BANGLADESH

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

Identification."Bangladesh" is a combination of the Bengali words,BanglaandDesh,meaning the country or
land where the Bangla language is spoken. The country formerly was known as East Pakistan.

Location and Geography.Bangladesh straddles the Bay of Bengal in south Asia. To the west and north it is
bounded by India; to the southeast, it borders Myanmar. The topography is predominantly a low-lying
floodplain. About half the total area is actively deltaic and is prone to flooding in the monsoon season from May
through September. The Ganges/Padma River flows into the country from the northwest, while the
Brahmaputra/ Jamuna enters from the north. The capital city, Dhaka, is near the point where those river
systems meet. The land is suitable for rice cultivation.

In the north and the southeast the land is more hilly and dry, and tea is grown. The Chittagong Hill Tractshave
extensive hardwood forests. The vast river delta area is home to the dominant plains culture. The hilly areas of
the northeast and southeast are occupied by much smaller tribal groups, many of which have strongly resisted
domination by the national government and the population pressure from Bangladeshis who move into and
attempt to settle in their traditional areas. In 1998 an accord was reached between the armed tribal group
Shanti Bahini and the governmentBangladesh is blessed with deep, rich, and fertile soil, a gift from the three
major rivers that form the deltaic plain upon which it sits. The Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna Rivers all
wend their way down from the Himalayas, carrying nutrients to replenish Bangladesh's fields.

This luxury comes at a heavy cost, however. Bangladesh is almost entirely flat, and except for some hills along
the Burmese border, it almost entirely at sea level. As a result, the country is regularly flooded by the rivers,
by tropical cyclones off the Bay of Bengal, and by tidal bores.
Bangladesh is bordered by India all around it, except a short border with Burma(Myanmar) in the southeast.

The climate in Bangladesh is tropical and monsoonal. In the dry season, from October to March, temperatures
are mild and pleasant. The weather turns hot and muggy from March to June, awaiting the monsoon rains.
From June to October, the skies open and drop most of the country's total annual rainfall, as much as 224
inches per year (6,950 mm).

As mentioned, Bangladesh often suffers from flooding and cyclone strikes—an average of 16 cyclones hit per
decade. In 1998, flooding struck due to an unusual melt-off of Himalayan glaciers, covering two-thirds of
Bangladesh with floodwater, and in 2017, hundreds of villages were submerged, and tens of thousands of
people were displaced by two months of monsoon flooding.

For centuries, the area that is now Bangladesh was part of the Bengal region of India. It was ruled by the same
empires that ruled central India, from the Maurya (321–184 BCE) to the Mughal (CE 1526–1858). When the
British took control of the region and created their Raj in India (1858–1947), Bangladesh was included.
During the negotiations surrounding independence and the partition of British India, predominantly Muslim
Bangladesh was separated from majority-Hindu India. In the Muslim League's 1940 Lahore Resolution, one of
the demands was that the majority-Muslim sections of the Punjab and Bengal would be included in Muslim
states, rather than remaining with India. After communal violence broke out in India, some politicians
suggested that a unified Bengali state would be a better solution. This idea was vetoed by the Indian National
Congress, led by the Mahatma Gandhi.
At the end, when British India gained its independence in August 1947, the Muslim section of Bengal became a
noncontiguous part of the new nation of Pakistan. It was called "East Pakistan."
East Pakistan was in an odd position, separated from Pakistan proper by a 1,000-mile stretch of India. It was
also divided from the main body of Pakistan by ethnicity and language; Pakistanis are primarily Punjabi
and Pashtun, as opposed to the Bengali East Pakistanis. 

For 24 years, East Pakistan struggled under financial and political neglect from West Pakistan. Political unrest
was endemic in the region, as military regimes repeatedly overthrew democratically elected governments.
Between 1958 and 1962, and from 1969 to 1971, East Pakistan was under martial law.

In the parliamentary elections of 1970–71, East Pakistan's separatist Awami League won every single seat
allocated to the East. Talks between the two Pakistans failed, and on March 27, 1971, Sheikh Mujibar Rahman
declared Bangladeshi independence from Pakistan. The Pakistani Army fought to stop the secession, but India
sent troops to support the Bangladeshis. On January 11, 1972, Bangladesh became an independent
parliamentary democracy.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the first leader of Bangladesh, from 1972 until his assassination in 1975. The
current prime minister, Sheikh Hasina Wajed, is his daughter. The political situation in Bangladesh is still
volatile and has included free and fair elections, but recent persecution of political dissent by the state has
raised some concerns about how the 2018 elections will go.

The riverine country of Bangladesh (“Land of the Bengals”) is one of the most densely populated countries in
the world, and its people are predominantly Muslim. As the eastern portion of the historical region of Bengal,
the area once formed, along with what is now the Indian state of West Bengal, the province of Bengal in British
India. With the partition of India in 1947, it became the Pakistani province of East Bengal (later renamed
East Pakistan), one of five provinces of Pakistan, separated from the other four by 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of
Indian territory. In 1971 it became the independent country of Bangladesh, with its capital at Dhaka.

The creation of the independent nation represents the triumph of ethnic and cultural politics. The region that is
now Bangladesh has been part of a number of important political entities, including Indian empires, Buddhist
kingdoms, the Moghul empire, the British empire and the Pakistani nation.

Until 1947 Bangladesh was known as East Bengal province and had been part of Great Britain's India holding
since the 1700s. In 1947, Britain, in conjunction with India's leading indigenous political organizations,
partitioned the Indian colony into India and Pakistan. The province of East Bengal was made part of Pakistan
and was referred to as East Pakistan. West Pakistan was carved from the northwest provinces of the British
Indian empire. This division of territory represented an attempt to create a Muslim nation on Hindu India's
peripheries. However, the west and east wings of Pakistan were separated by more than 1,000 miles of India,
creating cultural discontinuity between the two wings. The ethnic groups of Pakistan and the Indian Muslims
who left India after partition were greatly different in language and way of life from the former East Bengalis:
West Pakistan was more oriented toward the Middle East and Arab Islamic influence than was East Pakistan,
which contained Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and British cultural influences.

From the beginning of Pakistan's creation, the Bengali population in the east was more numerous than the
Pakistani population in the western wing, yet West Pakistan became the seat of government and controlled
nearly all national resources. West Pakistanis generally viewed Bengalis as inferior, weak, and less Islamic.
From 1947 to 1970, West Pakistan reluctantly gave in to Bengali calls for power within the government, armed
forces, and civil service, but increasing social unrest in the east led to a perception among government officials
that the people of Bengal were unruly and untrust worthy "Hinduized" citizens. Successive Pakistani regimes,
increasingly concerned with consolidating their power over the entire country, often criticized the Hindu
minority in Bengal. This was evident in Prime Minister Nazimuddin's attempt in 1952 to make Urdu, the
predominant language of West Pakistan, the state language. The effect in the east was to energize opposition
movements, radicalize students at Dhaka University, and give new meaning to a Bengali identity that stressed
the cultural unity of the east instead of a pan-Islamic brotherhood.

Through the 1960s, the Bengali public welcomed a message that stressed the uniqueness of Bengali culture,
and this formed the basis for calls forself-determinationor autonomy. In the late 1960s, the Pakistani
government attempted to fore-stall scheduled elections. The elections were held on 7 December 1970, and
Pakistanis voted directly for members of the National Assembly.

