomatic Bones (02)

Parts

Squama Orbital

Squama Part
Internal
Surface
External
Sagittal Sulcus
Surface Foramen Caecum -
Frontal Eminences - normally impervious
Larger in the male than in however, it transmits a
the females vein from the nose to
Super Ciliary Arch - Bony the Superior Sagittal
ridge superior and parallel Sinus, if open.
to supra orbital margin
Glabella - Rounded and
lies between the two
super ciliary arches
Supraorbital Notch /
Foramen
Nasal Part - Nasion is the
Posterior
middle of the front nasal
suture
border
Articulates with Parietal
Orbital
bones atPart
Coronal suture
(Forms theand
roof of the
inferiorly Orbit
articulates
with Greater Wing of
Sphenoid
Inferior Sup
Surface Sur
Lacrimal Fossa - A Ethmoidal N
shallow depressionSeparates th
laterally for the plates, is qua
 Fovea Trochlearis plate
- A of the
depression on medially,
or occasionally a small
trochlear spine, for the
attachment of the
cartilaginous pulley of
Superior Oblique
muscle

Lateral border Posterior

Medial border
border
Articulates with Greater Articulates with Thin and serrated,
Wing of Sphenoid labyrinth of ethmoid articulate with the lesser
bone with anterior and wings of the Sphenoid
posterior ethmoidal
canals at its articulation

SPHENOID BONE
 Wedge-shaped bone and is a key bone in the cranium
 It resembles a bat with its wings extended, and is divided into body, two great and two small wings extending
outward from the sides of the body, and two pterygoid processes which project from it below

Articulations
 Vomer Bone (01)
 Ethmoid Bone (01)
 Frontal Bone (01)
 Occipital Bone (01)
12 bones
 Parietal Bones (02)
 Temporal Bones (02)
 Zygomatic Bones (02)
 Palatine Bones (02)

Parts

Pterygoid
Body Greater wings Lesser wings
Processes

Superior Surface
Ethmoidal Spine - articulates
with the cribriform plate of
the ethmoid
Jugum Sphenoidale - related
to gyri recti and olfactory
tracts
Sulcus Chiasmaticus -
transverse groove, above
which lies the optic chiasma;
the groove ends on either side
in the optic foramen
Sella Turcica
Composed of three parts
Tuberculum Sellae
Hypophyseal Fossa
Dorsum Sellae
Posterior Clinoid Processes
Body
(Cubical in shape with the sphenoidal air sinuses
Body of the sphenoid and the basilar part of the
Occipital bone together make up the Clivus)
Inferior
Surface
Sphenoidal Rostrum
that articulates with
grooved upper margin
Lateral Anterior of Vomer
Surface Surface
Sphenoidal Crest -
Carotid Sulcus with the articulates with the
Internal Carotid Artery perpendicular plate of
the ethmoid bone thus
contributes to the
formation of nasal septa

Greater wings
Orbital
Cerebral Surface Surface
Forms posterior part of
Foramina the lateral wall of the
Foramen Rotundum orbit
Foramen Ovale
Foramen Spinosum
Lateral Surface Canaliculus Innominatus Spine of Sphenoid
Emissary Sphenoidal Foramen
Lesser wings
With infra temporal crest dividing into upper area Gives attachment to,
(temporal fossa), lower area (roof of infra Three ligaments: Anterior ligament of Malleus,
temporal fossa) Sphenomandibular ligament & Pterygospinous
Superior Surface ligament
Inferior
Surface
Two tendons: Tensor Veli Palatine & Tensor Tympani

Related to the frontal lobe of Forms posterior part of

the cerebral hemisphere the orbital roof and
Medial End upper boundary of the
superior orbital fissure
Forms the Anterior Clinoid Process, Lesser wing is
connected to the body by a thin flat anterior root
and a thick triangular posterior root, between
which is the optic canal

Medial Plate
Lateral Plate
Ends inferiorly with pterygoid
hamulus, a hook-like Its lateral surface is a part
projection which divides of the medial wall of the
Pterygoid Processes
superiorly forming a small,
shallow Scaphoid fossa
infratemporal fossa

