Ecological Engineering 127 (2019) 454–459

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Using coconut husks in a full-scale decentralized wastewater treatment T

system: The influence of an anaerobic filter on maintenance and operational
conditions of a sand filter
⁎
Luana Mattos de Oliveira Cruz, Bianca Graziella Lento Araujo Gomes, Adriano Luiz Tonetti ,
Isabel Campos Salles Figueiredo
School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urbanism – FEC, at UNICAMP (State University of Campinas), Avenida Albert Einstein, 951, Cidade Universitária “Zeferino
Vaz”, P.O. Box 6021, 13083-852 Campinas, SP, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The critical situation of domestic wastewater treatment in the rural areas of Brazil stimulates the development or
Intermittent sand filter improvement of on-site systems using cheap and sustainable materials that can be applied in small and isolated
Clogging communities. Although this is an important theme, few real scale systems have been studied. This study in-
On-site sanitation vestigated a full-scale on-site domestic wastewater treatment system composed of a septic tank, an anaerobic
Water reuse
filter filled with green coconut husks (Cocos nucifera) and an intermittent sand filter. The experiment was
conducted in a rural area located in the city of Campinas (Brazil) and the system was built to serve a small
community. The quality of the effluent generated by this combination is in accordance with Brazilian and
European legislation and even allows for its reuse in agricultural activities. The results also demonstrate the
feasibility of using coconut husks in anaerobic filters, providing a new and more sustainable destination for this
material, which is normally treated as solid waste. The combination was shown to be a viable technology for
small communities.

1. Introduction interesting alternative for sanitation in rural and isolated areas.

Lack of sanitation is considered a threat to environmental quality
and to social well-being worldwide. Although most regions have im-
proved their sanitation services over the past decade, isolated com-
munities, rural areas and low-density regions located far from urban
centers still lack proper sanitation facilities.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United
Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) Joint
Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation report, 70% of the
2.3 billion individuals who do not have access to improved sanitation
facilities live in rural areas (WHO/UNICEF, 2014). In Brazil, 12.6% of
rural homes have no wastewater treatment and 57.7% have inadequate
facilities such as: pit latrines, dry wells or direct disposal into bodies of
water (PNAD, 2015).
The lack of financial resources represents the most relevant diffi-
culty in the implementation of sanitation systems, since the high costs
for sewage system implementation contrast with a low income return
for sanitation companies (PLANSAB, 2013). Thus, decentralized was-
tewater treatment systems, also called on-site systems, are an
According to Bradley et al. (2002), 10% of generated wastewater is
treated by decentralized systems in the USA, corresponding to the
sewage produced by 60 million individuals, with one third of them
using septic tanks. These systems are also used by 12% of Australian
(MACINTOSH et al., 2011) and 18% of Brazilian households (PNAD,
2015). Although septic tanks are widely used as decentralized treat-
ment technologies, post-treatment is usually required because of the
high soluble organic matter and pathogens content that remain in the
effluent (Witkovcki and Vidal, 2009).
Some Brazilian regulations (ABNT, 1997 and ABNT, 1986) suggest
the combination of a septic tank and an anaerobic filter for the treat-
ment of sewage in small towns. This combination can produce effluents
with low organic load and few solids (80 to 85% of BOD and TSS re-
moval) (Camargo and Nour, 2001; Von Sperling, 2007; Tonetti et al.,
2011; de Cruz et al., 2013; Tonon et al., 2015).
Anaerobic filters are an advantageous post-treatment option for
septic tank effluent due to their technical and economical aspects: low
operation and maintenance costs, operational simplicity and low sludge
production. Moreover, higher temperatures in tropical countries favor

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: adriano@fec.unicamp.br (A.L. Tonetti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.12.021
Received 6 July 2018; Received in revised form 12 December 2018; Accepted 18 December 2018
Available online 26 December 2018
0925-8574/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
L.M. de Oliveira Cruz et al. Ecological Engineering 127 (2019) 454–459

Fig. 1. General scheme of the system: septic tank (1), collection container (2), anaerobic filter (3), siphon box (4) and sand filter (5).

