4 - ECE 5750 - TRF - Voltage - Regulation - 22mar2020 PDF

ECE 5750
Distribution System & Power Quality

Part 4: Transformers & voltage regulation
Instructor: Dr. Ha Le
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
What will be presented?
1. Voltage regulation
 Two-winding transformer
 Two-winding autotransformer
 1-phase voltage regulators
 3-phase voltage regulators
2. Three-phase transformer models
 3-phase TRF models for different connection types:

 - Grounded Y,  - , Grounded Y– Grounded Y, etc.
Reading: DS textbook, Chapter 7
2
Voltage regulation
3
Methods of regulating voltage
 The regulation of voltages is an important function on a
distribution feeder.
 As the loads on the feeders vary, there must be some

means of regulating the voltage so that every customer
voltage remains within an acceptable level.
 Common methods of regulating the voltage are to

use:
1) Step-type voltage regulators
2) Load tap changing (LTC) transformers
3) Shunt capacitors.
4
Standard voltage ratings (1)
Based on ANSI C84.1-1995 for “Electric Power Systems and
Equipment Voltage Ratings (60 Hertz)”:
1) System voltage: The RMS phasor voltage of a portion of an

alternating current electric system.
2) Nominal system voltage: The voltage by which a portion of

the system is designated and to which certain operating
characteristics of the system are related.
3) Maximum system voltage: The highest system voltage

that occurs under normal operating conditions, and the
highest system voltage for which equipment and other
components are designed for satisfactory continuous
operation without derating of any kind.
5
Standard voltage ratings (2)
4) Service voltage: The voltage at the point where the electrical
system of the supplier and the electrical system of the user
are connected.
5) Utilization voltage: The voltage at the line terminals of

utilization equipment.
6) Nominal utilization voltage: The voltage rating of certain

utilization equipment used on the system.
6
Simplified voltage ranges (limits)
ANSI standards give the distribution engineer a range of “normal
steady-state” voltages (range A) and a range of “emergency
steady-state” voltages (range B) that must be supplied to all users.
For a normal three-wire 120/240 V service:
Range A:
1) Nominal utilization voltage = 115 V
2) Maximum utilization and service voltage = 126 V
3) Minimum service voltage = 114 V
4) Minimum utilization voltage = 110 V
Range B:
1) Nominal utilization voltage = 115 V
2) Maximum utilization and service voltage = 127 V
3) Minimum service voltage = 110 V
4) Minimum utilization voltage = 107 V
7
Voltage unbalance limit
The ANSI standard recommends that the “electric supply
systems should be designed and operated to limit the
maximum voltage unbalance to 3% when measured at the
electric-utility revenue meter under a no-load condition.”
8
Two-winding transformer theory
Z1 N 1: N 2 Z2
H1 X1
+ Iex + + +
IS I1 I2 H1, H2: High voltage terminals
VS Ym E1 E2 VL X1, X2: Low voltage terminals
-
H2 - - -
X2
Fig. 7.1 Exact equivalent circuit The primary impedance Z1 is

referred to the secondary side
N 1: N 2 Z
H1 t
X1
+ I + + +
ex
IS I1 I2
Ym
VS E1 E2 VL N2
E2   E1  n t  E1
-
N1
H2 - - -
X2
1:n t
N2 N2
n t= ___ I1   I 2  nt  I 2
N1 N1
Fig. 7.2 Approximate equivalent circuit 9
Two winding TRF analysis (1)
N 1: N 2 Z
H1 t
X1
+ I + + +
ex
IS I1 I2
VS Ym E1 E2 VL
-
H2 - - -
X2
1:n t
N2
___
n t=
N1
Applying KVL in the secondary circuit
1 Zt
I S  Ym  VL  Ym   I 2  nt  I 2
E 2  VL  Z t  I 2 nt nt
1 1 Z  
V S  E1   E2   V L  t I 2 (7.6) I  Ym  V   Ym  Z t  n   I
nt nt nt S L  t  2 (7.11)
nt  nt 
I S  YmVS  I1 VL  nt  VS  Z t  I L
10
Two winding TRF analysis (2)
In general form: N2
nt 
N1
Vs  a  VL  b  I L (7.7)
1
a
I s  c  VL  d  I L (7.12) nt
Zt
VL  A  Vs  B  I L (7.16) b
nt
Later: Ym
c
 The terms a, b, c, d will be expanded nt
to 3 x 3 matrix for all possible
Ym  Zt
3-phase regulator connections. d  nt
nt
 The expressions for A and B will be
expanded to 3 x 3 matrix for all A  nt
possible 3-phase transformer
B  Zt
connections.
11
Practice: 2-winding TRF analysis
Kersting Example 7.1: A single-phase transformer is rated 75 kVA,
2400/240 V. The transformer has the following impedances and shunt
admittance:
Z1 = 0.612 + j1.2 Ω (high-voltage winding impedance)
Z2 = 0.0061 + j0.0115 Ω (low-voltage winding impedance)
Ym = 1.92 × 10−4 − j8.52 × 10−4 S (referred to the HV winding)
Determine:
1) The generalized a, b, c, and d constants and

