Angular Momentum - Wikipedia PDF

5/12/2019 Angular momentum - Wikipedia
Angular momentum
In physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or rotational
Angular momentum
momentum) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in
physics because it is a conserved quantity—the total angular momentum of a closed system
remains constant.
In three dimensions, the angular momentum for a point particle is a pseudovector r × p, the
cross product of the particle's position vector r (relative to some origin) and its momentum
vector p = mv. This definition can be applied to each point in continua like solids or fluids, or
physical fields. Unlike momentum, angular momentum does depend on where the origin is
chosen, since the particle's position is measured from it.
Just like for angular velocity, there are two special types of angular momentum: the spin angular
momentum and the orbital angular momentum. The spin angular momentum of an object is
defined as the angular momentum about its centre of mass coordinate. The orbital angular
momentum of an object about a chosen origin is defined as the angular momentum of the centre
of mass about the origin. The total angular momentum of an object is the sum of the spin and
orbital angular momenta. The orbital angular momentum vector of a particle is always parallel
and directly proportional to the orbital angular velocity vector ω of the particle, where the
constant of proportionality depends on both the mass of the particle and its distance from
origin. However, the spin angular momentum of the object is proportional but not always This gyroscope remains upright
parallel to the spin angular velocity Ω, making the constant of proportionality a second-rank while spinning due to the
tensor rather than a scalar. conservation of its angular
momentum.
Angular momentum is additive; the total angular momentum of any composite system is the
Common L
(pseudo)vector sum of the angular momenta of its constituent parts. For a continuous rigid symbols
body, the total angular momentum is the volume integral of angular momentum density (i.e.
In SI base units kg m2s−1rad-1
angular momentum per unit volume in the limit as volume shrinks to zero) over the entire body.
Conserved? yes
Torque can be defined as the rate of change of angular momentum, analogous to force. The net Derivations from L = Iω = r × p
external torque on any system is always equal to the total torque on the system; in other words, other quantities
the sum of all internal torques of any system is always 0 (this is the rotational analogue of Dimension M L2T−1
Newton's Third Law). Therefore, for a closed system (where there is no net external torque), the
total torque on the system must be 0, which means that the total angular momentum of the system is constant. The conservation of angular
momentum helps explain many observed phenomena, for example the increase in rotational speed of a spinning figure skater as the
skater's arms are contracted, the high rotational rates of neutron stars, the Coriolis effect, and the precession of gyroscopes. In general,
conservation does limit the possible motion of a system, but does not uniquely determine what the exact motion is.
In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is an operator with quantized eigenvalues. Angular momentum is subject to the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, meaning that at any time, only one component can be measured with definite precision; the other two cannot.
Because of this, it turns out that the notion of an elementary particle (i.e. the excitation of a quantum field) literally "spinning" about an axis
does not exist. Nevertheless, for technical reasons, elementary particles still possess a spin angular momentum, but this angular
momentum does not correspond to spinning motion in the ordinary sense.[1]
Contents
In classical mechanics
Definition
Orbital angular momentum in two dimensions
Scalar—angular momentum from Lagrangian mechanics
Orbital angular momentum in three dimensions
Discussion
Angular momentum and torque
Conservation of angular momentum
Angular momentum in orbital mechanics
Solid bodies
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum 1/15
Collection of particles
Center of mass
Simplifications
Single particle
Fixed center of mass
Angular momentum (modern definition)

In quantum mechanics
Spin, orbital, and total angular momentum
Quantization
Uncertainty
Total angular momentum as generator of rotations
In electrodynamics
In optics
History
The Law of Areas
Newton's derivation
Conservation of angular momentum in the Law of Areas
After Newton
See also
Footnotes
References
External links
In classical mechanics
Definition
Orbital angular momentum in two dimensions

Angular momentum is a vector quantity (more precisely, a pseudovector) that represents the
product of a body's rotational inertia and rotational velocity about a particular axis. However, if
the particle's trajectory lies in a single plane, it is sufficient to discard the vector nature of
angular momentum, and treat it as a scalar (more precisely, a pseudoscalar).[2] Angular
momentum can be considered a rotational analog of linear momentum. Thus, where linear
momentum is proportional to mass and linear speed ,
angular momentum is proportional to moment of inertia and angular speed ,[3]
Velocity of the particle m with

Unlike mass, which depends only on amount of matter, moment of inertia is also dependent on respect to the origin O can be
resolved into components parallel to
the position of the axis of rotation and the shape of the matter. Unlike linear speed, which does
(v∥) and perpendicular to (v⊥) the
not depend upon the choice of origin, angular velocity is always measured with respect to a fixed radius vector r. The angular
origin. Therefore, strictly speaking, should be referred to as the angular momentum relative momentum of m is proportional to
to that center.[4] the perpendicular component v⊥ of
the velocity, or equivalently, to the
Because for a single particle and for circular motion, angular momentum can perpendicular distance r⊥ from the
origin.
be expanded, and reduced to,
the product of the radius of rotation and the linear momentum of the particle , where in this case is the equivalent linear
(tangential) speed at the radius ( ).
This simple analysis can also apply to non-circular motion if only the component of the motion which is perpendicular to the radius vector
is considered. In that case,
where is the perpendicular component of the motion. Expanding, rearranging, and

reducing, angular momentum can also be expressed,
where is the length of the moment arm, a line dropped perpendicularly from the origin onto the path of the particle. It is this
definition, (length of moment arm)×(linear momentum) to which the term moment of momentum refers.[5]
Scalar—angular momentum from Lagrangian mechanics