The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, was largely a Bengali party which called for autonomy for
the east. Sheikh Mujib wanted to reconfigure Pakistan as a confederation of two equal partners. His party won
one of 162 seats in the East Pakistan provincial assembly and 160 of the three hundred seats in the National
Assembly. The Awami League would control national politics and have the ability to name the prime minister.
President Yahya, however, postponed the convening of the National Assembly to prevent a Bengali power
grab. In response, Sheikh Mujib and the Awami League led civil disobedience in East Pakistan. West Pakistan
began to move more troops into the east, and on 25 March 1971, the Pakistani army carried out a systematic
execution of several hundred people, arrested Mujib, and transported him to the west. On 26 March the Awami
League declared East Pakistan an independent nation, and by April the Bengalis were in open conflict with the
Pakistani military.

In a 10-month war of liberation, Bangladeshi units calledMukhti Bahini(freedom fighters), largely trained and
armed by Indian forces, battled Pakistani troops throughout the country in guerrilla skirmishes. The Pakistanis
systematically sought out political opponents and executed Hindu men on sight. Close to 10 million people fled
Bangladesh for West Bengal, in India. In early December 1971, the Indian army entered Bangladesh, engaged
Pakistani military forces with the help of the Mukhti Bahini, and in a ten-day period subdued the Pakistani
forces. On 16 December the Pakistani military surrendered. In January 1972, Mujib was released from
confinement and became the prime minister of Bangladesh.

Bangladesh was founded as a "democratic, secular, socialist state," but the new state represented the triumph
of a Bangladeshi Muslim culture and language. The administration degenerated into corruption, and Mujib
attempted to create a one-party state. On 15 August 1975 he was assassinated, along with much of his family,
by army officers. Since that time, Bangladesh has been both less socialistic and less secular.

Bangladesh officially known as the People's Republic of Bangladesh is an independent nation located in South
Asia. It makes up the eastern and largest portion of the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. It is situated at the
zenith of the Bay of Bengal and is bordered by Myanmar and India, and separated from Bhutan and Nepal by
the thin Siliguri Corridor.

Present-day Bangladesh came out as a sovereign country in 1971 after breaking away and gaining
independence from Pakistan in the Bangladesh liberation war. Its early history was characterized by internal
fighting, a succession of Indian empires, and a scuffle between Buddhism and Hinduism for dominance. The
borders of modern Bangladesh were formed after the partition of India and Bengal in August 1947, when the
area became East Pakistan as a section of the newly established State of Pakistan following the Radcliff Line.
The name Bangladesh was initially written as two words, Bangla Desh. Bangla is a key word for both the
Bengali language and the Bengal region. The exact origin of the term is, however, not known. Below, some of
the key events in the history of Bangladesh have been explained in brief.

 Although Bangladesh has existed as an independent country only since the late 20th century, its
national character within a broader South Asian context dates to the ancient past. The country’s history,
then, is intertwined with that of India, Pakistan, and other countries of the area. The land of
Bangladesh, mainly a delta formed by the Padma (Ganges [Ganga]) and the Jamuna(Brahmaputra)
rivers in the northeastern portion of the Indian subcontinent, is protected by forests to the west and
a myriad of watercourses in the centre. As such, it was long the inaccessible frontier beyond the north
Indian plain and therefore was home to a distinctive regional culture. In early times a number of
 independent principalities flourished in the region—called Bengal—including Gangaridai,
Vanga, Gauda, Pundra, and Samatata, among others. In the 14th century Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was
instrumental in unifying many of these principalities. The Mughals added more territories,
including Bihar and Orissa (now states of India), to constitute Suba Bangalah, which the British colonial
administration later called the Bengal Presidency. In 1947, when British colonial rule ended, a
downsized province of Bengal was partitioned into East Bengal and West Bengal. East Bengal was
renamed East Pakistan in 1955, and in 1971 it became Bangladesh.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BENGAL

Stone Age tools dating back to over 20,000 years ago have been found in the Greater Bengal region thus
indicating human settlement in the region.
Ancient Bengal was initially occupied by the Austroasiatics, Tibeto-Burmans, Dravidians, and Indo-Aryans in
successive waves of migration and main urban settlements were established during the Iron Age towards the
middle of the first BCE millennium when the Northern Black Polished Ware culture was established in the
Indian sub-continent.

Bengal was governed by the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. With their citadels in the Bihar
and Bengal territories, the Mauryans established the first geographically widespread Iron Age empire in ancient
India. The empire promoted Buddhism and Jainism and it was able to reach its apex under emperor Ashoka.
The Gupta Empire finally succeeded the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd century. This empire was believed to have
originated from the Varendra area in Bangladesh, and it corresponds to present-day Rangpur and Rajshahi
divisions. This era brought about the theory of the Earth orbiting the Sun, invention of chess, the study of the
lunar and solar eclipses, the concept of zero, and the thriving of drama and Sanskrit literature.

In classical antiquity, Bengal was partitioned between different kingdoms. The Pala Empire was seen as the
biggest Bengali nation developed in ancient history. The empire covered the majority of the north Indian sub-
continent during its peak in the 9th century. The Palas were Mahayana Buddhists, and they h2ly supported
education, architecture, and art, thus leading to the establishment of the Pala School of Painting and Sculptural
Art, the universities of Vikramshila and Nalanda, and the Somapura Mahavihara. The proto-Bengali dialect
materialized under Pala rule. The Hindu Sena dynasty, however, took power in the 11th century and it h2ly
promoted Brahmanical Hinduism and laid the basis of Bengali Hinduism. The Senas also supported their
school of Hindu Art after being inspired by their predecessors. They also merged the caste system in Bengal.
Bengal was also an intersection of the Southwestern Silk Road.

ISLAMIC BENGAL

Merchants from the Middle East, Sufis, and missionaries brought with them Islam on the shores of Bengal
towards the end of the first millennium. It has been suggested by some experts that early Muslims, including
Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, uncle to Prophet Muhammad, used Bengal as a passage point to travel to China on the
Southern Silk Road. The excavation of the Abbasid Caliphate coins in the country portrayed a sturdy trade
system during the era of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, when Arab scientists assimilated pre-Islamic Greek
and Indian discoveries. This eventually led to the Indo-Arabic numerals system.
successive Muslim occupation assimilated the achievements and culture of pre-Islamic civilization in Bengal in
the new Islamic polity. The Muslims were able to adopt traditions and customs including food, dress, and way
of life, such as wearing bangles, bindu and saris by the Muslim women; and art forms in theater, dance, and
music. Conversion to Islam was reinforced in the country via the construction of madrasas, mosques, and Sufi
Khanqahs.

By the 14th century, a sovereign Bengal Sultanate was formed and it was known for its cultural pluralism. The
Sultanate, however, started to fall apart by the 16th century and by 1532, Bengal was overran by the Sur
Empire who constructed the Grand Trunk Road. Baro-Bhuyan zamindars and Hindu rajas acquired control on
huge sections of the territory, particularly in the fertile Bhati area.

Towards the end of the 16th century, the Mughal Empire conquered the Bengal delta after the Battle of Tukaroi
and Dhaka was formed as Mughal's provincial capital in 1608. Mughal rule brought about agrarian reforms,
economic prosperity, and thriving external trade especially in silk textiles and muslin. The agrarian reforms
transformed Bengal into the rice basket of the Indian sub-continent.

In 1717, the Nawabs of Bengal created a sovereign principality and their headquarters were in Murshidabad.
The last sovereign Nawab was, however, defeated on 23 June 1757 at the Battle of Plassey by the British.