Above the Scaphoid (Each

fossa,ofatthem comprise of a narrow medial
the root of the medialplate
plateandof broader lateral plate with the
the pterygoid process lies thefossa intervening between them)
pterygoid
opening of the pterygoid canal
This canal then passes forward
from the anterior margin of
the foramen lacerum
 TEMPORAL BONES
 Form parts of the sides and base of the skull
 Parietal Bones (02)
 Occipital Bones (01)
06 bones
 Sphenoid Bone (01)
 Zygomatic Bones (02)

Parts

Squamous Part Tympanic Part Petro-Mastoid Part Styloid Processes

Mastoid Petrous part

Part

Base

Apex

3 Surfaces
(Anterior, Posterior,
Inferior)

3 Borders
(Superior, Posterior,
Anterior)
 External surface
Squamous Part
(Temporal surface) Zygomatic Process
Forms part of the Temporal fossa Articulates with the temporal process
Supramastoid Crest of the zygomatic bone forming the
Suprameatal triangle (of Macewan) zygomatic arch
A depression between the anterior
end of the Supramastoid crest and
the posterosuperior median of the
external acoustic meatus, behind by
vertical tangent along posterior
margin of external acoustic meatus Tympanic Part
The Mastoid Antrum lies at a depth of
12-15 mm
 Curved plate below the squamous part and anterior to the mastoid process

Internal surface
(Cerebral surface)
 Styloid
aspect of the temporal bone
Contains depressions corresponding
 Vriable in length , ranges from a few millimetres to an average of 2.5 cm
to convolutions of the temporal lobe
of the cerebral hemisphere
Petro- Mastoid Part
Base
part that lies on the base of the
skull
Styloid Part
process is slender, pointed and projects antero-inferiorly from the inferior
 Most posterior part of the temporal bone
 Outer surface provides attachment to the occipital
belly of Occipito Frontalis and Auricularis posterior;
Mastoid foramen crossed by a vein from the sigmoid
sinus
Mastoid Part
 Mastoid process: Sternocleidomastoid, splenius
Capitis and Longissimus Capitis are attached to its
lateral surface. Mastoid notch on its inner surface
provides attachment to posterior belly of digastric
muscle. The occipital artery runs in a shallow
occipital groove medial to this notch
 Wedged between the sphenoid and occipital bones
 It has a base, apex, three surfaces (anterior, posterior
and inferior) and three borders (superior, posterior
and anterior) and contains the acoustic labyrinth
Petrous Part
forms one
of the fora

Anterior Surface
Contributes to the floor of the
middle cranial fossa
Mostly formed by Tegmen
Superior border
tympani, a thin plate of bone forms
the roof of the mastoid Antrum
Trigeminal impression - location of
Posterior border
Medially in relation to inferior
Posterior Surface
AnteriorUpper
borderhalf of the posterior
surface of the Petrous part of
the temporal bone is the
Laterally,joined tointernal
the squamous
acoustic meatus. The
trigeminal nerve
Groove and hiatus for the greater
Petrosal nerve (branch of the facial
nerve)
Groove and hiatus for the lesser
Petrosal nerve, a branch from the
tympanic plexus
STYLOID APPARATUS (3 muscles and 2 ligaments)
responsible to the formation of vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerves,
jugular foramen medially, articulates
andwith the
the labyrinthine artery
greater wing of the sphenoid
pass through it
bone
Inferior Surface
At the base of the skull
between greater wing of
sphenoid and basilar part of
occipital bone

Structures attached to Styloid Process Features

Stylohyoid Muscle Supplied by Facial Nerve (Nerve of 2nd arch)

Styloglossus Muscle Hypoglossal Nerve (developed from Occipital Myotome)
Stylopharyngeus Muscle Supplied by Glossopharyngeal Nerve (nerve of 3rd arch)
Stylohyoid Ligament Remnant of 2nd Branchial arch
Stylomandibular Ligament Modification of Investing layer of Deep Cervical Fascia