Another approach is to define angular momentum as the conjugate momentum (also called canonical momentum) of the angular
coordinate expressed in the Lagrangian of the mechanical system. Consider a mechanical system with a mass constrained to move in a
circle of radius in the absence of any external force field. The kinetic energy of the system is
And the potential energy is
Then the Lagrangian is
The generalized momentum "canonically conjugate to" the coordinate is defined by
Orbital angular momentum in three dimensions

To completely define orbital angular momentum in three dimensions, it is required to know the
rate at which the position vector sweeps out angle, the direction perpendicular to the
instantaneous plane of angular displacement, and the mass involved, as well as how this mass is
distributed in space[6] By retaining this vector nature of angular momentum, the general nature
of the equations is also retained, and can describe any sort of three-dimensional motion about
the center of rotation – circular, linear, or otherwise. In vector notation, the orbital angular
momentum of a point particle in motion about the origin is defined as:
Relationship between force (F),

torque (τ), momentum (p), and
where angular momentum (L) vectors in a
rotating system. r is the position
is the moment of inertia for a point mass, vector.
is the orbital angular velocity of the particle about the

origin,
is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, ,
is the linear velocity of the particle relative to the origin, and
is the mass of the particle.
This can be expanded, reduced, and by the rules of vector algebra, rearranged:
which is the cross product of the position vector and the linear momentum of the particle. By the definition of the cross product,
the vector is perpendicular to both and . It is directed perpendicular to the plane of angular displacement, as indicated by the right-
hand rule – so that the angular velocity is seen as counter-clockwise from the head of the vector. Conversely, the vector defines the plane
in which and lie.
By defining a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of angular displacement, a scalar angular speed results, where
and
where is the perpendicular component of the motion, as above.
The two-dimensional scalar equations of the previous section can thus be given direction:
and for circular motion, where all of the motion is perpendicular to the radius .
Discussion
Angular momentum can be described as the rotational analog of linear momentum. Like linear momentum it involves elements of mass
and displacement. Unlike linear momentum it also involves elements of position and shape.
Many problems in physics involve matter in motion about some certain point in space, be it in actual rotation about it, or simply moving
past it, where it is desired to know what effect the moving matter has on the point—can it exert energy upon it or perform work about it?
Energy, the ability to do work, can be stored in matter by setting it in motion—a combination of its inertia and its displacement. Inertia is
measured by its mass, and displacement by its velocity. Their product,
is the matter's momentum.[7] Referring this momentum to a central point introduces a complication: the momentum is not applied to the
point directly. For instance, a particle of matter at the outer edge of a wheel is, in effect, at the end of a lever of the same length as the
wheel's radius, its momentum turning the lever about the center point. This imaginary lever is known as the moment arm. It has the effect
of multiplying the momentum's effort in proportion to its length, an effect known as a moment. Hence, the particle's momentum referred to
a particular point,
is the angular momentum, sometimes called, as here, the moment of momentum of the particle versus that particular center point. The
equation combines a moment (a mass turning moment arm ) with a linear (straight-line equivalent) speed . Linear speed
referred to the central point is simply the product of the distance and the angular speed versus the point: another moment.
Hence, angular momentum contains a double moment: Simplifying slightly, the quantity is the particle's
moment of inertia, sometimes called the second moment of mass. It is a measure of rotational inertia.[8]
Because moment of inertia is a crucial part of the spin angular momentum, the latter necessarily includes all of the complications of the
former, which is calculated by multiplying elementary bits of the mass by the squares of their distances from the center of rotation.[9]
Therefore, the total moment of inertia, and the angular momentum, is a complex function of the configuration of the matter about the
center of rotation and the orientation of the rotation for the various bits.
For a rigid body, for instance a wheel or an asteroid, the orientation of rotation is simply the position of the rotation axis versus the matter
of the body. It may or may not pass through the center of mass, or it may lie completely outside of the body. For the same body, angular
momentum may take a different value for every possible axis about which rotation may take place.[10] It reaches a minimum when the axis
passes through the center of mass.[11]
For a collection of objects revolving about a center, for instance all of the bodies of the Solar
System, the orientations may be somewhat organized, as is the Solar System, with most of the
bodies' axes lying close to the system's axis. Their orientations may also be completely random.
In brief, the more mass and the farther it is from the center of rotation (the longer the moment
arm), the greater the moment of inertia, and therefore the greater the angular momentum for a
given angular velocity. In many cases the moment of inertia, and hence the angular momentum,
can be simplified by,[12]
Moment of inertia (shown here), and