BRITISH BENGAL/ PERIOD c. 1700–1947

 The rule of the British East India Company began in 1757 and the Bengal Presidency was formed in
1765 with its capital in Calcutta. During British tenure, East Bengal established a plantation economy
that was centered on tea production and jute trade and its share in the supply of jute rose in the early
20th century. In 1905, British divided Bengal and established the administrative division of Eastern
Bengal and Assam. This partitioning led to the Swadeshi movement led by the Indian National
Congress and in 1911 the division was annulled.
By the 1930s, the Krishak Praja Party and the Swaraj Party came to represent Bengali's new middle
class. The Krishak Praja Party became allies with the Muslim League in 1940 to present the Lahore
Resolution which visualized sovereign nations in the northwestern and eastern sub-continent.
In 1943, the Muslim League established a parliamentary government in the country and in 1946, the
victory of the Bengal Muslim League at the Indian provincial elections set the course for the division of
British India and the formation of the Dominion of Pakistan on 14 August 1947.
The period between 1947 and 1970 was characterized by a lot of friction between East Bengal and the
Dominion of Pakistan.

 During the rule of the emperor Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707), the English East India Company was
permitted to establish its base at Calcutta (Kolkata). The British gained strength in the region as the
Mughal empire weakened. In 1757, following a battle in the town of Plassey between forces led by
British soldier Robert Clive and the Mughal nawab (viceroy) Sirāj-ud-Dawlah, the East India Company
emerged as the dominant political power in Suba Bangalah. Under Gov.-Gen. Charles
Cornwallis (served 1786–93), a permanent settlement system was established in the territory—now
called the Bengal Presidency—whereby property rights were granted in perpetuity to
local zamindars (landlords). This property policy indirectly stimulated the growth of a new landed middle
class—especially in Calcutta—called the bhandralok. Initially, the bhandralok was dominated by upper-
caste Hindus, but the Muslim presence began to increase toward the end of the 19th century. In time,
this middle class emerged as the most active advocate of Indian self-government.
The province of Bengal was almost impossible to administer, even after Assam was made a separate
province in 1874. In 1905, largely at the initiative of the viceroy George Nathaniel Curzon, two new
provinces were created, ostensibly on a geopolitical basis; these provinces were Western Bengal,
including Bihar and Orissa, and Eastern Bengal and Assam. With its capital at Calcutta, Western
Bengal had a Hindu majority, while the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, with its capital
at Dhaka, was predominantly Muslim. Aside from increasing administrative efficiency, Curzon’s move
was intended to position the Muslims as a counterweight to the Hindus.

PAKISTANI PERIOD 1947–71

Although the boundaries of East Bengal were based ostensibly on religion, they did not entirely reflect it. Owing
to disagreements between the Hindu and Muslim contingents of the commission tasked with delimiting the
province, the frontiers were ultimately determined by the head of the commission, Sir Cyril Radcliffe. Excluded
wholly or partly from East Bengal were such Muslim majority districts as Murshidabad and Nadia; included,
however, were Khulna, which was nearly half Muslim, and the ChittagongHill Tracts, where
Muslims constituted only a small fraction of the population. Even Sylhet, a predominantly Muslim district
of Assam that joined Pakistan through a referendum, lost a part of its territory to India. The partition catalyzed
large-scale migration on both sides of the new boundary as hundreds of thousands of people who believed
themselves to be members of a threatened minority moved into what they perceived as a place of refuge.
Along with Muslim Bengalis arriving in East Bengal from Hindu majority districts, there were many Muslims
who came from other parts of India, mostly from Bihar.
Pakistan began as a parliamentary democracy with a constituentassembly that was charged with the dual
function of drafting a constitution and serving as the new country’s legislative body; however, overbearing
central leadership eventually nullified the system. Failing to earn the support of Jinnah, who had become the
first governor-general of Pakistan, Suhrawardy stayed in India to work with Gandhi for communal harmony,
and Khwaza Nazimuddin became chief minister of East Bengal. In the central government (based in the
western wing of Pakistan) Bengalis held the majority in the legislative branch but had little representation in
the executive. Physically and linguistically separated, the two parts of Pakistan had only tenuous links; their
overriding common interest was fear of Indian domination. Jinnah and his advisers believed that unification
might be achieved through a common language, Urdu, which was used in the army and administration. By
1948, however, Bengalis had begun to resent the nonacceptance of Bengali as an official language, the
domination of the bureaucracy by non-Bengalis, and the appropriation of provincial functions and revenue by
the central government.

BENGALI WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

On 23 March 1971, the Bangladeshi flag was raised for the first time. Operation Searchlight was, however,
launched on 26 March 1971 by the Pakistani military junta who massacred Bengali politicians, students,
intellectuals, military defectors, and civil servants during the 1971 Bangladesh genocide.

During the liberation war, Bengali locals proclaimed a declaration of independence and created the Mukti
Bahini, the Bangladeshi National Liberation Army. During the war, the army held Bengali's countryside and
waged guerilla operations against the Pakistani forces. India offered support to the army during the war. The
United States and the Soviet Union also sent naval forces to the Bengal Bay to offer support. The war lasted
for nine months and it came to an end when the Pakistani military surrendered to the Bangladesh-India Allied
Forces on 16th December 1971.

After gaining its independence, Bangladesh became a republic within the Commonwealth and a secular
democracy. in 1973, Bangladesh joined the OIC and the Non-Aligned Movement, and later joined the United
Nations in 1974.
In 1973, Bangladesh, Pakistan and India signed a tripartite agreement calling for stability and peace in the sub-
continent. The government at that time was led by Mujib who was assassinated together with the majority of
his family members on 15 August 1975. In the same year, two army uprisings took place and they led to a
reorganized system of power.

In 1977, Lieutenant General Ziaur Rahman took over the presidency and in 1979 he restored civilian rule and
reinstated multi-party politics. He formed the Bangladesh National Party and promoted free markets. He also
reinstated the country's foreign policy and sought out closer ties with the West. His tenure ended in 1981 when
he was assassinated by the military. His successor was Abdus Sattar, whose tenure ended in less than a year.

Lieutenant General Hussain Muhammad Ershad was the country's next big ruler and as president he pursued
executive reforms, including a devolution scheme which partitioned the nation into 64 districts and 5 divisions.