the A and B constants.
2) The source voltage and current. Given that the transformer

is operated at rated load and rated voltage with a power
factor of 0.9 lagging.
3) The load voltage.

12
Solution: 2-winding TRF analysis (1)
The transformer “turns ratio” is
The equivalent transformer impedance referred to the

low-voltage side:
13
The generalized
constants are:
14
Calculating the source voltage and current:
15
Load voltage
 This example shows that the generalized constants

provide a quick method for analyzing the operating
characteristics of a two-winding transformer.
16
For future reference, the per-unit impedance of the transformer is
The per-unit shunt admittance is
17
Two-winding Autotransformer
A two-winding TRF can be
connected as an autotransformer
where LV X1-X2 is called “Series”
and HV H1-H2 is called “Shunt”
winding.
Step-up AutoTRF (top):

The HV terminal H1 is connected o
the LV terminal X2.
The source is connected to
terminals H1 and H2, while the load
is connected between
the X1 terminal and the extension
of H2.
Step-down AutoTRF (bottom):

H1, H2: High voltage terminals
X1, X2: Low voltage terminals
18
Two-winding step-up autoTRF (1)
Applying KVL in the secondary circuit,

E1  nt  E1  (1  nt )  E1  VL  Z t  I 2
E1  E2  VL  Z t  I 2
VS = E1 and I2 = IL
N2
E2   E1  nt  E1 1 Zt
N1 Vs   VL   IL (7.21)
1  nt 1  nt
19
Applying KCL at input node H1
I S  I1  I 2  I ex
N2
I1   I 2  nt  I 2
N1
I S  (1  nt )  I 2  Ym  VS
 1 Zt 

I S  (1  nt )  I 2  Ym   VL   I 2 
 1  nt 1  nt 
Ym  Ym  Z t 
IS   VL    nt  1  I L (7.26a)
1  nt  1  nt  20
General equations with generalized constants :
21
Two-winding step-down autoTRF (1)
Ideal transformer relation:
E1  E 2  V L  Z t  I 2
E1  nt  E1  (1  nt )  E1  VL  Zt  I 2
1 Zt
Vs   VL   IL (7.31)
1  nt 1  nt
22
Two-winding step-down autoTRF (2)
General equations:
Vs  a  VL  b  I L
I s  c  VL  d  I L (7.32)
VL  A  Vs  B  I L
 Same form as the equations for

the two-winding transformer
23
General equations for autoTRF
The general equations and constants N2
applied to both step-up and step-down nt 
autoTRF are: N1
1
a
Vs  a  VL  b  I L 1  nt
Zt
I s  c  VL  d  I L b
1  nt
VL  A  Vs  B  I L c
Ym
1  nt
 The sign of nt is positive for the Ym  Zt
d  1  nt
step-up connection and negative for 1  nt
the step-down connection.
A  1  nt
B  Zt
24
Autotransformer ratings (1)
KVA rating  rated input VS  rated input I S  rated load VL  rated load I L
25
Autotransformer ratings (2)
Neglecting derivation:
 (7.48) gives the kVA rating of a two-winding transformer when

connected as an autotransformer.
 For the step-up connection, the sign of nt is positive, while the

step-down connection uses the negative sign.
 In general, the turns ratio nt is relatively small so that the kVA