where is the radius of gyration, the distance from the axis at which the therefore angular momentum, is
entire mass may be considered as concentrated. different for every possible
configuration of mass and axis of
Similarly, for a point mass the moment of inertia is defined as, rotation.
where is the radius of the point mass from the center of rotation,
and for any collection of particles as the sum,
Angular momentum's dependence on position and shape is reflected in its units versus linear momentum: kg·m2/(rad·s), N·m·s/rad, or
J·s/rad for angular momentum versus kg·m/s or N·s for linear momentum. Angular momentum's units can be interpreted as torque·time or
as energy·time per angle. An object with angular momentum of L N·m·s can be reduced to zero rotation (all of the rotational energy can be
transferred out of it) by an angular impulse of L N·m·s[13] or equivalently, by torque or work of L N·m for one second, or energy of L J for
one second.[14]
The plane perpendicular to the axis of angular momentum and passing through the center of mass[15] is sometimes called the invariable
plane, because the direction of the axis remains fixed if only the interactions of the bodies within the system, free from outside influences,
are considered.[16] One such plane is the invariable plane of the Solar System.
Angular momentum and torque

Newton's second law of motion can be expressed mathematically,
or force = mass × acceleration. The rotational equivalent for point particles may be derived as follows:
which means that the torque (i.e. the time derivative of the angular momentum) is
Because the moment of inertia is , it follows that , and which, reduces to
This is the rotational analog of Newton's Second Law. Note that the torque is not necessarily proportional or parallel to the angular
acceleration (as one might expect). The reason for this is that the moment of inertia of a particle can change with time, something that
cannot occur for ordinary mass.
Conservation of angular momentum

A rotational analog of Newton's third law of motion might be written, "In a closed system, no torque can be exerted on any matter without
the exertion on some other matter of an equal and opposite torque."[17] Hence, angular momentum can be exchanged between objects in a
closed system, but total angular momentum before and after an exchange remains constant (is conserved).[18]
Seen another way, a rotational analogue of Newton's first law of motion might be written, "A
rigid body continues in a state of uniform rotation unless acted by an external influence."[17]
Thus with no external influence to act upon it, the original angular momentum of the system
remains constant.[19]
The conservation of angular momentum is used in analyzing central force motion. If the net
force on some body is directed always toward some point, the center, then there is no torque on
the body with respect to the center, as all of the force is directed along the radius vector, and
none is perpendicular to the radius. Mathematically, torque because in this
case and are parallel vectors. Therefore, the angular momentum of the body about the
center is constant. This is the case with gravitational attraction in the orbits of planets and
satellites, where the gravitational force is always directed toward the primary body and orbiting
bodies conserve angular momentum by exchanging distance and velocity as they move about the
primary. Central force motion is also used in the analysis of the Bohr model of the atom.
For a planet, angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet and its revolution
in its orbit, and these are often exchanged by various mechanisms. The conservation of angular
momentum in the Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth
to Moon, due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth. This in turn results in the slowing
A figure skater conserves angular
down of the rotation rate of Earth, at about 65.7 nanoseconds per day,[20] and in gradual momentum – her rotational speed
increase of the radius of Moon's orbit, at about 3.82 centimeters per year.[21] increases as her moment of inertia
decreases by drawing in her arms
The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as she and legs.
brings her arms and legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of the mass of her
body closer to the axis, she decreases her body's moment of inertia. Because angular
momentum is the product of moment of inertia and angular velocity, if the angular
momentum remains constant (is conserved), then the angular velocity (rotational speed) of
the skater must increase.
The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs,
neutron stars and black holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower
rotating stars. Decrease in the size of an object n times results in increase of its angular
velocity by the factor of n2.
Conservation is not always a full explanation for the dynamics of a system but is a key
constraint. For example, a spinning top is subject to gravitational torque making it lean
over and change the angular momentum about the nutation axis, but neglecting friction at
the point of spinning contact, it has a conserved angular momentum about its spinning
axis, and another about its precession axis. Also, in any planetary system, the planets,
star(s), comets, and asteroids can all move in numerous complicated ways, but only so that
the angular momentum of the system is conserved. The torque caused by the two opposing
forces Fg and −Fg causes a change in
Noether's theorem states that every conservation law is associated with a symmetry the angular momentum L in the direction
(invariant) of the underlying physics. The symmetry associated with conservation of of that torque (since torque is the time
derivative of angular momentum). This
angular momentum is rotational invariance. The fact that the physics of a system is
causes the top to precess.
unchanged if it is rotated by any angle about an axis implies that angular momentum is
conserved.[22]
Angular momentum in orbital mechanics

In astrodynamics and celestial mechanics, a massless (or per unit mass) angular momentum is defined[23]
called specific angular momentum. Note that Mass is often unimportant in orbital mechanics calculations, because motion is
defined by gravity. The primary body of the system is often so much larger than any bodies in motion about it that the smaller bodies have a
negligible gravitational effect on it; it is, in effect, stationary. All bodies are apparently attracted by its gravity in the same way, regardless of
mass, and therefore all move approximately the same way under the same conditions.
Solid bodies
For a continuous mass distribution with density function ρ(r), a differential volume element dV with position vector r within the mass has a
mass element dm = ρ(r)dV. Therefore, the infinitesimal angular momentum of this element is:
and integrating this differential over the volume of the entire mass gives its total angular momentum:
In the derivation which follows, integrals similar to this can replace the sums for the case of continuous mass.
Collection of particles
Center of mass
For a collection of particles in motion about an arbitrary origin, it is informative to develop the
equation of angular momentum by resolving their motion into components about their own
center of mass and about the origin. Given,
is the mass of particle ,