BENGALI RENAISSANCE
The Bengali Renaissance was a movement during the British rule in the 19th century when Bangladesh
witnessed an awakening in its culture, artistry, and intellect. Bengal renaissance resembles the 16th-century
European Renaissance with the main difference being the colonialism challenge in Bangladesh. Existing
orthodoxies became the primary focus of the movement, which questioned religion, respect for women and
marriage systems. The Renaissance brought about changes to religion and spirituality, arts, literature, and
advancement in science and technology

RELIGION
From the 3rd century BCE Buddhism flourished as the Mauryanemperors extended their influence in Bengal.
Under the Guptakings, who reigned from the early 4th to the late 6th century CE, Hinduism reestablished its
hold, but Buddhism did not fully disappear. The two religions coexisted under the Pala (8th–12th
century) dynasty, as well as under the Chandra (10th–11th century) dynasty in the southeast. By the end of the
11th century, the Senas, who were strongly Hindu, had gained control over a large part of Bengal.
As early as the 9th century, Arab traders had taken Islam to Bengal. About 1200, Muslim invaders from the
northwest overthrew the Senas. Muslim rule culminated in the Mughaldynasty (16th–18th century). In eastern
Bengal, as in much of the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, Islam became the religion of the majority.
Muslim rule in Bengal promoted a society that was not only pluralistic but also syncretic to some degree. The
rulers largely remained uninterested in preaching religion; rather, they concentrated on incorporating
local communities into the state system. In their administration, high office holders, influential traders, eminent
literati, and musicians came from diversereligious traditions. Nevertheless, practitioners of Sufism (mystical
Islam) and Muslim saints did indeed preach Islam, and Muslim settlers received patronage. Although high-
caste Hindus received land grants under early Muslim rule, under the Mughals most grants were awarded to
Muslim settlers. These settlers developed an agrarian economy in Bengal that ultimately helped the spread of
Islam. Meanwhile, the extensive interaction between Islam and Hinduism was reflected in social behaviour and
the flourishing of various cults, notably that of the Hindu saint Caitanya (1486–1533). In contrast to more
orthodox forms of Hinduism, the Caitanya sect—like Islam—was open to all members of society, regardless of
caste or social rank.

Under the Mughals the political boundaries of Bengal expanded to become Suba Bangalah (the Province of
Bengal), and economic activity increased.

Bangladesh is located in the eastern part of the Bengal region in South Asia. It was partitioned from India,
and later from Pakistan, after the Indian subcontinent attained its independence from Great Britain. The nation
is only behind Indonesia, Pakistan, and India in global Muslim population. Most Bangladeshis are Sunni
Muslims, while Hindus are the largest religious minority in the country.
Sunni Islam

Islam is the dominant religion in Bangladesh, and its adherents constitute 83.4% of the total population. The
introduction of Islam in the Bengal region dates to as early as the 13th Century. Arab and Persian missionaries
and merchants were responsible for the conversions to Islam. Hindus and Buddhists were attracted to Islam
mainly due to the foundation of equality, especially those who had been frustrated by the caste system. The
arrivals of Muslim Pirs, who were knowledgeable on matters of Islam, further enabled the conversion process.
Sunni Muslims live across the country and mainly adhere to the Hanafi school of thought. Islam influences the
life of Muslim Bangladeshis as seen in their religious practices and festivals such as Eid ul Fitr and Eid-e-
Miladunnabi. Islam is the state religion in Bangladesh although freedom of religion is provided. Islam does
exert a level of influence in the political affairs of Bangladesh although Sharia Law is not officially instituted.
Legal matters between Muslim parties such as marriage and divorces are overseen by the Qazi, who is a
traditional Muslim judge. Muslims in Bangladesh are mostly tolerant of other religions except for instances of
Islamic extremism.

Hinduism

Hinduism has a 10.3% share of the population in Bangladesh. Hinduism thrived in the ancient Bengal region.
After the partition of India, there was a significant population of Hindus in newly created Bangladesh. There
exists a similarity between the rituals of Bangladeshi Hindus and Hindus in the state of West Bengal in
India.The Hindu population is present in most of the country but is mainly concentrated in areas such as
Khulna, Barisal and Faridpur. Hindus worship in the numerous temples in the country. They celebrate festivals
such as Rath Yatra and Durga Puja as per Hindu doctrines. Hinduism in Bangladesh is tolerant of other
religions.

Shia and Ahmadiyya Islam

Alongside Sunni Islam are Shia and Ahmadiyya Islam, collectively represented by 5.3% of the total population
in Bangladesh. Shia Muslims in Bangladesh commemorate the death of Hazrat Ali’s sons, Hassan and
Husayn, who are revered as Islamic martyrs. Most Shia Muslims in the nation are concentrated in the urban
areas. The Ahmadiyya Muslims are subjected to intolerance from other Muslim communities due to their
beliefs.

Buddhism

Buddhism in Bangladesh accounts for 0.6% of the population. Buddhism prospered in the region while
Bangladesh was still part of India. The religion is mainly concentrated in the Chittagong Hills. The inhabitants
of these areas have blended Buddhism principles with tribal practices. Many of the Buddhists in Bangladesh
subscribe to the Theravada school of Buddhism. There are Buddhist temples across the country, built in
Buddhist architecture, which contribute to the country’s cultural and historical heritage.

Roman Catholicism

Christianity in Bangladesh was introduced by Portuguese merchants and missionaries between the 16th and
17th Centuries. The religion accounts for 0.3% of Bangladeshis and over 200,000 churches across the nation.
The religion is a minority and exerts little influence in the affairs of the state. Perhaps the most notable attack
on Roman Catholics was in 2001 when a bomb exploded in a Bangladesh Church. Attacks on adherents of the
religion have however occurred severally in the recent years, raising concerns over religious intolerance in the
country.

Other Faiths in Bangladesh

Sikhism, Protestant Christianity, and other beliefs account for around only 0.1% of the total Bangladeshi
population. Bangladesh has long been a moderate country regarding religious tolerance. Islamic extremism
has, however, inspired attacks and discrimination against minority groups. Islam is still projected to be the
country’s leading religion by 2050.

Religious Beliefs In Bangladesh

 Rank Belief System Share of Bangladeshi Population

1 Sunni Islam 83.4%

2 Hinduism 10.3%

3 Non-Sunni Islam 5.3%

4 Buddhism 0.6%

5 Roman Catholic Christianity 0.3%

6 Sikhism, Protestant Christianity, and Other Beliefs 0.1%

Islam is the official religion in Bangladesh and is practiced by some 88 percent of the country's inhabitants.
Other religions that are active in Bangladesh include Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism, animism and tribal
belief systems.

The majority of the population who follow Islam pursue the Sunni branch of the Muslim religion whilst a small
group are Shia.

Interestingly, Bangladesh is reported to have one of the biggest Muslim communities in the world. It was during
the 13th century that masses began converting to Islam and this conversion continued for several centuries. It
was the Muslim missionaries and mystics who brought the religion of Islam to the people of Bangladesh.

The Islamic religion in Bangladesh plays a large role in everyday life of the people as is evidenced in the
celebration of festivals such as Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-e-Miladunnabi, Muharram and others. Whilst Muslims in
Bangladesh are committed to Islam, adherence to certain rituals and tenets may vary depending on a number
of factors. In some rural areas the people have began to incorporate other beliefs into their religion, some of
which may not fall in line with orthodox Islam.

Followers of the Hindu religion in Bangladesh amount to around 13% of the country’s population. Hindu
communities are concentrated in areas such as Barisal, Khulna, Dinajpur, Jessore and Faridpur. Hindu
temples can be found scattered throughout the country. Making up 0,5 to 1% of the population are followers of
the Theravada school of Buddhism, most of whom reside in the Chittagong Hills. Christians make up another
1% of Bangladesh’s population. The majority are part of the Roman Catholic Church. Another prominent
church is the Church of Bangladesh, a united church formed by several protestant churches. Tribes in the
Chittagong Hills have formed their own religion, a blending of Buddhism and tribal rituals.
Whilst religious tolerance is promoted in the laws of Bangladesh, little is currently being done to protect the
rights of Bangladesh’s religious minority groups. Hopefully Bangladesh can look forward to a future where
everyone can practice their religion without opposition.