faster anaerobic microorganism growth. Anaerobic filters also have the systems, thus enabling the disinfection and reuse of water (Asano et al.,
advantage of allowing different packing materials to be used and this 2007; Leverenz et al., 2009; Marinho et al., 2013).
fact is directly associated with implementation costs. An alternative to Despite of its well-known effectiveness (Kassab et al., 2010), most
reducing costs is the replacement of synthetic packing materials with studies on this type of treatment are performed in a laboratory or on
regional materials, such as ceramic bricks or grounded tires (Barros pilot scale (Stevik et al., 1999; Healy et al., 2007; Sabbah et al., 2013;
et al., 2011), bamboo rings (Camargo and Nour, 2001) or green coconut Kang et al., 2007; Tonon et al., 2015), and very few have been devel-
husks (de Cruz et al., 2013). The latter was shown to be a low-cost oped to full-scale (Li et al., 2011; Pell et al., 1990; Zhang et al., 2005; de
alternative for packing material with good empty bed volume and Oliveira Cruz et al., 2018).
tensile strength after its use inside anaerobic reactors (de Cruz et al., This study aimed to investigate a full-scale system based on the
2013). combination of septic tank, anaerobic filter filled with green coconut
Brazil produces over 1 billion coconut fruits per year (EMBRAPA, husks (Cocos nucifera) and intermittent sand filter. Effluent quality,
2011), consequently, there is an enormous amount of waste husks, system maintenance frequency and operational conditions were also
boosting several studies investigating the utilization of these shells in verified.
new products or processes (de Cruz et al., 2013). The use of coconut
husks could transform this problematic waste material into a useful raw
2. Material and methods
material for sewage treatment.
Although anaerobic filters significantly remove organic matter, ni-
This investigation was based on De Oliveira Cruz et al. (2018), who
trogen compounds and phosphorus concentration do not change during
studied the same treatment, but using only a septic tank followed by a
anaerobic treatment; thus, requiring an additional aerobic step to in-
sand filter. Both studies were developed in a rural area in the city of
crease the quality of the final effluent. One option would be an inter-
Campinas, Brazil. For 15 months, 43 collections were performed. The
mittent sand filter (ISF). ISF consists of a fixed bed of sand that is
property was occupied by a construction plant (Vianno Campinas),
flooded with effluent. Intermittent dosing stimulates bacterial growth,
three houses and a small snack bar. Wastewater generated in the plant’s
unsaturated flow rate and bed aeration (LEVERENZ et al., 2009). Sig-
toilets and the total wastewater produced by the houses and bar were
nificant aeration and efficiency in terms of chemical oxygen demand
used in the investigation. The small treatment plant received con-
(COD), total suspended solids (TSS), coliform bacteria and virus re-
tributions from 8 to 10 individuals per day.
duction were shown in studies featuring ISF systems used as anaerobic
The treatment plant consisted of a septic tank followed by an
post-treatment units (Darby et al., 1996; Emerick et al., 1999; Tonon
anaerobic filter and a sand filter (Fig. 1). The construction details of the
et al., 2015).
septic tank and sand filter are described by De Oliveira Cruz et al.
Latrach et al. (2016) also evaluated the disinfection capacity of a
(2018). The effluent leaving the septic tank was directed to a collection
multi-soil-layering system followed by three sand filters (constructed
container, which had a rectangular format and 0.020 m3 useful volume.
using 12.5 × 120 cm PVC pipes, filled with 80 cm of fine sand) for
A feed pipe connected this container to the anaerobic filter. The dis-
wastewater treatment. They investigated three different hydraulic
tribution tubing was 0.76 m long and positioned in the reactor’s base so
loading rates (HLR): 100, 200 e 400 L.m−2.day1. Better performance
that it could evenly distribute the influent through 0.030 m perforations
was obtained when the units operated at a lower HLR configuration. On
in diameter, spaced every 0.060 m (Fig. 1).
average, total coliforms, fecal coliforms and streptococci removal were
According to Brazilian technical standards (ABNT, 1997), the sug-
3.13, 3.30 and 3.12 log units, respectively. According to these authors,
gested volume for an anaerobic reactor should be 2.24 m3. Nonetheless,
these high removal rates may be associated with the (fine) sand used.
Tonetti et al. (2011) presented satisfactory results for the removal of
Tonon et al. (2015) studied the association between anaerobic fil-
natural organic matter by adopting smaller volumes and lower hy-
ters and ISF in pilot scale, and the system enabled an efficiency ex-
draulic retention times (HRT). Hence, a smaller useful volume of
ceeding 95% in terms of COD and BOD removal, which produced an
1.57 m3 resulted in a drop in HRT from 1 day to 16.8 h (0.7 days).
effluent that met Brazilian and European legislation (Conama 357/
The support material used were dried green coconut husks (Cocos
2005; Directive 91/271/EEC). The use of ISF as post-treatment for
nucifera) (Fig. 2), as adopted by de Cruz et al. (2013) and Tonon et al.
anaerobic filters is comparable to secondary and tertiary treatment
(2015) in pilot scale studies. Green coconut husks were cut in four

455
L.M. de Oliveira Cruz et al.