is the position vector of particle vs the origin,
is the velocity of particle vs the origin,
is the position vector of the center of mass vs the origin,
is the velocity of the center of mass vs the origin,
is the position vector of particle vs the center of mass,
is the velocity of particle vs the center of mass,
The total mass of the particles is simply their sum, The angular momentum of the
particles i is the sum of the cross
products R × MV + Σri × mivi.
The position vector of the center of mass is defined by,[24]
By inspection,
and
The total angular momentum of the collection of particles is the sum of the angular momentum of each particle,
(1)
Expanding ,
Expanding ,
It can be shown that (see sidebar),
and Prove that
therefore the second and third terms vanish,
The first term can be rearranged,
and total angular momentum for the collection of particles is

finally,[25]
which, by the definition of the center of mass, is and similarly

(2)
for
The first term is the angular momentum of the center of mass

relative to the origin. Similar to Single particle, below, it is the angular momentum of one particle of mass M at the center of mass
moving with velocity V. The second term is the angular momentum of the particles moving relative to the center of mass, similar to Fixed
center of mass, below. The result is general—the motion of the particles is not restricted to rotation or revolution about the origin or
center of mass. The particles need not be individual masses, but can be elements of a continuous distribution, such as a solid body.
Rearranging equation (2) by vector identities, multiplying both terms by "one", and grouping appropriately,
gives the total angular momentum of the system of particles in terms of moment of inertia and angular velocity ,
(3)
Simplifications
Single particle
In the case of a single particle moving about the arbitrary origin,
and equations (2) and (3) for total angular momentum reduce to,
Fixed center of mass

For the case of the center of mass fixed in space with respect to the origin,
and equations (2) and (3) for total angular momentum reduce to,
Angular momentum (modern definition)

In modern (20th century) theoretical physics, angular momentum (not including any
intrinsic angular momentum – see below) is described using a different formalism,
instead of a classical pseudovector. In this formalism, angular momentum is the 2-
form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance. As a result, angular
momentum is not conserved for general curved spacetimes, unless it happens to be
asymptotically rotationally invariant.
In classical mechanics, the angular momentum of a particle can be reinterpreted as a

plane element:
The 3-angular momentum as a bivector

(plane element) and axial vector, of a particle
in which the exterior product ∧ replaces the cross product × (these products have of mass m with instantaneous 3-position x
similar characteristics but are nonequivalent). This has the advantage of a clearer and 3-momentum p.
geometric interpretation as a plane element, defined from the x and p vectors, and the
expression is true in any number of dimensions (two or higher). In Cartesian
coordinates:
or more compactly in index notation:
The angular velocity can also be defined as an antisymmetric second order tensor, with components ωij. The relation between the two
antisymmetric tensors is given by the moment of inertia which must now be a fourth order tensor:[26]
Again, this equation in L and ω as tensors is true in any number of dimensions. This equation also appears in the geometric algebra
formalism, in which L and ω are bivectors, and the moment of inertia is a mapping between them.
In relativistic mechanics, the relativistic angular momentum of a particle is expressed as an antisymmetric tensor of second order:
in the language of four-vectors, namely the four position X and the four momentum P, and absorbs the above L together with the motion of
the centre of mass of the particle.
In each of the above cases, for a system of particles, the total angular momentum is just the sum of the individual particle angular
momenta, and the centre of mass is for the system.
In quantum mechanics
Angular momentum in quantum mechanics differs in many profound respects from angular momentum in classical mechanics. In
relativistic quantum mechanics, it differs even more, in which the above relativistic definition becomes a tensorial operator.
Spin, orbital, and total angular momentum

The classical definition of angular momentum as can be
carried over to quantum mechanics, by reinterpreting r as the quantum
position operator and p as the quantum momentum operator. L is then
an operator, specifically called the orbital angular momentum operator.
The components of the angular momentum operator satisfy the
commutation relations of the Lie algebra so(3). Indeed, these operators
are precisely the infinitesimal action of the rotation group on the quantum
Hilbert space.[28] (See also the discussion below of the angular
momentum operators as the generators of rotations.)
However, in quantum physics, there is another type of angular

momentum, called spin angular momentum, represented by the spin
operator S. Almost all elementary particles have spin. Spin is often
depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is a
misleading and inaccurate picture: spin is an intrinsic property of a Angular momenta of a classical object.
particle, unrelated to any sort of motion in space and fundamentally Left: "spin" angular momentum S is really orbital angular
different from orbital angular momentum. All elementary particles have a momentum of the object at every point.
characteristic spin, for example electrons have "spin 1/2" (this actually Right: extrinsic orbital angular momentum L about an
means "spin ħ/2") while photons have "spin 1" (this actually means "spin axis.
ħ"). Top: the moment of inertia tensor I and angular velocity ω