rating of the autotransformer is considerably greater than the
kVA rating of the two-winding TRF.
26
Practice: 2-winding autoTRF analysis
Consider the previous single-phase TRF with ratings of 75 kVA,
2400/240 V. The TRF has the following parameters:
Z1 = 0.612 + j1.2 Ω (high-voltage winding impedance)
Z2 = 0.0061 + j0.0115 Ω (low-voltage winding impedance)
Ym = 1.92 × 10−4 − j8.52 × 10−4 S (referred to the HV winding)
The TRF is connected as a step-up autotransformer.
Determine:
1) The kVA and voltage ratings of the autotransformer.
2) The source voltage and current if the autotransformer is

supplying rated kVA at rated voltage with a power factor of
0.9 lagging.
27
Solution: 2-winding autoTRF (1)
From Example 7.1, the turns ratio was determined to be nt = 0.1.
The rated kVA of the autotransformer using Equation 7.35 is
The voltage ratings are
 The autotransformer would be rated as 825 kVA, 2400–2640 V.

28
The load voltage and current:
Determining the generalized constants:
29
The source voltage and current
30
Calculating the load voltage knowing source voltage and load
current: the A and B parameters are needed:
31
Rework this example by setting
the transformer impedances Zt
and shunt admittance Ym to
zero.
The generalized matrices are:
32
Using these matrices the source voltages and currents are
The “errors” for the source voltages and currents are:
 Very little error has been made. For all practical purposes,
the impedances and shunt admittance of an autotransformer
can be ignored. 33
Single-phase step-voltage regulators
 A step-voltage regulator consists of an autotransformer
and a load tap changing (LTC) mechanism.
 The voltage change is obtained by changing the

taps of the series winding of the autotransformer.
The position of the tap is determined by a control circuit
(line drop compensator).
 Standard step-regulators contain a reversing switch

enabling a ±10% regulator range, usually in 32 steps.
 This amounts to a 5/8% change per step, or 0.75 V

change per step on a 120 V base, or 0.00625 per unit.
34
Step-voltage regulator types
 Step-regulators can be connected in a “Type A” or
“Type B” according to the ANSI/IEEE C57.15-1986
standard.
 We focus on Type B which is more common

connection.
35
Type B step-voltage regulator (1)
Required settings:
1) Voltage level: The desired
voltage
2) Bandwidth: The allowed
variance of the load center
voltage from the set voltage
level.
3) Time delay: Length of time
that a raise or lower
operation is called for before
the actual execution of the
command.
4) Line drop compensator:
Regulator controller, set to
compensate for the voltage
drop between the regulator
and the load center.
36
Type B step-voltage regulator (2)
More on required settings:
1) Voltage level: The desired voltage (on 120 V base) to be held at the
“load center”, which can be the output terminal of the regulator or a
remote node on the feeder.
2) Bandwidth: The voltage held at the load center will be ±1/2 of the
bandwidth. E.g. if the voltage level is set to 122 V and the bandwidth set
to 2 V, the load center voltage is regulated between 121 and 123 V.
3) Time delay: This prevents taps changing during a transient or short time
change in current.
4) Line drop compensator: The settings consist of R and X settings in volts

corresponding to the equivalent impedance between the regulator and
the load center. The regulator required rating is based on the kVA
transformed. It is typically 10% of the line rating since rated current flows
through the series winding, which represents the ±10% voltage change.
37
Step-regulator control circuit
38
Type B regulator in raise position (1)
 The system primary circuit is connected, via taps, to the

series winding of the regulator.
 The series winding is connected to the shunt winding,
which is connected directly to the regulated circuit.
39
Type B regulator in raise position (2)
 (7.66) and (7.67) are the defining equations for

modeling a Type B regulator in RAISE position.
40
Type B regulator in lower position (1)
41
Type B regulator in lower position (2)
 (7.73) and (7.74) are the required equations for

modeling a Type B regulator in LOWER position.
42
Type B regulator raise vs. lower position
Raise vs. Lower
 Effective regulator ratio: (7.67)

and (7.74)
43
Regulator effective ratio
Regulator effective ratio are defined in (7.67) and (7.74).
 The actual turns ratio of the windings is not known.