Fig. 2. Coconut husks (de Cruz et al., 2013).
pieces and disposed inside the filter. This material was used because it
is easy to find and to manipulate. Coconut husks were also shown to be
a low-cost alternative for packing material, with good empty bed vo-
lume and tensile strength after use inside anaerobic reactors (de Cruz
et al., 2013).
After the anaerobic filter, the effluent was directed to a siphoned
box with 0.025 m3 useful volume (Fig. 3). The siphon box was built to
guarantee intermittent effluent application in the sand filter (following
treatment stage), thus ensuring the aerobic characteristic of this bed (de
Oliveira Cruz et al., 2018).
The sand filter (Fig. 1) was constructed with precast concrete rings
and had 1.90 m internal diameter, which allowed for a 2.84 m2 surface
area. Three layers were used for bed composition (Table 1).
A hydrometer was installed in the outlet pipe to assess the daily
production of effluent volume. This value was compared to the volume
of water consumed in the study site.
Samples were collected weekly from the following places: septic
tank, anaerobic filter and sand filter outputs (Fig. 1). Samples were
collected during the morning period (9 am) during peak flow. The re-
search was conducted for 244 days.
All analyses in this study were based on Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and wastewater (APHA et al., 2012).
3. Results
During the research period, the resident population in the study
Fig. 3. Siphon box scheme adopted in this research.
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Ecological Engineering 127 (2019) 454–459
Table 1
Sand bed layers.
Material Depth (m) Effective size Uniformity Void ratio (Vr)
(D10) (mm) coefficient (UC) (%)
Gravel 2 0.20 16.12 1.89 45.8 ± 0.4
Gravel 1 0.05 7.51 1.66 44.1 ± 0.4
Sand 0.40 0.18 6.67 58.6 ± 0.9
area ranged from 8 to 10 people and per capita water consumption
varied between 110.0 and 137.5 L.inhab−1day−1. These values were
lower than the average 231.5 L.inhab−1day−1 consumption found in
the urban area of Campinas (SNIS, 2017).
The relationship between generation of wastewater and water
consumption was only 28%, which is much lower than values tradi-
tionally found in urban areas, which can reach up to 80% in Brazil
(ABNT, 1986). This occurs because clean water and wastewater are
used to irrigate gardens and fruit trees, a common practice among the
Brazilian rural population. This value is also very close to previous
studies in the same location, where de Oliveira Cruz et al. (2018) ob-
served a 38% relationship.
The average wastewater production was 290 Lday−1
−1 −1
(29.0–36.3 L.inhab day ). Consequently, the hydraulic loading rate
(HLR) of the studied sand filter was 102.1 Lm−2day−1. This value was
one-fifth of the value initially calculated for filter operation
(500 Lm−2day−1) and can be compared to the HLR suggested by the
Brazilian standards (ABNT, 1997). USEPA recommends HLR from 80 to
200 Lm−2day−1 for sand filters (USEPA, 2002).
3.1. Physical-chemical analysis
Average local air temperature was 22.3 ± 3.4 °C (minimum 15 °C,
maximum 27 °C). This value is much higher than those found in
countries where sand filters are traditionally used for wastewater
treatment, as most publications on this topic come from Europe and the
USA. The maintenance of internal temperature is critical because the
anaerobic process is sensitive to abrupt changes, in addition to inter-
fering in thermodynamic reactions (Von Sperling, 2007).
Average pH values of all samples (effluent from the septic tank,
anaerobic filter and sand filter) were close to neutral values (Table 2).
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) concentration was always less than
1.0 mgO2L−1 for both the septic tank and anaerobic filter effluent and
4.4 ± 1.0 mgO2L−1 for the sand filter effluent, showing that the
system can oxygenate the liquid and facilitate aerobic organic matter
removal. Alkalinity found in the septic tank and anaerobic filter effluent
was: 546 ± 113 mgCaCO3L−1 and 558 ± 100 mgCaCO3L−1, respec-
tively. These values are much higher than the typical values found in
domestic wastewater (60–120 mgCaCO3L−1), as reported by Metcalf &
Eddy Inc. (2003) and those found by Muserere et al. (2014)
(271 ± 17 mgCaCO3L−1) and de Cruz et al. (2013)
(300 ± 100 mgCaCO3L−1) for anaerobic effluents.