(L is not always parallel to ω).[27]
Finally, there is total angular momentum J, which combines both the spin Bottom: momentum p and its radial position r from the
and orbital angular momentum of all particles and fields. (For one axis. The total angular momentum (spin plus orbital) is J.
particle, J = L + S.) Conservation of angular momentum applies to J, but For a quantum particle the interpretations are different;
particle spin does not have the above interpretation.
not to L or S; for example, the spin–orbit interaction allows angular
momentum to transfer back and forth between L and S, with the total
remaining constant. Electrons and photons need not have integer-based
values for total angular momentum, but can also have fractional values.[29]
Quantization
In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized – that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in "quantum leaps" between certain
allowed values. For any system, the following restrictions on measurement results apply, where is the reduced Planck constant and is
any Euclidean vector such as x, y, or z:
If you measure… The result can be...
or
, where
or , where
(There are additional restrictions as well, see angular momentum operator for details.)
The reduced Planck constant is tiny by everyday standards, about 10−34 J s, and therefore this quantization does not noticeably affect the
angular momentum of macroscopic objects. However, it is very important in the microscopic world. For example, the structure of electron
shells and subshells in chemistry is significantly affected by the quantization of angular momentum.
Quantization of angular momentum was first postulated by Niels Bohr in his Bohr model of the atom and was later predicted by Erwin
Schrödinger in his Schrödinger equation.
Uncertainty
In the definition , six operators are involved: The position operators , , , and
the momentum operators , , . However, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that
it is not possible for all six of these quantities to be known simultaneously with arbitrary
precision. Therefore, there are limits to what can be known or measured about a particle's
angular momentum. It turns out that the best that one can do is to simultaneously measure both
the angular momentum vector's magnitude and its component along one axis.
The uncertainty is closely related to the fact that different components of an angular momentum
operator do not commute, for example . (For the precise commutation relations,
see angular momentum operator.)
In this standing wave on a circular
string, the circle is broken into
exactly 8 wavelengths. A standing
Total angular momentum as generator of rotations wave like this can have 0,1,2, or any
As mentioned above, orbital angular momentum L is defined as in classical mechanics: integer number of wavelengths
, but total angular momentum J is defined in a different, more basic way: J is around the circle, but it cannot have
a non-integer number of
defined as the "generator of rotations".[30] More specifically, J is defined so that the operator
wavelengths like 8.3. In quantum
mechanics, angular momentum is
quantized for a similar reason.
is the rotation operator that takes any system and rotates it by angle about the axis . (The "exp" in the formula refers to operator
exponential) To put this the other way around, whatever our quantum Hilbert space is, we expect that the rotation group SO(3) will act on
it. There is then an associated action of the Lie algebra so(3) of SO(3); the operators describing the action of so(3) on our Hilbert space are
the (total) angular momentum operators.
The relationship between the angular momentum operator and the rotation operators is the same as the relationship between Lie algebras
and Lie groups in mathematics. The close relationship between angular momentum and rotations is reflected in Noether's theorem that
proves that angular momentum is conserved whenever the laws of physics are rotationally invariant.
In electrodynamics
When describing the motion of a charged particle in an electromagnetic field, the canonical momentum P (derived from the Lagrangian for
this system) is not gauge invariant. As a consequence, the canonical angular momentum L = r × P is not gauge invariant either. Instead, the
momentum that is physical, the so-called kinetic momentum (used throughout this article), is (in SI units)
where e is the electric charge of the particle and A the magnetic vector potential of the electromagnetic field. The gauge-invariant angular
momentum, that is kinetic angular momentum, is given by
The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations.
In optics
In classical Maxwell electrodynamics the Poynting vector is a linear momentum density of electromagnetic field.[31]
The angular momentum density vector is given by a vector product as in classical mechanics:[32]
The above identities are valid locally, i.e. in each space point in a given moment .
History
Newton, in the Principia, hinted at angular momentum in his examples of the First Law of Motion,
A top, whose parts by their cohesion are perpetually drawn aside from rectilinear motions, does not cease its
rotation, otherwise than as it is retarded by the air. The greater bodies of the planets and comets, meeting with
less resistance in more free spaces, preserve their motions both progressive and circular for a much longer
time.[33]
He did not further investigate angular momentum directly in the Principia,
From such kind of reflexions also sometimes arise the circular motions of bodies about their own centres. But
these are cases which I do not consider in what follows; and it would be too tedious to demonstrate every
particular that relates to this subject.[34]
However, his geometric proof of the law of areas is an outstanding example of Newton's genius, and indirectly proves angular momentum
conservation in the case of a central force.
The Law of Areas
Newton's derivation
As a planet orbits the Sun, the line between the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal intervals of time. This had been known since Kepler expounded his second law of
planetary motion. Newton derived a unique geometric proof, and went on to show that the
attractive force of the Sun's gravity was the cause of all of Kepler's laws.
During the first interval of time, an object is in motion from point A to point B.
Undisturbed, it would continue to point c during the second interval. When the object
arrives at B, it receives an impulse directed toward point S. The impulse gives it a small
added velocity toward S, such that if this were its only velocity, it would move from B to V
during the second interval. By the rules of velocity composition, these two velocities add,
and point C is found by construction of parallelogram BcCV. Thus the object's path is
deflected by the impulse so that it arrives at point C at the end of the second interval.
Because the triangles SBc and SBC have the same base SB and the same height Bc or
VC, they have the same area. By symmetry, triangle SBc also has the same area as Newton's derivation of the area law using
triangle SAB, therefore the object has swept out equal areas SAB and SBC in equal geometric means.
times.
At point C, the object receives another impulse toward S, again deflecting its path during the third interval from d to D. Thus it continues
to E and beyond, the triangles SAB, SBc, SBC, SCd, SCD, SDe, SDE all having the same area. Allowing the time intervals to become ever
smaller, the path ABCDE approaches indefinitely close to a continuous curve.
Note that because this derivation is geometric, and no specific force is applied, it proves a more general law than Kepler's second law of
planetary motion. It shows that the Law of Areas applies to any central force, attractive or repulsive, continuous or non-continuous, or zero.
Conservation of angular momentum in the Law of Areas