Most of the people of Bangladesh follow the religion of Islam, which was made the official religion by a
1988 constitutionalamendment. The arrival of Muslims in Bengal at the beginning of the 13th century and the
rapid increase in their strength and influence permanently changed the character and culture of the area.
When the Muslims first arrived, Hinduism was by far the dominant religion, although there were pockets
of Buddhists and a few adherents of local religions. The Hindus remained in the majority through
the Mughal period (16th to 18th century). Even as late as the early 1870s, there were more than 18 million
Hindus in Bengal, compared with about 16 million Muslims. From the 1890s onward, however, the weight
began to shift toward the Muslims.
There were several reasons for the increase in the proportion of the Muslim population. Perhaps the most
significant was the activity of ascetics and Sufis (practitioners of Sufism, a mystical form of Islam), who won
converts among lower-caste Hindus. Also significant was an influx of Muslims from northern India and from
other countries.
Most Muslims are Sunni, but there are a small number of Shīʿites, primarily descendants of immigrants
from Iran. Hindus form a significant minority, while Roman Catholics and Buddhists constitute just a tiny
fraction of the population. Of the tribes in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the Chakma, Marma, and Mro are mostly
Buddhists. Portions of the Kuki, Khomoi, and Mro communities practice local religions. While most of
the Mizo are Christians, the Tripura are Hindus.

Religious Beliefs.The symbols and sounds of Islam, such as the call to prayer, punctuate daily life.
Bangladeshis conceptualize themselves and others fundamentally through their religious heritage. For
example, the nationality of foreigners is considered secondary to their religious identity.

Islam is a part of everyday life in all parts of the country, and nearly every village has at least a small mosque
and an imam (cleric). Prayer is supposed to be performed five times daily, but only the committed uphold that
standard. Friday afternoon prayer is often the only time that mosques become crowded.

Throughout the country there is a belief in spirits that inhabit natural spaces such as trees, hollows, and
riverbanks. These beliefs are derided by Islamic religious authorities.

Hinduism encompasses an array of deities, including Krishna, Ram, Durga, Kali, and Ganesh. Bangladeshi
Hindus pay particular attention to the female goddess Durga, and rituals devoted to her are among the most
widely celebrated.

Religious Practitioners.The imam is associated with a mosque and is an important person in both rural and
urban society, leading a group of followers. The imam's power is based on his knowledge of the Koran and
memorization of phrases in Arabic. Relatively few imams understand Arabic in the spoken or written form. An
imam's power is based on his ability to persuade groups of men to act in conjunction with Islamic rules. In
many villages the imam is believed to have access to the supernatural, with the ability to write charms that
protect individuals from evil spirits, imbue liquids with holy healing properties, or ward off or reverse of bad
luck.
Brahman priests perform rituals for the Hindu community during the major festivals when offerings are made
but also in daily acts of worship. They are respected, but Hinduism does not have the codified hierarchical
structure of Islam. Thus, a Brahman priest may not have a position of leadership outside his religious duties.

Rituals and Holy Places.The primary Islamic holidays in Bangladesh include:Eid-ul-Azha(the tenth day of the
Muslim monthZilhaj), in which a goat or cow is sacrificed in honor of Allah;Shob-i-Barat(the fourteenth or
fifteenth day ofShaban), when Allah records an individual's future for the rest of the year;Ramadan(the
monthRamzan), a month-long period of fasting between dawn and dusk;Eid-ul-Fitr(the first day of the
monthShawal,following the end ofRamzan), characterized by alms giving to the poor; andShob-i-Meraz(the
twenty-seventh day ofRajab), which commemorates the night when Mohammed ascended to heaven. Islamic
holidays are publicly celebrated in afternoon prayers at mosques and outdoor open areas, where many men
assemble and move through their prayers in unison.

Among the most important Hindu celebrations areSaraswati Puja(February), dedicated to the deity Saraswati,
who takes the form of a swan. She is the patron of learning, and propitiating her is important for
students.Durga Puja(October) pays homage to the female warrior goddess Durga, who has ten arms, carries a
sword, and rides a lion. After a nine-day festival, images of Durga and her associates are placed in a
procession and set into a river.Kali Puja(November) is also called the Festival of Lights and honors Kali, a
female deity who has the power to give and take away life. Candles are lit in and around homes.

Other Hindu and Islamic rituals are celebrated in villages and neighborhoods and are dependent on important
family or local traditions. Celebrations take place at many local shrines and temples.

Death and the Afterlife.Muslims believe that after death the soul is judged and moves to heaven or hell.
Funerals require that the body be washed, the nostrils and ears be plugged with cotton or cloth, and the body
be wrapped in a white shroud. The body is buried or entombed in a brick or concrete structure. In
Hinduism, reincarnationis expected and one's actions throughout life determine one's future lives. As the family
mourns and close relatives shave their heads, the body is transported to the funeralghat(bank along a river),
where prayers are recited. The body is to be placed on a pyre and cremated, and the ashes are thrown into the
river.

CULTURE
LANGUAGE

Bengali (Bangla), the national language of Bangladesh, belongs to the Indo-Aryan group of languages and is

related to Sanskrit. Like Pali, however, and various other forms of Prakrit in ancient India, Bengali originated
beyond the influence of the Brahmansociety of the Aryans. The Pala rulers of Bengal (8th to 12th century)—
who were Buddhists and whose religious language was Pali—did not inhibit the emergence of
a colloquial tongue known as Gaudiya Prakrit, the language from which Bengali developed.
Bengali is the mother tongue of almost the entire population of Bangladesh. However, the indigenous minority
groups have their own languages and dialects, some of which are Tibeto-Burman languages. English, an Indo-
European language, is spoken in urban centres and among educated groups.
The Bengali language has two distinct styles: sadhu bhasa, the literary style, which contains many words
derived from Sanskrit, and calit bhasa, the colloquial style, which is the standard medium of informal discourse,
both spoken and written. Until the 1930s sadhu bhasa was used for all printed matter, but calit bhasa is now
the basic form used for contemporary literature. There also are a number of dialects. Bengali contains many
loanwords from Portuguese, English, Arabic, Persian, and Hindi.

The official language of Bangladesh is Bangla, also known as Bengali. English also is commonly used in urban
areas. Bangla is an Indo-Aryan language descended from Sanskrit. It has a unique script, also based on
Sanskrit.

Some non-Bengali Muslims in Bangladesh speak Urdu as their primary tongue. Literacy rates in Bangladesh
are improving as the poverty rate falls, but still, only 76 percent of men and 70 percent of women are literate,
as of 2016. Those aged 15–24, though, have a literacy rate of 92 percent, according to UNESCO.

The primary language is Bangla, called Bengali by most nonnatives, an Indo-European language spoken not
just by Bangladeshis, but also by people who are culturally Bengali. This includes about 300 million people
from Bangladesh, West Bengal, and Bihar, as well as Bengali speakers in other Indian states. The language
dates from well before the birth of Christ. Bangla varies by region, and people may not understand the
language of a person from another district. However, differences in dialect consist primarily of slight differences
in accent or pronunciation and minor grammatical usages.

Language differences mirror social and religious divisions. Bangla is divided into two fairly distinct forms:sadhu
basha,learned or formal language, andcholit basha,common language. Sadhu basha is the language of the
literate tradition, formal essays and poetry, and the well educated. Cholit basha is the spoken vernacular, the
language of the great majority of Bengalis. Cholit basha is the medium by which the great majority of people
communicate in a country in which 50 percent of men and 26 percent of women are literate. There are also
small usage variations between Muslims and Hindus, along with minor vocabulary differences.