Higher alkalinity values in these effluents may be associated with
the low dilution of wastewater in small communities. As previously
described, the Brazilian rural population traditionally reuses some of
the greywater generated in a residence to irrigate gardens and fruit
trees. Thus, toilets and kitchens were the main domestic wastewater
generation points, which makes the final effluent more concentrated in
terms of alkalinity, ammoniacal-N and total nitrogen (109 ± 21 and
127 ± 35 mgL−1, respectively).
These higher values are also possible due to the presence of toilets in
the establishment and in the factory, which contributed to the forma-
tion of a sewer richer in nitrogen compounds (urine). The high nitrogen
compound concentration provided alkalinity to the system through the
formation of ammonia and bicarbonate (resulting from urea hydrolysis)
and the conversion of organic nitrogen to ammoniacal nitrogen
L.M. de Oliveira Cruz et al.
Table 2
Average values from septic tank, anaerobic filter and sand filter effluent samples (samples were collected for 15 months. Each sample was collected 43 times).
Parameter Septic tank Anaerobic filter
pH 7.4 ± 0.2 7.5 ± 0.2
DO (mgO2L−1) 0.4 ± 0.2 0.5 ± 0.2
Alkalinity (mgCaCO3L−1) 546 ± 113 558 ± 100
TSS (mgL−1) 126 ± 42 38 ± 18
Turbidity (NTU) 211 ± 94 110 ± 78
E. coli (NMP 100 mL−1) – 1.8 × 105 ± 2.2 × 105
COD (mgO2L−1) 403 ± 84 194 ± 37
BOD (mgO2L−1) 148 ± 34 41 ± 16
N-NH4 (mgL−1) 109 ± 21 110 ± 20
Nitrate (mgL−1) 3.1 ± 1.2 2.9 ± 1.5
Total Nitrogen (mgL−1) 112.1 ± 22.2 112.9 ± 21.5
* The system operated by the authors was a combination of septic tank and sand filter. There was no anaerobic filter as the one used in this study.
(ammonification).
Despite high alkalinity values, the septic tank and the anaerobic
filter were not negatively affected. Buffering ratios (IA/PA) for volatile
acids (intermediate alkalinity-IA) and bicarbonate (partial alkalinity-
PA) were close to 0.3, which shows the stability and robustness of the
anaerobic digestion process according to Ripley et al. (1986).
The higher alkalinity value for the sand filter effluent contributed to
pH maintenance. Thus, although the nitrification process occurred and
alkalinity was consumed (which will be discussed below), the residual
buffer was sufficient to maintain neutral pH and no addition of alkaline
substances was necessary. This situation differed from other studies,
which added alkaline substances when operating pilot scale sand filters
to treat urban wastewater (Tonetti et al., 2011; Silva et al., 2015; Tonon
et al., 2015).
The average TSS concentration of septic tank (126 ± 42 mgL−1)
and anaerobic filter (38 ± 18 mgL−1) effluents were within typical
range values: 100–150 mgL−1 and 30–60 mgL−1, respectively (Von
Sperling, 2007). The anaerobic filter filled with coconut husk effluent
displayed the same performance found in previous studies (de Cruz
et al., 2013). As shown in Table 2, the anaerobic filter removed 70% of
the initial TSS concentration on average.
These results demonstrate the feasibility of using coconut husks in
anaerobic filters for sewage treatment in small communities. This
provides a new and more sustainable destination for this material,
which is currently treated as solid waste, being discarded in garbage
and landfills.
After the sand filter, global TSS concentration removal was 88%
(15 ± 09 mg.L−1 final average concentration). The final TSS con-
centration value was as low as the effluent of a Drawer Compacted Sand
Filter (DCSF) (Assayed et al., 2015) and comparable to results found by
Saliba and Von Sperling (2017) after an active sludge system.
Obtaining low TSS concentration effluents is beneficial in rural
areas for reuse in agriculture since the chances of clogging irrigation
equipment would be lower. According to Capra and Scicolone (1998),
when the final TSS concentration is less than 50 mgL−1 there is a lower
risk of drippers clogging. The average final value is also less than the
limit stipulated by the European community legislation (Directive 91/
271/CEE, 1991) for discharge from urban WWTP (35 mgL−1).