The proportionality of angular momentum to the area swept out by a moving object can be understood by realizing that the bases of the
triangles, that is, the lines from S to the object, are equivalent to the radius r, and that the heights of the triangles are proportional to the
perpendicular component of velocity v⊥. Hence, if the area swept per unit time is constant, then by the triangular area formula
1
2
(base)(height), the product (base)(height) and therefore the product rv⊥ are constant: if r and the base length are decreased, v⊥ and
height must increase proportionally. Mass is constant, therefore angular momentum rmv⊥ is conserved by this exchange of distance and
velocity.
1
In the case of triangle SBC, area is equal to 2 (SB)(VC). Wherever C is eventually located due to the impulse applied at B, the product (SB)
(VC), and therefore rmv⊥ remain constant. Similarly so for each of the triangles.
After Newton
Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and Patrick d'Arcy all understood angular momentum in terms of conservation of areal velocity, a result
of their analysis of Kepler's second law of planetary motion. It is unlikely that they realized the implications for ordinary rotating matter.[35]
In 1736 Euler, like Newton, touched on some of the equations of angular momentum in his Mechanica without further developing them.[36]
Bernoulli wrote in a 1744 letter of a "moment of rotational motion", possibly the first conception of angular momentum as we now
understand it.[37]
In 1799, Pierre-Simon Laplace first realized that a fixed plane was associated with rotation — his invariable plane.
Louis Poinsot in 1803 began representing rotations as a line segment perpendicular to the rotation, and elaborated on the "conservation of
moments".
In 1852 Léon Foucault used a gyroscope in an experiment to display the Earth's rotation.
William J. M. Rankine's 1858 Manual of Applied Mechanics defined angular momentum in the modern sense for the first time:
...a line whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the angular momentum, and whose direction is
perpendicular to the plane of motion of the body and of the fixed point, and such, that when the motion of the
body is viewed from the extremity of the line, the radius-vector of the body seems to have right-handed
rotation.
In an 1872 edition of the same book, Rankine stated that "The term angular momentum was introduced by Mr. Hayward,"[38] probably
referring to R.B. Hayward's article On a Direct Method of estimating Velocities, Accelerations, and all similar Quantities with respect to
Axes moveable in any manner in Space with Applications,[39] which was introduced in 1856, and published in 1864. Rankine was
mistaken, as numerous publications feature the term starting in the late 18th to early 19th centuries.[40] However, Hayward's article
apparently was the first use of the term and the concept seen by much of the English-speaking world. Before this, angular momentum was
typically referred to as "momentum of rotation" in English.[41]
See also
Absolute angular momentum
Angular momentum coupling
Angular momentum of light
Angular momentum diagrams (quantum mechanics)
Clebsch–Gordan coefficients
Linear-rotational analogs
Orders of magnitude (angular momentum)
Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector
Relative angular momentum
Relativistic angular momentum
Rigid rotor
Rotational energy
Specific relative angular momentum
Yrast
Footnotes
1. de Podesta, Michael (2002). Understanding the Properties of Matter (https://books.google.com/books?id=ya-4enCDoWQC) (2nd,
illustrated, revised ed.). CRC Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-25788-6. Extract of page 29 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ya-4enC
DoWQC&pg=PA29)
2. Wilson, E. B. (1915). Linear Momentum, Kinetic Energy and Angular Momentum (https://books.google.com/books?id=nsI0AAAAIAAJ).
The American Mathematical Monthly. XXII. Ginn and Co., Boston, in cooperation with University of Chicago, et al. p. 190 – via Google
books.
3. Worthington, Arthur M. (1906). Dynamics of Rotation (https://books.google.com/books?id=eScXAAAAYAAJ). Longmans, Green and
Co., London. p. 21 – via Google books.
4. Taylor, John R. (2005). Classical Mechanics. University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-891389-22-1.
5. Dadourian, H. M. (1913). Analytical Mechanics for Students of Physics and Engineering (https://books.google.com/books?id=1b3VAAA
AMAAJ). D. Van Nostrand Company, New York. p. 266 – via Google books.
6. Watson, W. (1912). General Physics (https://books.google.com/books?id=Yb8zAQAAMAAJ). Longmans, Green and Co., New York.
p. 33 – via Google books.
7. Barker, George F. (1893). Physics: Advanced Course (https://books.google.com/books?id=bKEAAAAAMAAJ) (4th ed.). Henry Holt and
Company, New York. p. 66 – via Google Books.
8. Barker, George F. (1893). Physics: Advanced Course (https://books.google.com/books?id=bKEAAAAAMAAJ) (4th ed.). Henry Holt and
Company, New York. pp. 67–68 – via Google Books.
9. Oberg, Erik; et al. (2000). Machinery's Handbook (26th ed.). Industrial Press, Inc., New York. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-8311-2625-4.
10. Watson, W. (1912). General Physics (https://books.google.com/books?id=Yb8zAQAAMAAJ). Longmans, Green and Co., New York.
p. 34 – via Google books.
11. Kent, William (1916). The Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book (https://books.google.com/books?id=DxoMAQAAIAAJ) (9th ed.). John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. p. 517 – via Google books.
12. Oberg, Erik; et al. (2000). Machinery's Handbook (26th ed.). Industrial Press, Inc., New York. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-8311-2625-4.
13. Oberg, Erik; et al. (2000). Machinery's Handbook (26th ed.). Industrial Press, Inc., New York. pp. 161–162. ISBN 978-0-8311-2625-4.
14. Kent, William (1916). The Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book (https://books.google.com/books?id=DxoMAQAAIAAJ) (9th ed.). John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. p. 527 – via Google books.
15. Battin, Richard H. (1999). An Introduction to the Mathematics and Methods of Astrodynamics, Revised Edition. American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. ISBN 978-1-56347-342-5., p. 97
16. Rankine, W. J. M. (1872). A Manual of Applied Mechanics (https://books.google.com/books?id=u9UKAQAAIAAJ) (6th ed.). Charles
Griffin and Company, London. p. 507 – via Google books.
17. Crew, Henry (1908). The Principles of Mechanics: For Students of Physics and Engineering (https://books.google.com/books?id=sv6fA
AAAMAAJ). Longmans, Green, and Company, New York. p. 88 – via Google books.
20. Stephenson, F. R.; Morrison, L. V.; Whitrow, G. J. (1984). "Long-term changes in the rotation of the earth – 700 B.C. to A.D. 1980".
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 313 (1524): 67. Bibcode:1984RSPTA.313...47S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984R
SPTA.313...47S). doi:10.1098/rsta.1984.0082 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1984.0082). +2.40 ms/century divided by 36525 days.
