Diagram and Graph PDF

Diagrams
and Graphs
By:
Prajeet K. Timalsina
Norvic Business College (3rd Sem)
1
Introduction
• One of the most convincing and appealing ways in which statistical
results may be presented is through diagrams and graphs.
• Evidence of this can be found in newspapers, magazines, journals,
advertisements, etc.
• There are numerous ways in which statistical data may be displayed
pictorially such as different types of diagrams, graphs and maps.
Very often the problem is that of selecting the best out of several
methods that may be available.
• This is a difficult task and requires a great deal of artistic talent and
imagination on the part of the individual or agency engaged in the
preparation of diagrams and graphs.
• It is not practicable to discuss all the possible forms of charts here.
An attempt is made in this chapter to illustrate some of the major
types of diagrams, graphs and maps frequently used in presenting
statistical data.
By: Prajeet K. Timalsina

2
DIAGRAMMATIC PRESENTATION OF DATA
Diagrammatic presentation of data is a

technique of presenting the data visually in
the form of diagrams.

3
Significance of Diagrammatic
Presentation
Diagrams and graphs are extremely useful because of
the following reasons:
1. Diagrammatic presentation of data eliminates the dullness
of numerical data.
2. It gives bird's eye – view of the whole mass statistical data
that have been collected about any problem.
3. It makes the comparison of data much easier.
4. It helps in establishing trends of the past performance.
5. It makes it possible to determine the values of the
positional averages such an median, quartiles, mode etc.
6. It creates on the mind of an observer a long lasting
impression of the relative magnitude of the numerical
values which can be easily remembered.
By: Prajeet K. Timalsina 4
Limitations of Diagrammatic Presentation
The diagrammatic presentation of data has the following
limitations:
1. Diagrams provide only an approximate idea and as such

where greater accuracy is needed diagrams will not be
suitable.
2. It is very difficult to show the minor differences through
diagrams.
3. Diagrams cannot show so many facts as a statistical table
can show.
4. It is more difficult to understand two or three dimensional
diagrams than the facts contained in a statistical table.

5
TYPES OF DIAGRAMS
Types of Diagrams
One Dimensional Two Dimensional

Diagrams Diagrams
 Simple Bar Diagrams  Pie Diagram or Pie-Chart

 Sub-divided Bar Diagrams
 Percentage Bar Diagrams
 Multiple Bar Diagrams

6
ONE DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAM
One dimensional diagram is a diagram which is
prepared on the basis of only one dimension i.e.
length. This type of diagram takes the shape of bars. It
may be noted that even though bar locks like a
rectangle, it is not a rectangle because in a rectangle
both length and width are significant.
TWO DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAMS

Two dimensional diagram is a diagram which is
prepared on the basis of two dimensions i.e. length
and width. As the product of length and width
indicates the area, this type of diagram is also called
area diagram. Pie-diagram (i.e Pie-chart) is mainly used
to show two dimensional diagram.
7
Simple Bar Diagrams
• Simple bar diagram is a one dimensional diagram in
which bar is constructed to represent one value of a
given variable.
• The length of various bars is in the ratio of the
magnitude of the given data.
• As the width of the bars is not significant, width is
uniform for all bars.
• It is generally prepared when the data indicates
different values of a variable over a time period or
when the data represents different situations.
• Identical gap is left in between the different bars.
• The bars can be prepared either vertically or
horizontally.
8
ILLUSTRATION 11
You are given the information regarding Human Poverty Index (HPI) of
SAARC countries. Show the data using Simple Bar Diagarm.
Country HPI Country HPI
Nepal 50.5 Pakistan 55.2
India 45.8 Sri Lanka 35.8
Bhutan 20.7 Bangladesh 60.3
Maldives 40.3 Afghanistan 48.5

9
Solution:
Simple Bar Diagram Showing HPI of Countries.
Y
70
60.3
60
Human Poverty Index
55.2
50.5
50 48.5
45.8
40.3
40 35.8
30
20.7
20
10
Srilanka
Afganistan
Maldives
Pakistan
O
India
Banglades
Bhutan
Nepal
Country
Sub-divided Bar Diagram / Component
Bar Diagram
• Simple Bar Diagram is useful to represent only
one feature of variable at a time.
• But, there are some conditions when two or
more features of variable have to be presented
at a time, then sub-divided bar diagram is
considered as suitable approach.
Note: Cumulative table of variable should be constructed to draw sub-divided bar diagram.