Turbidity removal efficiency was also high (95%). The sand filter
generated an effluent with less than 17 NTU for all samples, a value 3.4
times lower than the turbidity found in the effluent from anaerobic
filters (Tonon et al., 2015). Low turbidity and TSS concentration are
important when the aim is reuse. These characteristics favor a more
aesthetically pleasing effluent and an effluent with fewer suspended
solids to shelter pathogenic microorganisms; thus, decreasing the
amount of chemical needed. It can be concluded that the sand layer
used in the filter was sufficient to remove the suspended solids and
provide a final clarified effluent. Consequently, using the final effluent
for irrigation of agricultural crops is viable, as practiced by Marinho
et al. (2013) and Marinho et al. (2014).
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Ecological Engineering 127 (2019) 454–459
Sand filter Sand filter operated by de Oliveira Cruz et al. (2018)*
7.3 ± 0.3 7.0 ± 0.2
4.4 ± 1.0 4.8 ± 1.2
259 ± 125 503 ± 50
15 ± 09 24 ± 18
11 ± 11 9±5
1.0 × 103 ± 2.41 × 103 2.6 × 104 ± 1.8 × 104
88 ± 36 106 ± 59
18 ± 9 21 ± 8
64 ± 23 95 ± 29
58 ± 36 14 ± 10
122 ± 59 114.5 ± 6.0
COD values of the septic tank effluent are in accordance with the
range considered to be typical for domestic wastewater (from 400 to
450 mgO2L−1) (Von Sperling, 2007). The average removal obtained
just by the anaerobic filter was 51% and the overall removal of the
system (anaerobic filter and sand filter) was approximately 77 ± 10%
(final COD concentration was 88 ± 36 mgO2L−1). The limit stipulated
by the European community legislation is 125 mgO2L−1 (Directive 91/
271/CEE, 1991), hence, the system ensured the adequacy of the final
effluent on this parameter. The final value was also comparable to other
studies using sand filters, which obtained COD concentrations under
100 mgO2L−1 (Abdoulkader et al., 2015; Assayed et al., 2015; Rodgers
et al., 2011).
BOD removal by the anaerobic filter was 72 ± 10%, showing that
the reactor was not only a filter but a biological treatment unit. One
way of demonstrating that treatment provided by the anaerobic filter
was not restricted to physical removal by filtration is evaluating soluble
BOD. In this research, the anaerobic filter was found to provide 41%
mean removal in terms of soluble COD. Therefore, it can be assumed
that treatment was not restricted to mechanical actions such as fixation,
interception and adsorption, given that the degradation and consump-
tion of soluble material also occurred. This degradation was caused by
biofilm stuck to the coconut husks, sludge formed at the base of the
reactor and sludge present in the interstices of the coconut husks.
BOD of the sand filter effluent was 18 ± 9 mgL−1. When studying
bed sand thicknesses between 0.31 and 1.63 m and 76 Lm−2day−1
hydraulic load of wastewater in pilot scale, Widrig et al. (1996) found
11.0 mgL−1 effluent BOD concentration in the shallower filter and
2.5 mgL−1 in the deeper one. They concluded that treatment could not
be improved at depths greater than 0.90 m. In another laboratory-scale
study, the hydraulic loading rate used was 105 Lm−2day−1 and the
results showed 30 and 50 mgL−1 final effluent BOD concentration for
0.3 and 0.4 m deep filters, respectively (241 mgL−1 BOD influent con-
centration) (Rodgers et al., 2011).
In this study, we 102.1 Lm−2day−1 applied hydraulic loads with a
0.4 m sand bed depth. When comparing these results to the cited au-
thors, they show that the chosen sand depth was sufficient to efficiently
remove the remaining organic matter from the anaerobic filter effluent.
Consequently, the final effluent would meet minimum reduction con-
ditions (70–90%) and a maximum 25 mgL−1 concentration, as required
by European Resolution No. 271 (1991) for effluent discharges from
wastewater treatment plants.
Although Escherichia coli removal by sand filters was just 2-log units
(Table 2), the elimination of these organisms could be easily achieved
with the use of low chlorine doses, because of the low turbidity of the
final effluent. The final 103 NMP 100 mL−1 concentration is compar-
able to that found in the final effluent from activated sludge systems
(Saliba and Von Sperling, 2017).