ETHMOID BONE
 Ethmoid bone lies between the Orbits and underlies the Frontal bone
 It is cuboidal & fragile, and lies anteriorly in the cranial base
 It contributes to the Medial Orbital Walls, Nasal Septum, and the Roof and Lateral walls of the Nasal Cavity
 It has a horizontal, perforated Cribriform plate, a median Perpendicular plate, and two Lateral Labyrinths which
contain the ethmoidal air cells
 MAXILLA
 Upper jaw of the face inbetween the mouth and eyes,
 Surrounds the Anterior Nasal Apertures, and articulate with each other medially at the Intermaxillary Suture,
laterally: Zygomatic process of each Maxilla articulates with the Zygomatic bone and medially: the Frontal
process of each Maxilla articulates with the Frontal Bone, Nasal Bone, Lacrimal Bone
 Articulates also with the vomer, sphenoid and palatine bones
 Has a body and four processes- zygomatic, frontal, alveolar and palatine processes

Zygomatic
Body
Parts Frontal
4 Processes
Alveolar

Palatine

Anterior Orbital
Shallow incisive fossa, lateral to it Forms most of the floor of the
is a larger, deeper canine fossa orbit
The incisive and canine fossae are In the centre is the Infraorbital
separated from each other by groove, which continues
canine eminence, overlying the forwards into the Infraorbital
socket of the canine tooth
canal and opens into
The Infraorbital foramen lies
above the fossa Infraorbital foramen. (Near the
Medially the anterior surface has midpoint, the Infraorbital canal
Infratemporal
concave nasal notch, and Nasal has a small lateral branch, the
terminates at the anterior nasal canalis sinuosus, for the
spine Forms the anterior wall of the Infratemporal fossa anterior superior alveolar nerve
With large opening, maxillary hiatus leading into the
Near its centre are the openings of two or three foramina and vessels)
maxillary sinus
for passage of posterior superior alveolar vessels and Anterior to the hiatus Body
is a deep groove, the
nerves, postero inferior is the maxillary tuberosity
Nasolacrimal groove
(Roughly pyramidal)

Zygomatic
Process Frontal Process

 Anterior, Infratemporal and

orbital surfaces merge to
form pyramidal projection,
the zygomatic process
  Projects posterosuperiorly
inbetween the nasal and
lacrimal bones

Alveolar Process
 Is thick and arched, bears sockets for the roots of the upper teeth
 The socket for the canine is deepest
 The sockets for molars are subdivided into three by septa and are widest
 Socket for incisors and second premolar are single, however, that of first premolar is frequently double

Palatine Process
 The hard palate is primarily formed anteriorly by the palatine processes of each maxilla and posteriorly by
the horizontal plates of each palatine bone
 The intermaxillary suture demarcates the joining of the paired palatine processes of each maxilla
 The paired palatine bones join at the palatomaxillary suture, whereas meeting of the paired horizontal plates
of each palatine bone occurs at the interpalatine suture
 Incisive foramina lies in the walls of the incisive fossa in the anterior midline, posterior to the teeth
 The incisive foramen demarcates the opening of the incisive canals, that passes between the hard palate and
nasal cavity
 The greater palatine foramina near the Posterolateral border of the hard palate on each side, lead to greater
palatine canals
 Posterior to the greater palatine foramina lies the lesser palatine foramina in the pyramidal process of each
ZYGOMATIC BONES
palatine bone leading to lesser palatine canals
  Form the prominences
Posterior nasal spine is of the cheeks
a midline pointed projection lying in posterior border of the hard palate
 Contribute to the floor, lateral wall of the orbit as well as the walls of the temporal and Infratemporal fossae
 They join medially with the Greater Wings of the Sphenoid Bone, Frontal, Maxilla and Temporal bones
 Whitnall tubercle
  A small projection seen just behind and within the orbital margin on the orbital surface of the zygomatic
bone positioned bout 11mm below the frontozygomatic suture
 Provides attachment for the ligament of the lateral rectus muscle, suspensory ligament of Lockwood ,lateral
palpebral ligament, and the levator palpebrae superioris muscle

Parts

3 Surfaces 5 Borders 2 Processes

Anterosuperior
Lateral(Facial) Frontal
(Orbital)

Posteromedial Anteroinferior Temporal

(Temporal) (Maxillary)

Posterosuperior
Orbital
(Temporal)