However, the particular tap position will be known.
 Then, (7.67) and (7.74) can be modified to give the effective

regulator ratio as a function of the tap position. Each tap
changes the voltage by 5/8% or 0.00625 per unit.
 Therefore, the effective regulator ratio is given by
 (7.75): minus sign for the “raise” and the positive sign for
the “lower” position.
44
Type A regulator in raise position
45
Type A regulator in lower position
46
Generalized constants for Type B & A
Relation between the source VS and IS and the load VL and IL:
Type A Type B
47
Line drop compensator (1)
Analog circuit of
the compensator
 The compensator models the voltage drop of the distribution line from the
regulator to the “load center.” It is an analog circuit that is a scale model
of the line circuit.
 Critical setting: R′ and X′ calibrated in volts. These values must

represent the equivalent impedance from the regulator to the load center. 48
Line drop compensator (2)
Setting and ratings:
1) Input voltage: Typically 120 V
2) Rated voltage:
 Nominal line-to-neutral voltage
for regulator line-ground
connection.
 Line-to-line voltage for line-line
connection.
3) The current transformer turns ratio is specified as CTP: CTS where

the primary rating (CTP) is typically the rated current of the
feeder.
4) The key requirement is to force the per-unit line impedance to be

equal to the per-unit compensator impedance.
49
Calculating compensator R′ and X′ (1)
Steps:
1) Selecting a base voltage and current for the line circuit
2) Computing the compensator base voltage and current

by dividing the system base values by the potential
transformer ratio and current transformer ratio
3) Computing the per-unit line impedance
4) Determining compensator impedance in Ohms and in

Volts
Note: For regulators connected line to ground, the base system

voltage is the rated line-to-neutral voltage (VLN), and the base
system current is the rating of the primary winding of the
current transformer (CTP).
50
Step 1 & 2: Table of base values for regulator connected line to ground.
51
Step 3: Per-unit line impedance
Step 4: Compensator impedance in Ohms
52
Step 4 (cont.): Compensator impedance in Volts
The compensator R and X settings in volts are determined by

multiplying the compensator R and X in Ohms by the rated secondary
current (CTS) of the current transformer:
53
Practice A: Compensator R′ and X′
Kersting Example 7.4: In the figure below, the substation transformer is
rated 5000 kVA, 115 kV  − 4.16 kV grounded Y, and the equivalent line
impedance from the regulator to the load center is 0.3 + j0.9 Ω.
Determine the R’ and X’ setting of the compensator in  and V.
54
Solution A: Compensator R′ and X′ (1)
Determine the potential TRF and current TRF ratings for the compensator
circuit. The rated line-to-ground voltage of the substation transformer is
To provide approximately 120 V to the compensator, the potential TRF

ratio is
The rated current of the substation transformer is
55
Solution A: Compensator R′ and X′ (2)
The primary rating of the CT is selected as 700 A, and if the
compensator current is reduced to 5 A, the CT ratio is
The R and X settings of the compensator in Ohms and volt are:

Applying Eqn. 7.78
 Note: The R and X settings on the compensator control board

are calibrated in volts.
56
Practice B: Compensator & load
Kersting Example 7.5 and 7.6: The substation in Practice A is
supplying 2500 kVA at 4.16 kV and 0.9 power factor lagging. The
regulator has been set so that
Voltage level = 120 V (desired voltage to be held at the load center)

Bandwidth = 2 V
1) Determine the tap position of the regulator that will hold

the load center voltage at the desired voltage level and within
the bandwidth.
2) Calculate the actual voltage at the load center with the tap
setting found in Step 1. Assume that the load power and
voltage are measured at the substation low-voltage
terminals.
57
Solution B: Compensator & load (1)
Part 1: Bandwidth = 2V means that the tap on the regulator needs to be
set so that the voltage at the load center lies between 119 and 121 V.
The first step is to calculate the actual line current:
The current in the compensator is
The input voltage to the compensator is
58
The voltage drop in the compensator circuit is equal to the
compensator current times the compensator R and X values in Ohms:
The voltage across the voltage relay is
 The voltage across the voltage relay represents the voltage at