The most important symbol of national identity is the Bangla language. The flag is a dark green rectangle with
a red circle just left of center. Green symbolizes the trees and fields of the countryside; red represents the
rising sun and the blood spilled in the 1971 war for liberation. The national anthem was taken from a poem by
Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore and links a love of the natural realm and land with the national identity.

Since independence in 1971, the national identity has evolved. Islamic religious identity has become an
increasingly important element in the national dialogue. Many Islamic holy days are nationally celebrated, and
Islam pervades public space and the media.

SETTLEMENTS

RURAL SETTLEMENT

The rural area throughout Bangladesh is so thickly settled that it is often difficult to distinguish any well-defined
pattern of individual villages. There are, however, some noticeable features. The inundation of most of the
fields during the rainy season makes it necessary to build houses on higher ground. Continuous strings of
settlements along roads are common in areas south of the upper Padma River and in the floodplains of the
Mahananda, Tista, Jamuna, lower Padma, and Meghna rivers. Similar settlements are found in the Chittagong
Hills and in the hilly segment of the southern Sylhet region. Settlements are more scattered, however, in areas
in southwestern Bangladesh along the Bay of Bengal, in the floodplains of the Old Brahmaputra, in the lower-
lying areas of eastern and southern Sylhet, and in parts of Chittagong. In central and western Sylhet and in
some areas of the Chittagong Hills, settlements occur in a nucleated, or clustered, pattern. With the addition of
prefabricated one- or two-story structures scattered among thatched bamboo huts, the character of rural
villages has changed since the mid-20th century. Supplies of electricity and safe drinking water, however, have
remained inadequate in some regions.

URBAN SETTLEMENT

Although industrial development has prompted migration to the cities, Bangladesh is one of the least-urbanized
areas in South Asia. In the 2010s about one-third of the population lived in urban areas. There are three major
cities: Dhaka, Chittagong, and Khulna. Dhaka, the capital, is the largest. Chittagong, the country’s major port,
is second in importance. A number of industrial areas, such as Kalurghat, Sholashahar, and Faujdar Hat, have
developed around Chittagong. Khulna, in the southwest, has become a commercial and industrial centre; the
opening of the port at Mongla nearby and the growth of the Daulatpur industrial area have increased its
population.

FESTIVALS AND CELEBRATIONS

The culture of Bangladesh incorporates festivals and celebrations. These events include Eid ul-Adha, Chand
Raat, and Eid ul-Fitr from Islam as well as Janmashtami and Durga Puja from Hinduism. Other festivals in
Bangladesh include the Christian Christmas and Buddha Purnima from the Buddhist religion. The people of
Bangladesh also celebrate national holidays like Independence Day and Language Movement Day. Bengali
marriage comes in the form of traditional weddings which follows Muslim procession and has matchmakers
called Ghotoks involved in the arrangement. The other religions in Bangladesh have different wedding
methods although they sometimes follow Bengali procession.

CLOTHING AND CUISINE

The dress preferences in Bangladesh are unique. Bangladeshi men’s casual wear in rural areas is
the lungi with formal clothing being suits or shirts and trousers. On cultural and religious occasions, men have
traditional wear called Panjabi. In women, the traditional and main dress is the Shari, with young females also
wearing salwar kameez. Bangladesh’s cuisine is renowned for having a distinctive culinary tradition. The
nation’s staple food is rice served with various food items such as vegetables, fish, meat, eggs, curries, and
thick lentil soups. The country has many sweet preparations including Bangladesh’s sweetmeats which are
milk based. These delicacies include shondesh, rasmalai, Chom-Chom, rasgulla, and Kala jam. The primary
source of protein in Bangladesh is fish, with over 40 types of freshwater fish including Katla, catfish called
magur, and shutki machh. Eating beef is not a taboo in the country, with beef curry being essential in Bengal
cuisine.

MUSIC, DANCE, THEATRE

There are four main types of music in Bangladesh—classical, light-classical, devotional, and popular—which
may overlap in some cases. Classical music has many forms, of which the dhrupad(Hindustani devotional
songs) and the related, shorter form called khayal are the best known. Devotional music also is represented
by qawwali and kirtana, vocal genres that are part of the common musical heritage of the subcontinent. It is,
however, in the field of local nonclassical popular music that Bangladesh is most prominent. The forms known
as bhatiali, bhawaiya, jari, sari, marfati, and baul have no real equivalents outside the country. The vigorous
spontaneous style of these musics generally distinguishes them from classical genres.
Apart from such classical dances as kathakali and bharata natyam—forms that are popular throughout the
subcontinent—unique indigenous dances have developed in Bangladesh. Among the most widespread of
these are the dhali, baul, manipuri, and snake dances. Each form expresses a particular aspect of communal
life and is danced on specific occasions. Improvisation has been a core component of both classical and
nonclassical music and dance. With the increasing commercialization of the arts, however, improvisation has
been on the wane. Although some of the performing arts are learned informally, others are taught formally at
music and dance academies. Two of the oldest and most prominent of such academies are the Bulbul
Academy for Fine Arts and the Nazrul Academy, both in Dhaka.
All towns and most villages have cinema houses. Plays are occasionally staged by amateur groups and drama
societies in educational institutions and are broadcast regularly on radio and television. Musical concerts,
though not as popular as the cinema, are well attended. Especially popular in the countryside is jatra, a form of
opera that draws on local legends.

In Bangladesh, music and dance styles generally fall under the three categories of folk, classical, and modern.
The country’s traditional folk songs are rich with themes such as love. Lyrics come from the nation’s culture,
mysticism, and spirituality. Folk songs include Baul, Murshidi, and Bhatiali, and some of the lyricists include
Hason Raja and Abbas Uddin among others. The dancing styles in Bangladesh are distinct although some
dance forms such as Kathak and Bharatnatyam show influences from other parts of the Indian subcontinent,
as Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan in the past. In the urban centers, rock bands influenced by western
culture have risen in popularity recently. Musical instruments used in Bangladesh include modern ones from
western origins such as guitars and traditional ones including bamboo flutes and drums
named bashiand tabla or dhol.

LITERATURE
The Bengali language began to assume a distinct form in the 7th century CE, and by the 11th century a
tradition of Bengali literaturehad been established. Litterateurs received official patronage under both
the Pala (8th to 12th century) kings and early Muslim rulers; under the Senas (11th and 12th centuries)
and Mughals(early 16th to mid-18th century), however, they were generally unsupported. Nevertheless,
Bengali language and literature thrived in various traditions of music and poetry that were practiced outside the
court, laying the foundation for the so-called “Bengali Renaissance” of the 19th century. The renaissance was
centred in Kolkata (Calcutta) and led by Ram Mohun Roy(1772–1833); its luminary poet, Rabindranath
Tagore (1861–1941), composed the national anthems of both India and Bangladesh and was awarded
the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. In its early years the movement espoused the virtues of Western
education and liberalism, and it was largely confined to the Hindu community.

SPORTS AND RECREATION

During the 20th century, football (soccer) emerged as the preeminent sport in Bangladesh. Field
hockey, cricket, tennis, badminton, and wrestling also are popular. Bangladesh made its Olympic debut at the
1984 Summer Games in Los Angeles. Indigenous games of the “touch-and-run” type, however, remain among
the favourites of children and youths. One such game, called kabadi, requires each of two teams in turn to
send out a player to raid the other’s territory. The raider must, while chanting, touch as many opposing players
as he can without taking a breath. Kite flying is another traditional pastime enjoyed by young and old alike. The
making of elaborate kites from cloth or paper is a distinctive form of visual art as well.