Posterinferior

Posteromedial

Posterosuperior/ Temporal
Border
(sinuous, gives attachment to temporal
Posteromedial fascia)
(Temporal) Surface Anterosuperior/ Orbital Border Frontal Process
 Has a uneven anterior area, (forms the orbital margin)  Articulates above with the
articulatin with the Zygomatic process of the
Zygomatic process of the Frontal bone and behind with
Posteromedial
the Greater WingBorder
of the
Lateral (Facial) Surface
Maxilla
 Upper / alveolar
 Consists of sockets for the tooth roots in the lower jaw
 Comprises of buccal and lingual plates joined by interdental and inter-
radicular septa
 External oblique becomes superimposed upon the buccal plate
adjacent to the second and third molar teeth

MANDIBLE
 forms the lower jaw
 Only movable bone of skull that articulates at the Temporomandibular joints with the temporal bones.
 Horizontal body, and two broad rami, and the angle of mandible where the inferior margin of the mandible
joins the posterior margin of the ramus

Parts

Body Ramus

Borders Surface Surfaces Borders

Upper/
External Lateral Inferior
Alveolar

Lower
Internal Medial Superior
border/ Base

External
Anterior
 A midline swelling (the Mental
Protuberance)
 Lateral to the mental protuberance Posterior
on either side are Mental tubercles
 Mental foramen is visible halfway
between the upper border of the
alveolar part of mandible and the
lower border of the base of mandible
in between the premolar teeth
 Oblique line passing from the front of
the ramus onto the body of the
mandible, is a point of attachment for
muscles that depress the lower lip
 Internal
 Oblique Mylohyoid line, to which
Mylohyoid is attached, separates
Submandibular fossa below from
sublingual fossa above
 Present posterior to Symphysis Lateral Surface
menti
Gives attachment
are two topairs
masseter
of small
muscle, has (external) oblique ridge in its lower part for intermuscular
elevation,
septa of masseter
genial tubercles
 Superior genial tubercles give
attachment to Genioglossus, the
inferior genial tubercle to
Geniohyoid Medial Surface
Mylohyoid groove
Near its centre lies posterior
is mandibular to
foramen (transmits inferior alveolar nerves and vessels), leading into the
the
mandibular
Mylohyoid canal
lineinand
theconveys
body. This
thecanal opens into the mental foramen Ramus
Mylohyoid nerve andlingual
A thin, triangular vesselslies over the anteromedial margin of the mandibular foramena providing
 Behind the 3 molar is attachment
attachment to
rd Sphenomandibular ligament

ofThe part of mandible lying above

Pterygomandibular rapheand behind mandibular foramen is supplied by 1st part of maxillary
artery and its inferior alveolar
(provides attachment to Buccinator branch
muscle
Mylohyoid
on groove
anteriorand aspect
Mylohyoid andline – below it gives attachment to medial pterygoid muscle
superior constrictor of pharynx on Lower border / base
posterior aspect)  Extend from symphysis menti to the lower border of the ramus
 Lingual nerve meets the inner behind the third molar tooth
surface of alveolar border beneath  On either side, near the midline, is a rough digastric fossa, that
the mucoperiosteum of gum, and Superior border
provides attachment to the anterior belly of digastric
rd
intervene between
Has coronoid the 3in
process molar and condylar process behind, separated by mandibular notch (transmitting
front and
posterior endvessels
Masseteric of mylohyoid line
and nerves)
 Coronoid process is flat, triangular upward projection, gives attachment to temporalis muscle on its medial
surface, tip and anterior border
 A ridge travels downward from the tip of the medial side of coronoid process to the bone lying behind the
third molar called the temporal crest
 A triangular depression present between the temporal crest and the anterior border of the ramus is termed
 the retromolar fossa
 Condylar process is roughly ovoid, antero-posteriorly measuring 1 cm
 The angle formed between the long axis of the condyle and ramus is not a right angle, rather they meet at
an at an obtuse angle (145°) along the anterior border of the foramen magnum
 The articular head of the condyle meets the ramus via a thin bony projection called the neck of the condyle
 Pterygoid fovea, small depression lying on the anterior surface of the neck, provides attachment to portion
of the lateral pterygoid muscle