the load center.
 Since this is well below the minimum voltage level of 119V, the
voltage regulator will have to change taps in the raise position
to bring the load center voltage up to the required level.
59
Recall that on a 120 V base, one step change on the regulator
changes the voltage 0.75 V.
The number of required tap changes can then be approximated by
 The final tap position of the regulator will be “raise 13.”
60
Part 2: With the tap set at +13, the effective regulator ratio
assuming a Type B regulator is
The generalized constants for modeling the regulator for this

operating condition are
61
The actual L-G voltage and line current at the load-side terminals of
the regulator are
The actual L-G voltage at the load center is
On a 120-V base, the load center voltage is
62
The +13 tap is an approximation and has resulted in a load center
voltage within the bandwidth.
However, since the regulator Table 7.3

started in the neutral
position, the taps will be
changed one at a time until the
load center voltage is inside the
119 lower bandwidth. Each step
changes the voltage by 0.75 V.
Table 7.3 shows the

compensator relay voltage as
the taps change from 0 to the
final value.
63
Special note on tap changing
Table 7.3
Tap change vs. load voltage
 Table 7.3 shows that the regulator tap changes at a time starting
from the neutral position. However, the tap may NOT be at
neutral position for a tap change event.
 There can be different taps for the same load depending upon
whether the voltage needed to be raised or lowered from an
existing tap position. 64
Calculating equivalent line impedance (1)
 The equivalent line impedance is NOT the actual
impedance of the line between the regulator and the load
center.
 Typically, the load center is located down the primary main

feeder after several laterals have been tapped. Hence, the
current measured by the CT of the regulator is NOT the current
that flows all the way from the regulator to the load center.
 To determine the equivalent line impedance value, a power-

flow program of the feeder without the regulator operating
is run.
 From the output of the program, the voltages at the regulator

output and the load center are obtained.
65
Calculating equivalent line impedance (2)
Once the voltages at the regulator output and the load center are
obtained, the equivalent line impedance can be computed as
In (7.83) the voltages must be specified in system Volt

and the current in system Ampere.
66
3-phase step-voltage regulators
Case 1:
 Three 1-phase step-voltage regulators are connected externally to form a
three-phase regulator.
 When three 1-phase regulators are connected together, each regulator
has its own compensator circuit, and, therefore, the taps on each
regulator are changed separately.
 Three-phase regulators are only connected in a three-phase wye or closed
delta.
Case 2:
 A three-phase regulator has the connections between the single-phase
windings internal to the regulator housing.
 The three-phase regulator is “gang” operated so that the taps on all
windings change the same. Hence, only one compensator circuit is
required.
 It is up to the engineer to determine which phase current and voltage will be
sampled by the compensator circuit.
67
3-P step-voltage regulators - Models
We consider models for the following regulators:
1) Wye-Connected Regulators
2) Closed Delta–Connected Regulators
3) Open Delta–Connected Regulators
Note: The phasing on the source side of the regulator use

capital letters A, B, and C. The load-side phasing use lower
case letters a, b, and c.
68
Y-connected regulators (1)
Three Type B single-phase regulators connected in wye

The polarities of the windings are shown in the “RAISE” position
69
For “LOWER” position, a reversing switch reconnects the series winding so
that the polarity on the series winding is at the output terminal. For both
RAISE and LOWER positions, the following equations apply:
Voltage equations
Current equations
70
Neglecting the series impedance and shunt admittance, the
forward and backward sweep matrices are:
71
 In (7.88), (7.91), (7.93) the effective turns ratio for each
regulator must satisfy 0.9 ≤ aR_abc ≤ 1.1 in 32 steps of
0.625%/step (0.75 V/step on 120 V base).
 aR_a, aR_b, and aR_c can take on different values when

three single-phase regulators are connected in wye.
 It is also possible to sample the voltage and current only

on one phase and then all three phases are changed by
the same number of taps.
72
Practice: Y-connected regulators
Kersting example 7.7: An unbalanced three-phase load is served at the end of
a 10,000 ft, 12.47 kV distribution line segment. Given the following data:
Substation L-N voltages Load Currents leaving the substation
Load voltages Load voltages on a 120-V base
Three 1-P Type B step-voltage regulators are connected in wye and