11
ILLUSTRATION 1 2
Represent the data by means of sub-divided bar diagram;
Cost per scooter (in Rs.)
Particulars
2005 2008
Raw Materials 4000 8000
Labours 6000 12000
Indirect Expenses 3000 7000
Other Expenses 2000 3000
15000 30000

12
Solution:
Cumulative Table
Particular 2005 2008
Cost (Rs) Cum. Cost (Rs) Cost (Rs) Cum. Cost (Rs)
Raw Material 4000 4000 8000 8000
Labour 6000 10000 12000 20000
Indirect Expenses 3000 13000 7000 27000
Other Expenses 2000 15000 1000 30000
15000 30000
Sub-divided bar diagram

Indicators:
Y Other Expenses
Indirect Expenses
35000
Labour
30000 Raw Materials
Cumulative Cost
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
O X
2005 2008
Year

Percentage Bar Diagram
• If sub-divided bar diagram is expressed in
percentage, then it is known as percentage
bar diagram.
• For this, cumulative percentage table should
be constructed.

14
ILLUSTRATION 13
Represent the following by sub-divided bar diagram on the basis of
percentage;
Years
Particular
2002 2005 2008
1. Cost per unit
Wages 9 15 21
Materials 6 10 14
Overheads 3 5 7
Total Cost per unit 18 30 42
2. Sales Revenue per unit 20 30 40
3. Profit/Loss per unit 2 - (2)

15
Solution:
Form the table above, We can draw four components Viz: wages, matrials,
overheads and profit or loss to construct percentage bar diagram.
Computation Table
2002 2005 2008
Particulars Cum. % of Cum % of Cum. Cum. % of Cum
Cost Cost Cost
Cost Cum. cost Cost Cost cost Cost
Profit/Loss 2 2 10% - - - (2) (2) -5%
Wages 9 11 55% 15 15 50% 21 19 47.5%
Materials 6 17 85% 10 25 83.33% 14 33 82.5%
Overheads 3 20 100% 5 30 100% 7 40 100%
20 30 40
Percentage Bar Diagram:
Indicators:
16
Multiple Bar Diagram
• Multiple Bar Diagram is one dimensional diagram in
which two or more bars adjoining each other are
constructed to represent the values of different
variables or the values of various components of the
same variable.
• Identical gap is left in between the bars of different
sets. This diagram, facilitates comparison of the values
of different variables in a set and comparison of the
values of the same variable over a period of time.
• If simple bar diagram is represented with two or more
sets of inter-related data, then it is known as multiple
bar diagram.

17
ILLUSTRATION 1 4
Construct multiple bar diagram to represent the data given below:
No. of students passed in
Year
1st Division 2nd Division 3rd Division
2002 20 60 80
2003 30 75 110
2004 40 100 90
Solution:
Multiple bar diagram showing passed no. of students.
120
100
80
No. of Students
60 1st Division
2nd Division
3rd Division
40
20
0
2002 2003 2004
Year

Pie-Diagram
• Pie diagram is a circular diagram whose area is
proportionately divided among the various components of
a given variable.
• Under this, the circle is divided into different segments by
radial lines (radius).
• In order to construct, the pie-chart, the given values are
centered into the angles.
• So, it is also known as angular diagram.
• The total magnitude of segments of a set is considered to
be equal to 360o and the corresponding angle at the centre
for each segment should be calculated accordingly.
360o
Angle at the centre for one unit of an item =
Total value
Note: Loss or deficit cannot be shown in pie-chart
19
ILLUSTRATION 15
The asset holding of commercial banks in 1990 is given as follows.
Represent the data into pie-chart.
Commercial Banks Asset Holdings (Rs. in Billions)
NBL 129
RBB 96
NABIL 13
INDOS 8
GRND 12
ADB 46

20
Solution:
Total assets holding = 129 + 96 + 13 + 8 + 12 + 46 = Rs. 304 billions
Taking Rs.304 billions = 3600
3600
 Rs. 1 billion = = 1.180
304
Computation Table
Commercial Asset Holdings Angle at centre
Banks (Rs. in billions) (1.180× Assets Holdings)
NBL 129 1.180× 129 = 1530
RBB 96 1.180× 96 = 1140
NABIL 13 1.180× 13 = 150
INDOS 8 1.180× 8 = 90
GRND 12 1.180× 12 = 140
ADB 46 1.180× 46 = 540
Pie-Diagram of asset holding of commercial banks in 1990
NBl
RRB
NABIL
INDOS
GRAND
ADB

