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Residual Income (RI) is the difference between operating income and the minimum
dollar return required on a company’s operating assets.
RI is calculated as follows:
The minimum rate of return is the same as the hurdle rate for ROI.
If residual income is greater than zero, the division is earning more than the
minimum required rate or return.
Unlike ROI, the use of residual income encourages managers to accept any project
that earns above the minimum rate of return.
Unlike ROI, residual income is not a relative measure of profitability, which makes it
difficult to compare investments centers of different sizes (such as operating assets
of $10,000,000 versus $1,000,000).
One way to address this disadvantage is to use both ROI and residual income for
performance evaluation.
D. Economic Value Added
EVA = After-tax operating income – (actual percentage cost of capital × Total capital
employed)
A positive EVA indicates that the company earned operating profit greater than the
cost of the capital used. The company is creating wealth. If EVA is negative, then the
company is destroying capital.
Whereas ROI is a percentage rate of return, EVA is a dollar figure. EVA emphasizes
after-tax operating profit and the actua lcost of capital.
Stock prices follow EVA better than earnings per share or return on equity.
Using EVA encourages managers to accept any project that earns above the
minimum rate.
Behavioral Aspects of EVA
EVA encourages managers to consider the cost of financial investment (the cost of
capital) when making decisions. Therefore, EVA helps to encourage desirable
behavior from division managers that an emphasis on operating income alone
cannot.
5. TRANSFER PRICING
Transfer prices are prices charged for goods transferred between two divisions of
the same firm. The output of the selling division is used as input of the buying
division.
Transfer pricing affects the transferring divisions and the overall firm through its
impact on:
divisional autonomy.
The price charged for transferred goods is revenue to the selling division and cost of
goods sold to the buying division.
Thus, profits and profit-based performance measures (ROI and EVA) of both divisions
are affected by the transfer price.
While the actual transfer price nets out for the company as a whole, transfer pricing
affects profits earned by the company as a whole if it affects divisional behavior.
Divisions, acting independently, may set transfer prices that maximize divisional
profits but adversely affect firmwide profits.
Impact on Autonomy
Because transfer pricing decisions can affect firmwide profitability, top management
is often tempted to intervene and dictate desirable transfer prices.
The transfer pricing problem concerns finding a transfer pricing system that
simultaneously satisfies the following three objectives:
In a decentralized organization, top management sets the transfer pricing policy, but
divisions decide whether or not to transfer.
Market price
If there is a perfectly competitive outside market for the transferred goods, the
optimal transfer price is the market price. (In a perfectly competitive market, the
selling division can sell all it wishes at the prevailing market price.)
The opportunity cost approach also identifies the market price as the optimal
transfer price.
The minimum transfer price for the selling division is the market price, because the
selling division receives the market price whether it sells the product internally or
externally.
The maximum transfer price for the buying division is the market price, because the
buying division pays the market price whether it purchases the product internally or
from an outside supplier.
full cost
If cost-based transfer prices are used, standard cost s should be used in order to
avoid passing on the inefficiencies of one division to another.
If a perfectly competitive market for the transferred goods exists, the optimal
transfer price is the market price.
the maximum transfer price, which is the transfer price that would leave the buying
division indifferent between buying the goods from an outside party or purchasing
from an internal division
Opportunity costs for the buying division and selling division form the upper and
lower boundaries for the transfer price.
Opportunity Cost for Selling Division Opportunity Cost for Buying Division
The selling division wants a high transfer price that will increase its income. The
buying division wants a low transfer price that will increase its income.
If the selling division avoids costs such as distribution costs by selling internally, the
opportunity cost to the selling division is the market price minus the avoidable cost.
When the selling division has excess capacity, a bargaining range exists.
The lower limit of the bargaining range is the selling division’s incremental costs. This
is the minimum the selling division would be willing to accept.
the transfer price that results in a zero contribution margin on the goods for the
buying division.
This is the maximum amount the buying division would be willing to pay.
1. One divisional manager who has private information may take advantage of
another divisional manager.
Negotiated transfer prices can help achieve the three objectives of:
goal congruence
autonomy, and
If the negotiating skills of managers are comparable or if the firm views negotiating
skills as an important part of being a manager, concerns about accurate performance
evaluation are avoided.
2. Customer perspective, which defines the customer and market segments in which
the business operates