21. Dickey, J. O.; et al. (1994). "Lunar Laser Ranging: A Continuing Legacy of the Apollo Program" (http://physics.ucsd.edu/~tmurphy/apoll
o/doc/Dickey.pdf) (PDF). Science. 265 (5171): 482–90, 486. Bibcode:1994Sci...265..482D (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Sci...26
5..482D). doi:10.1126/science.265.5171.482 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.265.5171.482). PMID 17781305 (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pubmed/17781305).
22. Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1995). The classical theory of fields. Course of Theoretical Physics. Oxford, Butterworth–Heinemann.
ISBN 978-0-7506-2768-9.
23. Battin, Richard H. (1999). An Introduction to the Mathematics and Methods of Astrodynamics, Revised Edition. American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-56347-342-5.
The American Mathematical Monthly. XXII. Ginn and Co., Boston, in cooperation with University of Chicago, et al. p. 188, equation (3)
– via Google books.
The American Mathematical Monthly. XXII. Ginn and Co., Boston, in cooperation with University of Chicago, et al. p. 191, Theorem 8 –
via Google books.
26. Synge and Schild, Tensor calculus, Dover publications, 1978 edition, p. 161. ISBN 978-0-486-63612-2.
27. R.P. Feynman; R.B. Leighton; M. Sands (1964). Feynman's Lectures on Physics (volume 2). Addison–Wesley. pp. 31–7. ISBN 978-0-
201-02117-2.
28. Hall 2013 Section 17.3
29. Ballantine, K. E.; Donegan, J. F.; Eastham, P. R. (2016). "There are many ways to spin a photon: Half-quantization of a total optical
angular momentum" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5565928). Science Advances. 2 (4): e1501748.
Bibcode:2016SciA....2E1748B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016SciA....2E1748B). doi:10.1126/sciadv.1501748 (https://doi.org/10.11
26%2Fsciadv.1501748). PMC 5565928 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5565928). PMID 28861467 (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pubmed/28861467).
30. Littlejohn, Robert (2011). "Lecture notes on rotations in quantum mechanics" (http://bohr.physics.berkeley.edu/classes/221/1011/notes/
spinrot.pdf) (PDF). Physics 221B Spring 2011. Retrieved 13 Jan 2012.
31. Okulov, A Yu (2008). "Angular momentum of photons and phase conjugation". Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical
Physics. 41 (10): 101001. arXiv:0801.2675 (https://arxiv.org/abs/0801.2675). Bibcode:2008JPhB...41j1001O (http://adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/2008JPhB...41j1001O). doi:10.1088/0953-4075/41/10/101001 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0953-
4075%2F41%2F10%2F101001).
32. Okulov, A.Y. (2008). "Optical and Sound Helical structures in a Mandelstam – Brillouin mirror" (http://www.jetpletters.ac.ru/ps/1852/artic
le_28262.shtml). JETP Letters (in Russian). 88 (8): 561–566. Bibcode:2008JETPL..88..487O (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JET
PL..88..487O). doi:10.1134/s0021364008200046 (https://doi.org/10.1134%2Fs0021364008200046).
33. Newton, Isaac (1803). "Axioms; or Laws of Motion, Law I" (https://books.google.com/books?id=exwAAAAAQAAJ). The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy. Andrew Motte, translator. H. D. Symonds, London. p. 322 – via Google books.
34. Newton, Axioms; or Laws of Motion, Corollary III
35. see Borrelli, Arianna (2011). "Angular momentum between physics and mathematics" (http://weatherglass.de/PDFs/Angular_momentu
m.pdf) (PDF). for an excellent and detailed summary of the concept of angular momentum through history.
36. Bruce, Ian (2008). "Euler : Mechanica Vol. 1" (http://www.17centurymaths.com/contents/mechanica1.html).
37. "Euler's Correspondence with Daniel Bernoulli, Bernoulli to Euler, 04 February, 1744" (http://eulerarchive.maa.org/correspondence/lette
rs/OO0153.pdf) (PDF)., at The Euler Archive (http://eulerarchive.maa.org/)
38. Rankine, W. J. M. (1872). A Manual of Applied Mechanics (https://books.google.com/books?id=u9UKAQAAIAAJ) (6th ed.). Charles
Griffin and Company, London. p. 506 – via Google books.
39. Hayward, Robert B. (1864). "On a Direct Method of estimating Velocities, Accelerations, and all similar Quantities with respect to Axes
moveable in any manner in Space with Applications" (https://books.google.com/books?id=Yx1YAAAAYAAJ). Transactions of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society. 10: 1. Bibcode:1864TCaPS..10....1H (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1864TCaPS..10....1H).
40. see, for instance, Gompertz, Benjamin (1818). "On Pendulums vibrating between Cheeks" (https://books.google.com/books?id=ANE4
AAAAMAAJ). The Journal of Science and the Arts. III (V): 17 – via Google books.; Herapath, John (1847). Mathematical Physics (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=nH0tAAAAYAAJ). Whittaker and Co., London. p. 56 – via Google books.
41. see, for instance, Landen, John (1785). "Of the Rotatory Motion of a Body of any Form whatever" (http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/
content/75/311.full.pdf+html). Philosophical Transactions. LXXV (I): 311–332. doi:10.1098/rstl.1785.0016 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frs
tl.1785.0016).
References
Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude; Diu, Bernard; Laloë, Franck (2006). Quantum Mechanics (2 volume set ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-
0-471-56952-7.
Condon, E. U.; Shortley, G. H. (1935). "Especially Chapter 3". The Theory of Atomic Spectra. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
0-521-09209-8.
Edmonds, A. R. (1957). Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07912-7.
Hall, Brian C. (2013), Quantum Theory for Mathematicians, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 267, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-40122-5.
Jackson, John David (1998). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1.
Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 978-0-534-40842-8.
Thompson, William J. (1994). Angular Momentum: An Illustrated Guide to Rotational Symmetries for Physical Systems. Wiley.
ISBN 978-0-471-55264-2.
Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H.
Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-0809-4.
Feynman R, Leighton R, and Sands M. 19–4 Rotational kinetic energy (http://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_19.html#Ch19-S4),
from The Feynman Lectures on Physics (online edition), The Feynman Lectures Website, September 2013.
External links
Conservation of Angular Momentum (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/lm/ch15/ch15.html) – a chapter from an online
textbook
Angular Momentum in a Collision Process (http://www.hakenberg.de/diffgeo/collision_resolution.htm) – derivation of the three-
dimensional case
Angular Momentum and Rolling Motion (https://www.thepracticeset.com/physics-1-angular-momentum-rolling-motion-question-list/) -
more momentum theory
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Angular momentum (modern definition)