21
ILLUSTRATION 1 6
Construct the pie-diagram for the following data:
Population
Components Districts
1991 2001
Dolpa 25013 22071
Jumla 75964 69226
Mugu 36364 31465

22
Solution:
Value of the item
In a pie-diagram, Angle at the centre = x 3600
Total value
Calculation of Angle at the centre
1991 2001
Districts
Population Angle at center Population Angle at center
Dolpa 25013 65.560 22071 64.720
Jumla 75964 199.120 69226 203.010
Mugu 36364 95.320 31465 92.270
Total 137341 3600 122762 3600
Square root 370.60 - 350.37 -
Radii 1.06 - 1 -
Pie Diagram of population in 1991 and 2001
Indicators
Dolpa
Mugu
Jumla
1991 2001
CHOICE OF DIAGRAM
No single method is suitable for all types of data and there is no any
hard and fast rule to select a suitable diagram. It depends upon the
situation and nature of data. But even, following suggestions are
recommended for selecting a suitable diagram, when the question
is silent.
a) If only one attribute of a variable is to be shown in diagram,
then simple bar diagram is suitable.
b) If more than one attributes of a variable are to be shown in
diagram, then sub-divided bar diagram is suitable but when
there is negative figure (i.e. loss or deficit), then percentage bar
diagram is more appropriate.
c) When a comparison between two or more interrelated
variables are to be shown in diagram, then multiple bar
diagram is suitable.
d) If there is loss a deficit and more than 6 characteristics of a
variable, then pie-chart should not be constructed.

24
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
• Graphical presentation of data is a technique of
presenting the data visually in the form of graph.
• This method provides the quickest understanding
of the actual situation to be explained by data in
comparison to tabular or textual preventions.
• It eliminates the dullness of the numerical data.
• It presents the data in a more impressive manner.
• Comparison of data is much easier if it is
presented in the form of diagram and graphs.

25
Importance of Graphical Presentation
of Data
The technique of graph offers numerous advantages to the users.
Some of the major advantages are listed as under:
1. The graph presents the data in such a fashion, that it is easier
for the user to understand.
2. It gives attractive presentation to statistical data as compared to
tables. By looking at the graph it is easier to notice the main
features of data at a glance in trends and fluctuations.
3. It is time saving device.
4. It facilitates comparison of data relating to two different periods
of time or to two different regions.
5. It does not require knowledge of mathematics on the part of
the user to understand the message of graph.
6. It is helpful to locate the median, mode and mean values of the
data.
7. It is helpful in forecasting, interpolation and extrapolation of
data.
Limitations of Graphical Presentation
of Data
Although the technique of graph is a useful one
but, it is not free from limitations. Some of its
major limitations are as follows:
1. It lack complete accuracy about facts.
2. It depicts only few characteristics of data.
3. The graph cannot be used in support of some
statement.
4. The graph is not the substitute to the
tabulation in all the circumstances and for all
purposes.
Difference between Diagrams and Graphs
The question is how to distinguish a diagram from a graph. Though
there is no clear-cut line of demarcation between the two, yet
following points of difference may be noted:
 For constructing a graph we generally make use of graph paper
whereas a diagram is generally constructed on plain paper. In other
words, a graph represents mathematical relationship (though not
necessarily functional) between two variables whereas a diagram
does not.
 Diagrams are more attractive to the eye and as such are better
suited for publicity and propaganda. They do not add anything to
the meaning of the data and, therefore, from the point of view of a
statistician or research worker they are not helpful in analysis.
Graphs, on the other hand, are very much used by the statistician
and the research worker in analysis. In fact, these days it is difficult
to find any research work without the graphic support.
 For representing frequency distributions and time series, graphs are
more appropriate than diagrams. In fact, for presenting frequency
distributions diagrams are rarely used.
TYPES OF GRAPHS
Major types of graphs are as follows:

1. Histogram
2. Frequency Polygon
3. Frequency Curve
4. Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Curve

29
Histogram
• It is the simplest method for representing
continuous frequency distribution into graph.
• Under this method, classes are taken along
with x-axis and frequencies are taken along
with y-axis.
• Then we construct a simple bar diagram from
class size up to height of frequency.
• We can determine the modal value with the
help of histogram.
30
ILLUSTRATION 17
Represent the following data by means of histogram and locate mode.
Weekly wages (in Rs) 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-40 40-60 60-80
No. of workers 7 19 27 15 12 12 8
Solution:
Since, the width of each class is not equal. So, the given frequencies should
be adjusted as:
Weekly Wages (In Rs.) Width of Class Given frequency Adjusted Frequency
10-15 5 7 7
15-20 5 19 19
20-25 5 27 27
25-30 5 15 15
30-40 10 (52) 12 12 ÷ 2 = 6
40-60 20(54) 12 12 ÷ 4 = 3
60-80 20(54) 8 8 ÷4= 2
Now,
Constructing Histogram and locating Mode:
Y
35
30
27
25
No. of Workers
20 19
15
15
10
7 6
5 3
2
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 X
Mode = 22
Weekly wages (in Rs.)

32
Frequency Polygon
• Frequency polygon can be defined as the line
of frequency drawn from the upper mid-point
of class-interval.
• There are two ways for constructing frequency
polygon.
 Frequency polygon with histogram
 Frequency polygon without histogram
• The frequency polygons under both ways can
be illustrated below:
Frequency Polygon With Histogram
Y
Frequency Polygon
Frequency
0 X
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Class Size
Frequency Polygon Without Histogram

Y
Frequency Polygon
Frequency
0 X
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Class Size

ILLUSTRATION 1 8
Draw histogram and show the frequency polygon from the following
data.
Variable(Less than) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Frequency 4 12 20 32 60 66 66
Solution:
In order to draw the frequency polygon, we should construct the
histogram and for the construction of histogram the given cumulative
frequency distribution should be converted into the normal frequency
distribution as:
Variable Frequency
0–10 4
10–20 12–4=8
20–30 20–12=8
30–40 32–20=8
40–50 60–32=28
50–60 66–60=6
60–70 66–66=0

35
Now,
Histogram and Frequency Polygon
Y
30 28
25
20
Frequency
15
10 8 8 8
6
5 4
0
0 X
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Class interval

36
Frequency Curve
• It is the limiting form of the frequency polygon.
The major difference between frequency polygon
and frequency curve is the way of drawing line.
• The frequency polygon is drawn with straight line
and the frequency curve is drawn with free hand.
• If the no. of observation (total frequency) is very
large and class interval is relatively smaller then,
frequency curve is more suitable than that of
frequency polygon.
• Frequency curve can be illustrated below:
37
ILLUSTRATION 19
Prepare a histogram, a frequency polygon and frequency curve from the
following data:
Class interval 0-6 6-12 12-18 18-30 30-36 36-42
Frequency 4 8 15 20 12 2
Solution:
Since the width of the class 18-30 is double than that of the width of the
rest. So, the class 18-30 should be divided into two parts 18-24 and 24-30
with frequency of 10 each class.
Y Indicator:
16 15 Frequency Polygon
Frequency Curve
14
12
12
Frequency
10
10 8
8
6
4
4 2
2
X
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42
Class Interval
Ogive / Cumulative Frequency Curve
• A graphical presentation of cumulative frequency distribution is
called ogive.
• For the construction of ogive, class intervals are taken along with x-
axis and cumulative frequency (CF) should be taken along with y-
axis.
• Particularly it is useful for graphic computation of median values as
well as other partition values like quartiles, deciles and percentiles.
• There are two types of ogives. They are as follows:
1. Less than Ogive: For the construction of less than ogive, we
need to construct less than cumulative frequency table.
2. More than Ogive: For the construction of more than ogive, we
need to construct more than cumulative frequency table.
Note: If the question is asked for ogive only, then it is