Sport is an integral part of the culture of Bangladesh, and a very popular source of entertainment.
Bangladesh’s national sport is Kabaddi. The most popular game in the country is cricket with football coming in
second. The national cricket team of Bangladesh is eligible to play Test cricket, a status that was established in
2000. Bangladesh participates in international competitions such as the Olympic, Asian, and Commonwealth
Games. Traditional sports in the country include Kho Kho and Lathi Khela.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Classes and Castes.The Muslim class system is similar to a caste structure. Theashrafis a small upperclass
of old-money descendants of early Muslim officials and merchants whose roots are in Afghanistan, Turkey, and
Iran. Some ashraf families trace their lineage to the Prophet Mohammed. The rest of the population is
conceived of as the indigenous majorityatraf.This distinction mirrors the Hindu separation between the
Brahman and those in lower castes. While both Muslim and Hindu categories are recognized by educated
people, the vast majority of citizens envision class in a more localized, rural context.

In rural areas, class is linked to the amount of land owned, occupation, and education. A landowner with more
than five acres is at the top of the socioeconomic scale, and small subsistence farmers are in the middle. At
the bottom of the scale are the landless rural households that account for about 30 percent of the rural
population. Landowning status reflects socioeconomic class position in rural areas, although occupation and
education also play a role. The most highly educated people hold positions requiring literacy
and mathematicalskills, such as in banks and government offices, and are generally accorded a higher status
than are farmers. Small businessmen may earn as much as those who have jobs requiring an education but
have a lower social status.

Hindu castes also play a role in the rural economy. Hindu groups are involved in the hereditary occupations
that fill the economic niches that support a farming-based economy. Small numbers of higher caste groups
have remained in the country, and some of those people are large landowners, businessmen, and service
providers.

In urban areas the great majority of people are laborers. There is a middle class of small businessmen and
midlevel office workers, and above this is an emerging entrepreneurial group and upper-level service workers.

Symbols of Social Stratification.One of the most obvious symbols of class status is dress. The traditional
garment for men is thelungi,a cloth tube skirt that hangs to the ankles; for women, thesariis the norm. The lungi
is worn by most men, except those who consider themselves to have high socioeconomic status, among whom
pants and shirt are worn. Also indicative of high standing are loose white cotton pajama pants and a long white
shirt. White dress among men symbolizes an occupation that does not require physical labor. A man with high
standing will not be seen physically carrying anything; that task is left to an assistant or laborer.Sarisalso serve
as class markers, with elaborate and finely worked cloth symbolizing high status. Poverty is marked by the
cheap, rough green or indigo cotton cloth saris of poor women. Gold jewelry indicates a high social standing
among women.

A concrete-faced house and a ceramic tile roof provide evidence of wealth. An automobile is well beyond the
means of most people, and a motorcycle is a sign of status. Color televisions, telephones, and electricity are
other symbols associated with wealth.

ARCHITECTURE
Rooted in Bangladesh’s culture, history, and religion are the nation’s architectural attributes and designs. Over
centuries, religious, exotic and social communities have influenced the architecture of Bangladesh. Some of
the structural models in the country include Pala Buddhist, Indo-Saracenic Revival, Islamic and Mughal
architectures. The nation boasts of architectural relics and monuments which are thousands of years old.
Some of the buildings showing different designs in Bangladesh include Kantajew Temple in Dinajpur, the
parliament house named Jatiyo Sangsad Bhaban, Ahsan Manzil in Dhaka, and Lalbagh Fort also in Dhaka.

Painting as an independent art form is a relatively recent phenomenon in Bangladesh. The main figure behind
the art movement was Zainul Abedin, who first attracted attention with his sketches of the Bengal famine of
1943. After the partition of Pakistan from India in 1947, he was able to gather around him a school of artists
who experimented with various forms, both orthodox and innovative.
The historical prevalence of Islamic arts in Bangladesh is especially evident in the many mosques,
mausoleums, forts, and gateways that have survived from the Mughal period. Like
Muslim architecture elsewhere in the subcontinent, these structures are characterized by the pointed arch,
the dome, and the minaret. The best-preserved example is the 77-dome mosque at Bagerhatin the south. The
ruins of Lalbagh Fort, an incomplete 17th-century Mughal palace at Dhaka, also provide some idea of the older
Islamic architectural traditions. While such Mughal architecture belongs in style and conception to the same
school as medieval buildings in northern India, a unique innovation in Bangladesh has been the translation into
brick and mortar of the sloping four-sided thatched roof found in the countryside.
Some remains of pre-Muslim Buddhist architecture have been unearthed at Paharpur and Mahasthan in the
north and at Maynamati in the south. They are said to date from the 8th century, and they exhibit the
circular stupa pattern characteristic of ancient Buddhist monasteries in India.

Public buildings in the British and Pakistani periods sometimes followed the Mughal style, but preferences
subsequently shifted to the International Style, which was prevalent in the United States and Europe in the
mid-20th century. The softness of Bangladesh’s subsoil precludes the construction of skyscrapers.

Bangladesh is still primarily a rural culture, and thegramor village is an important spatial and cultural concept
even for residents of the major cities. Most people identify with a natal or ancestral village in the countryside.

Houses in villages are commonly rectangular, and are dried mud, bamboo, or red brick structures
with thatchroofs. Many are built on top of earthen or wooden platforms to keep them above the flood line.
Houses have little interior decoration, and wall space is reserved for storage. Furniture is minimal, often
consisting only of low stools. People sleep on thin bamboo mats. Houses have verandas in the front, and much
of daily life takes place under their eaves rather than indoors. A separate smaller mud or bamboo structure
serves as a kitchen (rana ghor), but during the dry season many women construct hearths and cook in the
household courtyard. Rural houses are simple and functional, but are not generally considered aesthetic
showcases.
The village household is a patrilineal extended compound linked to a pond used for daily household needs, a
nearby river that provides fish, trees that provide fruit (mango and jackfruitespecially), and rice fields. The
village and the household not only embody important natural motifs but serve as the locus of ancestral family
identity. Urban dwellers try to make at least one trip per year to "their village."

Architectural styles in the cities show numerous historical influences, including Moghul and Islamic motifs with
curved arches, windows, and minarets, and square British colonial wood and concrete construction. The
National Parliament building (Shongshad Bhabon) in Dhaka, designed by the American architect Louis Kahn,
reflects a synthesis of western modernity and curved Islamic-influenced spaces. The National Monument in
Savar, a wide-based spire that becomes narrower as it rises, is the symbol of the country's liberation.

Because of the population density, space is at a premium. People of the same sex interact closely, and
touching is common. On public transportation strangers often are pressed together for long periods. In public
spaces, women are constrained in their movements and they rarely enter the public sphere unaccompanied.
Men are much more free in their movement. The rules regarding the gender differential in the use of public
space are less closely adhered to in urban areas than in rural areas.