Orbital angular momentum in two dimensions

angular momentum is proportional to moment of inertia and angular speed ,[3]

Velocity of the particle m with

where is the perpendicular component of the motion. Expanding, rearranging, and

Scalar—angular momentum from Lagrangian mechanics

And the potential energy is

Then the Lagrangian is

The generalized momentum "canonically conjugate to" the coordinate is defined by

Orbital angular momentum in three dimensions

Relationship between force (F),

is the orbital angular velocity of the particle about the

Moment of inertia (shown here), and

and for any collection of particles as the sum,

Angular momentum and torque

Because the moment of inertia is , it follows that , and which, reduces to

Conservation of angular momentum

Angular momentum in orbital mechanics

is the mass of particle ,

The position vector of the center of mass is defined by,[24]

It can be shown that (see sidebar),

and Prove that

therefore the second and third terms vanish,

The first term can be rearranged,

and total angular momentum for the collection of particles is

which, by the definition of the center of mass, is and similarly

The first term is the angular momentum of the center of mass

Fixed center of mass

Angular momentum (modern definition)

In classical mechanics, the angular momentum of a particle can be reinterpreted as a

The 3-angular momentum as a bivector

or more compactly in index notation:

Spin, orbital, and total angular momentum

However, in quantum physics, there is another type of angular

ħ"). Top: the moment of inertia tensor I and angular velocity ω

If you measure… The result can be...

He did not further investigate angular momentum directly in the Principia,

The Law of Areas

Conservation of angular momentum in the Law of Areas

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