recommended to construct less than ogive.
39
ILLUSTRATION 1 10
From the data given below construct less than and more than ogives and
then locate median.
Earnings (in Rs) No. of staffs
100 – 200 5
200 – 300 15
300 – 400 22
400 – 500 30
500 – 600 16
600 – 700 12
700 – 800 15
Total 115
Solution:
For the calculation of less than & more than ogives, we need to construct
cumulative frequency table as:
Less than cumulative Frequency Table More than cumulative Frequency Table
Class CF Class CF
Less than 200 5 ↓ More than 100 110+5 = 115 ↑
Less than 300 15 + 5 = 20 More than 200 95+15 = 110
Less than 400 20 + 22 = 42 ↓ More than 300 73+22 = 95 ↑
Less than 500 42 + 30 = 72 More than 400 43+30 = 73
Less than 600 72 + 16 = 88 ↓ More than 500 27+16 = 43 ↑
Less than 700 88 +12 = 100 More than 600 15+12 = 27
Less than 800 100+15 =115 ↓ More than 700 15 ↑
Now, Y Cumulative Frequency Curves (Ogives)
Y
120
120
110 115 115
110 Less than ogive
110
100
100 Less than ogive
100
90 95
88
90
80
80
70
(OF) (OF)
70 73
of Staffs
60 72
Staffs
60
50
No. ofNo.
50 43
40 42
40
30
0 27 More than ogive
30
20
0 20 More than ogive
20
10
15
10 5 X
O
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
O Earnings (in Rs) X
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Earnings (in Rs)
Median = 451.67
Median = 451.67
41
More Illustration
ILLUSTRATION 111
Prepare a histogram and frequency polygon from the following data:
Class-interval 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-25 25-30 30-35
Frequency 8 16 30 40 24 4
Solution:
Since the width of the class 15-25 is double than that of the width of the
rest. So, the class 15-25 should be divided by two parts 15 – 20 and 20 - 25
with frequency of 20 each class.
Histogram and frequency polygon
30 Histogram
30
25 24
Frequency Table
20
20
16
15
Frequency Polygon
10 8
4
5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Class Interval
ILLUSTRATION 1 12
Draw the cumulative frequency curve for the following data:
Age No. of person in group A No. of person in group B
30-35 10 15
35-40 15 25
40-45 25 30
45-50 40 50
50-60 30 20
60-70 10 10

43
Solution:
Since the question is asked for ogive only. So, we need to construct less
than ogive for the given data.
Less than cumulative frequency Less than cumulative freq.
Distribution for group A Distribution for group B
Age (Yrs) No. of persons (f) Age (Yrs) No. of persons (f)
Less than 35 10 Less than 35 15
Less than ogives
140 150
140
130
120
120 120
For Group B
100 For Group A
No. of Person
90
80 70
60
40 50
40
20 15 25
10
0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 Age
ILLUSTRATION 113
Draw Ogive and locate the value of median from the following:
Wages in '000 Rs. No. of employees
50 or more 65
60 or more 57
70 or more 47
80 or more 31
90 or more 17
100 or more 7
110 or more 2
120 or more 0
Find the number of employees having wages between 63,000 and 75,000

45
Solution:
Construction of normal frequency distribution:
Wages Class ('000) 50–60 60–70 70–80 80–90 90–100 100–110 100–123
No. of Employees 8 10 16 14 10 5 2
Since, the question is asked to draw ogives, so we need to construct less
than and more than cumulative frequency table as:
Less than CF table More than CF Table
Wages Frequency Wages Frequency
Less than 60 8 More than 50 65
Now, Drawing ogives and locating median:
70 65 65
63
60 58 Less than ogive
No. of Employees 57
50
47 48
40 34
31
30
18
17
20
8
10 7 2 More than ogive
0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Median=79.06 Wages Class
Finding the number of employees having wages between 63,000 & 75,000
63 75
n=?
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

n=10 n=16
(70 – 63) (75 – 70)
 Required no. of employees =  10 +  16
(70 – 60) (80 – 70)
= 7 + 8 = 15 employees
ILLUSTRATION 1 14
From the following income distribution
Income (Rs. 000) 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
No. of Persons 5 10 18 23 7 6
Construct an ogive and find the number of persons having income
between Rs. 20,000 and 50,000 from ogive curve.
Solution:
Since the question is asked to construct an ogive. So, we construct the less
than ogive and for that less than cumulative frequency table should be
constructed.
Income cFf.
Less than 10 5
Less than 20 15
Less than 30 33
Less than 40 56
Less than 50 63
Less than 60 69
Construction of less than ogive:
70 69
63   Less than ogive
60 56

50
40 33

30
20 15

10 5

O
10 20 30 40 50 60
Finding the number of persons

Base Amount = Rs. 20 and Rs. 50 (in 000)
Number =?
18 23 7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Therefore, required no. of person having income between Rs. 20 and Rs. 50
= 18 + 23 + 7 = 48 persons.
Thank You

50

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By: Prajeet K. Timalsina

Diagrammatic presentation of data is a

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1. Diagrams provide only an approximate idea and as such

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One Dimensional Two Dimensional

 Simple Bar Diagrams  Pie Diagram or Pie-Chart

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TWO DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAMS

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Sub-divided bar diagram

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Percentage Bar Diagram:

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Major types of graphs are as follows:

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Frequency Polygon Without Histogram

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Note: If the question is asked for ogive only, then it is

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