installed in the substation. The potential and current transformers of the
regulators are rated: 7200V : 120V and 600 A : 5 A.
The regulators are to be set based on voltage level of 120 V and bandwidth 2 V.
Determine the tap position for each phase. 73
Solution: Y-connected regulators (1)
The potential and current transformers of the regulators are rated:
Voltage level = 120 V; Bandwidth = 2 V. The equivalent line impedance

for each phase can be determined by applying Equation 7.83:
74
Even though the three regulators will change taps independently, it is
the usual practice to set the R and X settings of the three regulators
the same.
The average value of the three line impedances can be used for this
purpose:
The compensator R and X settings are computed according

to Equation 7.82:
75
The compensator controls are not calibrated to that many significant
figures, so the values set are
The approximate tap settings are:
76
Since the taps must be integers, the actual tap settings will be
77
The effective turns ratio for the three regulators and the resulting
generalized matrices are determined by applying Equations 7.88, 7.91,
and 7.92 for each phase:
78
With the voltage regulators connected to the source, the one-line
diagram of the simple system is shown in Figure 7.13.
79
Closed Delta–connected regulators (1)
The closed delta connection is typically used in three-wire delta feeders.
NOTE: The potential TRF are monitoring the load-side line-to-line voltages and
the current TRF are NOT monitoring the load-side line currents.
The
regulators
are shown in
the “RAISE”
position.
80
Neglecting derivation, the relation between the L-L voltages are:
81
Closed delta–
connected
regulators
with currents
82
Neglecting derivation, the relation between the currents are:
[d] = [D]‐1
83
Special note:
 The matrices [b] and [c] are zero as long as the series
impedance and shunt admittance of each regulator are
neglected.
 The closed delta connection can be difficult to apply.
Reason:
 In both the voltage and current equations, a change of the tap

position in one regulator will affect voltages and currents in
two phases. As a result, increasing the tap in one regulator
will affect the tap position of the second regulator.
 Therefore, the bandwidth setting for the closed delta

connection will typically have to be wider than that for wye-
connected regulators.
84
Open Delta–connected regulators (1)
 An open delta
connection where
two single-
phase
regulators have
been connected
between
phases AB and
CB.
 Two other open

connections:
Between
phases BC and
AC and between
phases CA and
BA.
85
The open delta connection is typically applied to 3-wire delta
feeders. Note that the potential TRF monitor the line-to-line voltages
and the current TRF monitor the line currents.
Neglecting derivation, the relation between the VOLTAGES are:
[bLL] = 0
if the series impedance and
shunt admittance of the
regulators are neglected,
86
Converting L-L voltages to equivalent L-N voltages and vice versa:
Converting generalized voltage equations:
87
Calculating the load-side L-L voltages as function of the source-
side L-L voltages:
88
Calculating the load-side L-L voltages as function of the source-
side L-L voltages (cont.):
89
Neglecting derivation, the relation between the CURRENTS are:
[creg] = 0
when the series impedances
and shunt admittances are
neglected.
90
Calculating the load-side line currents as a function of the source
line currents:
91
Compensator settings:
 Calculation of the compensator R and X for the open delta

follows the same procedure as that of the wye-connected
regulators.
 However, in the open delta connection the voltages applied to

the compensator are line to line and the currents are line
currents. The potential transformer will transform the system
L-L rated voltage down to 120V.
 The open delta–connected regulators maintain only two of the

line-to-line voltages at the load center within defined limits.
 The third L-L voltage will be dictated by the other two (KVL).
Hence, it may NOT be within the defined limits.
92
Calculating equivalent impedance between the regulators and the
load center
Open delta
connected
to a load
center
 The equivalent impedance is

computed by taking the appropriate
line-to-line voltage drop and
dividing by the sampled line
current. Unit:  93
3-Phase Transformer Models
94
3-P transformers in DS
 3-P transformer banks are found in the distribution
substation where the voltage is transformed from the
transmission or subtransmission level to the distribution
feeder level.
 The substation transformer may have high-voltage no-

load taps and low-voltage load tap changing (LTC).
 For a four-wire wye feeder, the most common substation

transformer connection is the delta–grounded wye.
 A three-wire delta feeder will typically have a delta–delta

transformer connection in the substation.
95
3-P transformer connections
Possible three-phase connections are:
1) Delta–grounded wye
2) Ungrounded wye–delta
3) Grounded wye–delta
4) Open wye–open delta
5) Grounded wye–grounded wye
6) Delta–delta
7) Open delta–open delta
We consider two popular types:

 Delta–grounded wye: four-wire wye feeder
 Delta–delta: 3-wire delta line
96
General 3-P transformer bank (1)
 A, B, C, and N : Source side (node n)
 a, b, c, and n : Load side (node m) of the bank
 All variations of the Y– connections follow “American

Standard Thirty Degree” connection.
97
98
Generalized matrices:
In the “forward sweep” of the “ladder” iterative technique (later), the
voltages at node m are defined as a function of the voltages at node n and
the currents at node m:
In the “backward sweep”, the voltages and currents at node n are

functions of the voltages and currents at node m
 [VLNABC] and [VLNabc] represent the L-N voltages for an ungrounded wye
connection or the L-G voltages for a grounded wye connection.
 For a delta connection, the voltage matrices represent “equivalent” line-to-
neutral voltages.
99
Delta–grounded Y step-down TRF (1)
Actual winding
turns ratio (nt):
100
The line-to-line voltages on the primary side of the TRF
connection as a function of the ideal secondary side voltages
are given by
101
Computing equivalent line-to-neutral voltages based on the line-
to-line voltages:
Ideal TRF voltages:
102
Voltage equations:
Ztabc = impedances
matrix of the three
1‐P transformers;
Referred to the LV
side
103
L-L voltages as a function of the equivalent L-N voltages are:
Load voltages as a function source voltages and load currents:
104
Delta–grounded wye connection with currents
105
Current equations:
Line currents can be determined as a function of the delta currents
106
Practice: Delta–grounded Y step-down (1)
Kersting Example 8.1: In Figure 8.4, an unbalanced constant
impedance load is being served at the end of a 1 mile section of a
three-phase line. The line is being fed from a substation transformer
rated 5000 kVA, 115 kV delta–12.47 kV grounded wye with a per-unit
impedance of 0.085850. Determine:
a) the generalized matrices for the TRF

b) the “ideal” transformer voltages
c) the load currents
d) L-G voltages at the load and L-G voltages at node 2
e) Verify equivalent L-N and L-L voltages at node 1 using
backward sweep voltage equations
Figure 8.4,
107
Practice: Delta–grounded Y step-down (2)
Line phase impedance matrix
The general matrices for the line are:
108
Solution: Delta–grounded Y step-down (1)
Converting TRF impedance Zt to per unit referenced to the LV side
The TRF phase impedance matrix is
109
The unbalanced constant impedance load is connected in grounded
wye. The load impedance matrix is specified to be
The unbalanced L-L voltages at node 1 are given as:
110
a. Determine the generalized matrices for the transformer:
Equation 8.19
111
Equation 8.23
112
Eqn. 8.37 and 8.28
113
Eqn. 8.31
b. Determine the “ideal” transformer voltages: Eqn. 8.13
114
c. Determine the load currents
Since the load is modeled as constant impedances, we can combine all

of the impedances (transformer, line, and load) to an equivalent
impedance matrix
115
The line currents are:
d. Determine L-G voltages at the load and L-G voltages at Node 2
116
The load voltages on a 120 V base are:
The L-G voltages at node 2 are:
117
e. Verify equivalent L-N voltages and the L-L voltages at node 1
using backward sweep voltage equations
 The L-L voltages at Node 1 are the same as the given values
118
Delta–grounded Y step-up TRF (1)
119
The primary (low side) line-to-line voltages are given by
The primary delta currents are given by
120
The primary line currents are:
121
Forward sweep matrices are:
122
Backward sweep matrices are:
[ct] = 0
123
Delta – Delta TRF (1)
124
The basic “ideal” transformer voltage and current equations as a
function of the “turn's ratio” are:
125
126
Source-side delta currents:
The line currents as a function of the delta currents on the

source side are:
127
Currents equations:
The load-side line currents as a function of the load-side delta currents:
 The line currents on the two sides of the TRF are in