Anterior border Posterior border

 Thin above and is in  Thick and rounded,
continuation with the
Ramus extends from the
coronoid process condyle to the angle
 Thicker below where it Inferior border
joins the external oblique
 In continuation with the base of mandibular, joins with the posterior border at the angle (everted in males,
line
frequently inverted in females)

OSSIFICATION OF MANDIBLE
 Formation of mandible occurs in dense fibro membranous tissue situatedin the lower portion of Meckel’s
cartilage, lateral to the inferior alveolar nerve and the incisive branch.
 Ossification starts from a centre which appears near the mental foramen in each of the halves of Mandible in
about the sixth week in utero
 Ossification starts to spread medially and posterocranially from the ossification centre forming the ramus
and body.
 Ossification occurs first inferior to and later around the inferior alveolar nerve and its incisive branch
 Subsequently, ossification spreads upwards byforming a trough in the initial stages, and later develops into
crypts for developing teeth
 By week 10, Meckel's cartilage becomes invaded by bone beneath the incisor rudiments
 The growth in height is contributed by the condylar cartilage, which is a conical shaped secondary
cartilages that appear and subsequently extend from the mandibular head downwards and forwards in the
ramus
 By mid-fetal life it is mostly replaced by bone, however the proximal end continues as proliferating cartilage
beneath the fibrous articular lining till the third decade,.
 Another secondary cartilage, develops along the anterior coronoid border, which soon undergoes
ossification, and disappears before birth
 One or two cartilaginous nodules also develop at the symphysis menti
 These nodules undergo ossification at about the 7 th month in utero, as the mental ossicles in symphyseal
fibrous tissue join to adjacent bone before the first year after birth

PALATINE BONE
 Makes up the posterior third of the palate
 “L” shape
 Comprises of two plates - horizontal & perpendicular
 Perpendicular plate lies over the posterior third of the medial wall of the body of maxilla, and articulates with
the pterygoid process of the sphenoid
 Horizontal Plate
2 Plates
Perpendicular
Plate
PARTS
Orbital

3 Processes Sphenoidal

Pyramidal

NASAL BONES
 Trapezoidal
 Two small, symmetrical bones of the midface which build the bridge of the nose

BORDERS & ARTICULATIONS

Border Attachment
 Medial Nasal part of the Frontal Bone
Superiorly & Laterally Frontal process of the Maxilla
Inferiorly Lateral cartilage of the Nose

LACRIMAL BONES
 Scale-like oval bone
 Inferior concha extends over the lower portion of the opening of the maxillary sinus, and articulates with the
palatine bone, maxilla and uncinate process of the ethmoid (superior & middle Conchae are part of the
ethmoidal labyrinth)

Surface Features
Lacrimal groove which forms the fossa for lacrimal sac
Lateral (Orbital)
together with the lacrimal groove of the Maxilla
Medial (Nasal) Contributes to the Middle Nasal Meatus

Border Attachment
Anteriorly Frontal process of Maxilla
Superiorly Frontal bone
Posteriorly Lamina papyracea of the anterior ethmoid cells
Inferiorly Anterior portion of the inferior nasal concha

VOMER
 One of the unpaired facial bones of the skull
 Situated in the midsagittal line
 Articulates with Ethmoid, Sphenoid, left & right Palatine bones, and the left & right Maxillary bones
 Forms: Posterior part of the nasal septum and anterior part is formed by the ethmoid
 HYOID BONE

 U-shaped bone placed in front of the neck inbetween the Mandible and Larynx
 Lies in the level of the 3rd cervical vertebra
 Devoid of direct bony articulations, rather is held in place by muscles, fascia and ligaments.
 Suspended from Styloid Processes of Temporal bones via Stylohyoid ligaments
 Does not articulate with any bone of the body