The sand filter could aerate effluent from the anaerobic filter due to
the intermittent operation condition. Average dissolved oxygen con-
centration from the final effluent was 4.4 ± 1.0 mgO2L−1. Although a
L.M. de Oliveira Cruz et al.
simplified zero-energy siphon system (Fig. 3) was adopted, aeration was
greatly enhanced.
Regarding nitrogen compounds (Table 2), the septic tank effluent
was found to be predominantly constituted of ammoniacal-N and that
the average was higher than the typical domestic range (20–85 mgL−1)
(WEF, 2007). This may have been caused by the toilet in the bar, which
contributed to a more urea-concentrated effluent. As expected, ammo-
niacal-N removal by anaerobic filter was low (predominantly < 10%),
only reaching more significant values (41%) after passing through the
sand filter.
The oxidation of 58% of ammoniacal-N to nitrate showed the sand
filter nitrification capacity, although not complete. Alkalinity was not
the limiting factor for complete nitrification since the remaining alka-
linity could have provided conditions for the oxidation of another
60 mgL−1 of ammoniacal-N (the leftover concentration). Despite not
reaching complete nitrification, the anaerobic filter was important for
improving sand filter performance in terms of nitrogen conversion. De
Oliveira Cruz et al. (2018) obtained only 12% ammoniacal-N to nitrate
conversion when operating a sand filter without anaerobic filter as a
pre–treatment step (Table 2).
Although the final nitrogen compounds concentration was higher
than the values legislated by the European community (Directive 91/
271/CEE, 1991) for urban WWTP discharges (15 mgL−1 of total ni-
trogen), the final effluent could be reused in agricultural activities and
these nutrients could attain a fertilizer proposal (Abdoulkader et al.,
2015).
3.2. System maintenance
During the research, 16 weeks on average elapsed until the clogging
of the sand filter, so three operations to clean the sand bed surfaces
were necessary. The maintenance of the bed only required scraping a
0.05 m layer on its surface, which enabled the full restoration of the
proper functioning of the treatment system (de Oliveira Cruz et al.,
2018). We must highlight that literature on the use of this treatment
system does not provide a discussion regarding the time required for its
maintenance. Leverenz et al. (2009) mention that there is a paucity of
data related to surface clogging and operational parameters because
clogging is generally not the desired outcome or the focus of the co-
pious amount of ISF studies that have been conducted.
Comparing to the previous study (de Oliveira Cruz et al., 2018), the
use of an anaerobic filter before a sand filter increased the time between
maintenance activities by 6 weeks; the addition of an anaerobic filter to
a septic tank with a sand filter reduced maintenance requirements from
every 10 weeks to every 16 weeks. Regarding physical and chemical
parameters, final effluent quality (Table 2) also improved. Using an
anaerobic filter is important since most organic matter is removed be-
fore the sand filter. Thus, clogging is avoided in the sand filter, be-
coming a suitable reactor for effluent polishing and nitrogen conver-
sion.
Regarding the anaerobic sludge, it was removed from the anaerobic
filter filled with coconut husks after 13 months of operation. Brazilian
technical standards do not indicate a frequency for sludge removal in
anaerobic filters.
Therefore, this investigation showed that the combination of septic
tank, anaerobic filter filled with green coconut husks and sand filter is
very efficient and improves the final effluent, which may be suitable for
reuse in agricultural activities. However, it must be explained to the
community who will build and operate the system that routine main-
tenance once every 16 weeks is required. Although maintenance will
always be needed, we highlight that when using the anaerobic filter as a
pre-treatment unit such need is less frequent than when there is only a
septic tank combined with the sand filter.
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Ecological Engineering 127 (2019) 454–459
4. Conclusion
The combination of septic tank, anaerobic filter filled with green
coconut husks and sand filter is a viable technology for small commu-
nities. The quality of the final effluent generated allows its reuse in
agricultural activities.
The user must be informed that this system must receive main-
tenance every 16 weeks, on average.
The presence of an anaerobic filter improved sand filter perfor-
mance and final effluent quality. The results also demonstrate the fea-
sibility of using coconuts husks in anaerobic filters for the treatment of
sewage from small communities. This provides a new and more sus-
tainable destination for this material which is currently treated as solid
waste.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank CNPq, Brazil (Brazilian National
Council for Scientific and Technological Development, 311275/2015-0
PROCESS) and FAPESP, Brazil (São Paulo Research Foundation, 2017/
07490-4 PROCESS) and Vianno Campinas for financing this study. The
authors would also like to acknowledge the service of the Writing
Space/General Coordination of UNICAMP for helping to translate the
original manuscript.
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