phase and differ only by the turn's ratio of the TRF
windings. In the per-unit system, the per-unit line currents on
the two sides of the TRF are exactly equal. 128
The ideal delta voltages on the secondary side as a function of the L-L
voltages, the delta currents, and the transformer impedances are given by
Source and load voltages:
129
The delta currents are a function of the transformer impedances:
[G1] = [G] where

the 3rd column is
set to zero
130
Generalized matrices are defined in terms of the line-to-neutral
voltages on the two sides of the transformer bank:
Backward sweep equations for voltage:
131
Generalized equation for currents:
Forward sweep equations for voltage:
132
References
1. S. Santoso, Fundamentals of Electric Power Quality, 2012.
2. R. C. Dugan, M. F. McGranaghan, S. Santoso, W. Beaty,
Electrical Power Systems Quality, McGraw Hill 2012.
3. T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2003.
4. J. D. Glover, M. S. Sarma, T. J Overbye, Power System Analysis
and Design, 5th Ed., CENGAGE Learning, 2012.
5. T. Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, 3rd ed., 2014,
CRC Press, ISBN 9781482207002.
6. W. H. Kersting, Distribution System Modeling and Analysis, 3rd
ed., CRC Press, 2012.
7. H. Saadat, Power System Analysis, PSA Publishing, 3rd (2010)
and previous editions.
8. IEEE Std. 519-1992.
9. Other sources.
133

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ECE 5750

Distribution System & Power Quality

2. Three-phase transformer models

 3-phase TRF models for different connection types:

Reading: DS textbook, Chapter 7

 As the loads on the feeders vary, there must be some

 Common methods of regulating the voltage are to

1) System voltage: The RMS phasor voltage of a portion of an

2) Nominal system voltage: The voltage by which a portion of

3) Maximum system voltage: The highest system voltage

5) Utilization voltage: The voltage at the line terminals of

6) Nominal utilization voltage: The voltage rating of certain

Fig. 7.1 Exact equivalent circuit The primary impedance Z1 is

1) The generalized a, b, c, and d constants and

2) The source voltage and current. Given that the transformer

3) The load voltage.

The transformer “turns ratio” is

The equivalent transformer impedance referred to the

 This example shows that the generalized constants

The per-unit shunt admittance is

Step-up AutoTRF (top):

Step-down AutoTRF (bottom):

Applying KVL in the secondary circuit,

Applying KCL at input node H1

Ideal transformer relation:

 Same form as the equations for

 (7.48) gives the kVA rating of a two-winding transformer when

 For the step-up connection, the sign of nt is positive, while the

 In general, the turns ratio nt is relatively small so that the kVA

1) The kVA and voltage ratings of the autotransformer.

2) The source voltage and current if the autotransformer is

The voltage ratings are

 The autotransformer would be rated as 825 kVA, 2400–2640 V.

Determining the generalized constants:

The source voltage and current

The generalized matrices are:

The “errors” for the source voltages and currents are:

 The voltage change is obtained by changing the

 Standard step-regulators contain a reversing switch

 This amounts to a 5/8% change per step, or 0.75 V

 We focus on Type B which is more common

4) Line drop compensator: The settings consist of R and X settings in volts

 The system primary circuit is connected, via taps, to the

 (7.66) and (7.67) are the defining equations for

 (7.73) and (7.74) are the required equations for

Raise vs. Lower

 Effective regulator ratio: (7.67)

 The actual turns ratio of the windings is not known.

 Then, (7.67) and (7.74) can be modified to give the effective

 Therefore, the effective regulator ratio is given by

 Critical setting: R′ and X′ calibrated in volts. These values must

1) Input voltage: Typically 120 V

3) The current transformer turns ratio is specified as CTP: CTS where

4) The key requirement is to force the per-unit line impedance to be

1) Selecting a base voltage and current for the line circuit

2) Computing the compensator base voltage and current

3) Computing the per-unit line impedance

4) Determining compensator impedance in Ohms and in

Note: For regulators connected line to ground, the base system

Step 4: Compensator impedance in Ohms

The compensator R and X settings in volts are determined by

To provide approximately 120 V to the compensator, the potential TRF

The rated current of the substation transformer is