Parts

Greater cornu Lesser cornu

Body (Corpus)
(or horns) -02 (or horns) - 02

 Points posteriorly, end in a  Small nipple-like structures

 Offers attachments for tubercle
the Geniohyoid,
Mylohyoid, Omohyoid,
 Delivers attachments for
and Sternohyoid
the Middle Constrictor,
Hyoglossus, Digastric
muscles
(anterior and posterior)
bellies, Stylohyoid, and
Thyrohyoid muscles
that is directed cranially and
posteriorly
 Offers attachment for the
Stylohyoid ligament, which
runs from the Styloid
process to the Lesser horn
of the Hyoid bone
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 Central bony pillar of body
 Provides supports to skull, upper limbs, thoracic cage and pectoral girdle,
 Transmits body weight to the lower limbs through pelvic girdle
 Provides pronounced protection to
 Roots of the spinal nerves
 Spinal cord
 The covering meninges
 Flexible structure (segmented) & comprises of
 Vertebrae
 Joints
 Intervertebral discs (form ¼ length of the column)

COMPOSITION
 Vertebral column is composed of 33 vertebrae

Vertebrae Number Feature

Cervical 7 Movable
Thoracic 12 Movable
Lumbar 5 Movable
Sacral 5 Fused together forming the sacrum
Coccygeal 4 Lower 3 fused
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
Features of Typical Cervical Vertebra
Parts
Body
Vertebral Arch
Superior Articular Facets
Inferior Articular Facets
Transverse Processes
Spine
Atypical Features of First, Second and Seventh Cervical Vertebrae
Vertebrae
First Cervical Vertebra (Atlas)
Second Cervical Vertebra (Axis)
Features
Disc- shaped anterior portion
 Bony ring behind the vertebral body, which is formed of 2 pedicles & 2
laminae posteriorly
 Gives rise to 7 processes
1. 2 superior & 2 inferior articular processes
2. 2 transverse processes
3. One spinous process
Directed backwards and upwards
Directed forwards and downwards
 Small, penetrated by Foramen Transversarium
 Has anterior and posterior roots joined together by costotransverse tavern
 Costal component: composed of anterior root, costotransverse pub, anterior
tubercle and posterior tubercle.
 The posterior root denotes the transverse component of the growing
vertebra
Short and bifid
Features
 Body is absent
 Absence of Spine
 Circular Inferior articular facets
 Kidney shaped Superior articular facets
 Long transverse processes
 Presence of Odontoid process – protrudes from superior surface of body
(represents the body of the atlas which fused with that of the axis)
  Odontoid process (dens) has facet for articulation with the atlas
(central Atlanto-axial joint, pivot)
 Foramen transversarium faces in superolateral direction (in typical
vertebrae, it is vertically directed)
Spine is long , strong and not bifid
Seventh Cervical Vertebra
Transverse process is comparatively long and the anterior tubercle is absent
(Vertebra Prominens)
Foramen transversarium is comparatively small
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
  12 thoracic vertebrae
 Key feature: presence of costal facet/facets on the sides of their bodies that articulates with heads of the ribs
 Typical: 2nd to 8th
 Atypical: 1st and 9th to 12th

Vertebrae Features
 Similar to 7th cervical vertebra
T1  Superior costal facet is circular
 Superior vertebral notch is deep and evident
T9  Only superior demifacet is present
T10  Only single large complete costal facet is present
 Single large circular costal facet is present
T11
 Lack of articular facet on transverse process
 Similar to 1st lumbar vertebra
T12  Presence of single large circular facet that extends onto the root of tubercle
 Transverse process presents three tubercles: superior, inferior, and lateral

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
 5 lumbar vertebrae present of which first 4 (L1 to L4) are typical and fifth (L5) is atypical
 5th lumbar vertebra has the largest body of the vertebrae

Identifying Features
1. Lack of costal facets on the body
2. Lack of foramina transversaria in the transverse processes
3. Massive reniform bodies
4. Existence of accessory and mammillary processes
5. Thick quadrilateral spinous processes
SACRUM
 Consists of 5 vertebrae joined together forming a wedge-shaped bone
 Concave anteriorly
 Base or the upper border, or base joins with 5th lumbar vertebra
 Coccyx articulates with its narrow inferior border
 Articulates laterally with the two iliac bones forming the sacroiliac joints
 Sacral promontory is the posterior margin of the pelvic inlet formed by the bulging out of the anterior and
upper margin of the first sacral vertebra
 The vertebral foramina form the sacral canal contains:
o anterior and posterior roots of the sacral and Coccygeal spinal nerves,
o filum terminale
o fibrofatty material
o lower part of (the subarachnoid space down as far as the lower border of the second sacral
vertebra
 The laminae of the 5th and sometimes the 4th sacral vertebra do not meet in the midline resulting in
formation of the sacral hiatus
 Four formanina each , lies on the anterior and posterior surfaces of sacrum that allows the passage of the
anterior and posterior rami of the upper 4 sacral nerves
COCCYX
 Consists of 4 vertebrae joined forming a single, triangular bone that joins with sacrum
 Usually, the 1st coccygeal vertebra is either not fused or incompletely fused with the 2nd

CONTENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL CANAL

 Succession of the vertebral foramina forms the vertebral canal which contains:
 Spinal cord which end at lower border of 1st lumbar vertebra
 Covering of the spinal cord which forms the meninges
o Dura mater & arachnoid end at 2nd sacral vertebra
o Pia mater end with spinal cord and continue as filum terminal.
o Between arachnoid mater & Pia mater is subarachnoid space which encloses cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)
 In extradural space lie internal vertebral venous plexus which communicate with veins of the neck, thorax,
abdomen and pelvis
 Anterior and posterior spinal arteries
CURVES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Primary Curvature - In fetus, only continuous anterior concavity is present in
the vertebral column
Secondary or Adult Curvatures
 After birth, cervical part of the vertebral column becomes convex anteriorly
as the child gets the ability to raise his head
 By the age of 1 year, anterior convexity appears at the lumbar region as the
Curves in the Sagittal plane
child starts to stand upright
 Alteration in the shape of the intervertebral discs results in these secondary
curves
 The vertebral column of an adult in the standing position exhibits the
following curves: cervical (anterior convexity), thoracic (anterior concavity),
lumbar (anterior convexity) & sacral (anterior concavity)
 Minor lateral curves in the thoracic region is commonly seen during late
childhood which occurs as a result of the predominant usage of one upper
Curves in the Coronal
limb,
plane
 Eg., a minor right-sided thoracic convexity may be present in a right handed
individual

Abnormal Curves of the Vertebral Column

Kyphosi
An abnormally increased backward thoracic curvature
s
Lordosis An abnormally increased forward lumbar curvature
A lateral deviation of vertebral column in the thoracic region caused by uneven growth of vertebral
Scoliosis
column

JOINTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Atlanto-Occipital joint
 Synovial joint inbetween the occipital condyle and atlas, where flexion and extension of the head occur

Atlanto-Axial joint
 3 joints between axis and atlas, at which rotation of the head occur.

Joints of the vertebral column below the Axis

 Vertebrae articulate with each other via:
 Invertebral discs- Cartilaginous joints between their bodies
 Synovial joints between their articular processes

JOINTS BETWEEN VERTEBRAL BODIES

 Thin plates of hyaline cartilage lines the upper & lower surfaces of the bodies of the adjacent vertebrae.
 Intervertebral disc of fibrocartilage lies in between the plates of hyaline cartilage
 Due to increased movements of the vertebral column in the cervical and lumbar region, there is greater
thickness of the intervertebral discs
 Function as shock absorber as in falling from a height.
 Each disc consists of :
o Peripheral part: anulus fibrosis  made up of fibrocartilage.
o Central part: nucleus pulposus  an ovoid mass of gelatinous material present in children and
adolescents.
JOINTS BETWEEN TWO VERTEBRAL ARCHES
 Comprise of synovial joints between the superior and inferior articular processes of contiguous vertebrae.
 Ligaments
1. Interspinous: joins the adjacent spines.
2. Intertransverse: runs between adjacent transverse processes.
3. Ligamentum flavum: joins the lamina of adjacent vertebrae.
4. Supraspinous: between tips of adjacent spines.

MOVEMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Movement Definition Region

Flexion Forward movement Extensive in lumbar & cervical regions & restricted in thoracic region

Extension Backward movement Extensive in lumbar & cervical regions & restricted in thoracic region

Bending of the body to one

Lateral Flexion Extensive in lumbar & cervical regions & restricted in thoracic region
or the other side

Twisting of the vertebral

Rotation Least extensive in the lumbar region
column