The Bangladesh region contains relics of the finest specimens of Buddhist monastic architecture. The
Buddhist vihara at occupied a quadrangle measuring more than 900 feet externally at each site. “No single
monastery of such dimensions” asserts an art historian”, has come to light in India, and the
appellation mahavihara, the great monastery as designating the place, can be considered entirely appropriate”.
Similar vihara of Deva dynasty has been unearthed at Mainamati. The relics of Mahasthangarh where the
ancient city of Pundravardhana was located suggest that a large monastery was built there. Of notable
sculptures in ancient Bengal, stone figures of Buddha from Ujani in Faridpur district, Varaha avatara from
Bogra (10th century) the Vishnu Stela from Comilla (11th century) and Chandi image from Dhaka district (12th
century) deserve special mention. Another remarkable achievement was the terracotta art of Paharpur which
drew its inspiration from the simple village life. This depicts the daily life of people with intense human interest

The Middle Age in Bengal saw the construction of a large number of Islamic monuments which were
characterized by massive arches and bold clean lines. The emphasis was on utility and simplicity. Among
these monuments the Satgambuz mosque of Bagerhat, the mausoleum of Shah Ali Bagdadi at Mirpur and the
mosque of Rasti Khan at Hathazari deserve special mention.

Architectural landmarks of the recent era include the National Parliament building designed by the renowned
American architect Louis Kahn. Other landmarks include the National Monument, the National Museum and
the National Mosque.

Mosques have been at the center of civic life in eastern Bengal, the ancient region surrounding the Ganges-
Brahmaputra river delta, since shortly after the Sufi missionaries arrived in the 13th century. Of the 165 million
people now living in Bangladesh, a nation roughly the size of Iowa, about 90 percent are Muslim. Aside from
the red brick ruins of ancient monasteries, remainders of 400 years of Buddhist rule that ended in the 12th
century, the only structures to have survived from antiquity are the austere brick mosques left by the Bengali
sultanate (which controlled the region until the 16th century), some Hindu temples and a handful of civic
structures built by the Mughals, who ruled the area until the rise of the British East India Company in the 18th
century. Otherwise, the vernacular architecture of Bengal, a land of estuaries and mangroves, of shifting soil
and torrential storms, largely consists of thatched-roof huts built with mud or bamboo and open-sided pavilions
that accommodate, and often succumb to, the extreme climate.

But Bangladesh, as the world knows the country, is a modern invention. When the British relinquished their
colonial stranglehold on the subcontinent in 1947, they split it along religious lines: The predominantly Hindu
western side of Bengal became a state in India, and the Muslim east became East Pakistan (separated by a
thousand miles from West Pakistan). Over the next two decades, a resistance movement emerged in Bengali-
speaking East Pakistan as the local population demanded greater representation — and eventually freedom —
from the Urdu-speaking political elites in the West. In 1971, after a brief but brutal war, Bangladesh won its
independence. In its early years of nationhood, the country had a distinct but austere tradition of mosque
architecture to draw on. To set themselves within the framework of a more global Islam, engineers and
architects relied on Turkic domes, peaked Mughal arches and massive Arab minarets — the pan-Islamic
shorthand for sacred architecture — to indicate the buildings’ importance. These mosques had little to do with
Bengal itself.

For Bangladeshi folk architecture both kinds of studies exist. The first, concerned with morphology, considers
the rural dwelling in isolation and focuses on how its elements determine factors of identity. This discussion
has led to a widespread belief in the bent roof shape as one of the most important identifying characteristics of
Bangladeshi architecture . I The approach toward the second factor is anthropological. With tools developed
from Amos Rapoport, the spaces and activities of the house are studied, and differences appear among
spaces in functional, social, and religious terms. Such studies have led to the introverted courtyard being
considered the essential characteristic of Bangladeshi architecture.' Although the inferences derived from
these two approaches are praiseworthy, they leave many issues unresolved.

An indigenous bunggolo is actually the common rectangular dwelling of the Bangladeshi peasant. It has a
peculiar curving roof that one observer has said resembles "an upturned boat."6 Perhaps due to the
characteristics of bamboo, the material from which it is constructed, both its roof and ridge are curved. Andreas
Volwahsen remarks" ... [it was] a type of roof which gave the impression that all its planes were curved. The
ridge and the eaves were upturned; also the bamboo rafters placed perpendicular to the ridge were curved. " 7
Early references to this unusual roof form were seen in mosques built in Bengal during the independent
Sultanate period, from the mid-fourteenth to the mid-sixteenth century (FIG. 0.8 Later on , reproductions
appeared in the Hindu architecture of the region. The Mughals were also influenced by this provocative bent
form, and imported it to their capitals, where they incorporated it into their imperial architecture. The form was
also reproduced in many other parts of India, and vivid images and descriptions of these houses made their
way into the work of British writers, artists, and photographers in the nineteenth century.9 It was through the
English that the structure spread overseas. Such portentous prevalence is but an indication of the symbolic
value the structure holds for the people of Bangladesh.
In Bengal the bunggolo remained in its original form in the rural areas, mostly ignored and unstudied by local
professionals, for whom Westernization became the sign of progress. The little research that was undertaken
took a socio-anthropological approach, and was related to the layout of the house.
Bangladesh is made up of many villages, and one characteristic of the rural people is their attitude of self-
dependence. For most necessities, especially everyday items such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and
health care, people depend on local resources. Since prehistoric times villages have been created from
necessity. They evolve spontaneously and cannot be created artificially (FIG. 3). The folk architecture of
Bangladesh is primarily embodied in village homesteads. These express characteristic ways of life, practical
and spiritual needs, and tastes. Traditional village building techniques have gradually evolved into a unique
system of architecture. Although this system is not used in contemporary urban-based architectural practice, its
application in rural areas continues unabated. Bangladeshi villages are generally situated on slightly raised
ground,'4and maintain a horizontal relationship with adjacent fields. Usually a river, lake, or swamp is nearby.
A village may follow the serpentine path of a river as an equally continuous flow of green. Land, trees and
water are the elementary ingredients of the village, and from these have evolved the main themes of rural
architecture. Practical considerations such as climate, rain, solar incidence, and patterns of light and shadow
also determine the design of the village and the dwelling. The main intention of this architecture is ease of use
and comfort. An old saying (Khaner bachan) goes like this: South facing is king of rooms, East is its 'vassal,
West meets the wretched ones, North is belittle.
Another old saying is "Ducks in the east, bamboo in the west." This implies a pond in the east and bamboo
groves in the west. The reasoning is quite rational: wind from the south and southeast will be cooled by the
water, and will then cool the house , while bamboo groves in the west protect the house from intense solar
radiation . These are instances of correct climatic planning incorporated into folk building practice. With this
essence, rural architecture has remained unchanged for centuries, showing genuine sensitivity to nature and
its elements, Families living in villages are joint in nature ,'? The age-old picture is of "a storehouse full of rice,
a pond full of fish, and a house full of relatives," A simple approach to life, agriculture-based comparable
production capability, religious consciousness, and a peace-loving nature - these qualities of people's lives
have remained unchanged, leading to a specific type of architectural layout, In brief, the "place"'s formation of
the courtyard-centered layout and its related architectural theory is only possible from this point of view.
When a homestead is constructed, ponds are excavated first and a mound raised with the soil obtained. A
family starts living on the site in a simple hut, but gradually their requirements increase and their hut becomes
insufficient. More structures are then added, keeping a courtyard, or uthan, in the center. The owner of the
house, usually the farmer or his eldest son, is given the best location beside the uthan . This is usually the
northern structure, which faces south . According to age and position in the family, each person is assigned
other huts. If there is need for more than four structures, a larger courtyard is creared, with two huts on either
side. Under the open sky, every bit of the uthcm is usable space. The quadrant has many purposes: it is a
place to dry clothes or crops, a p lay area for children, a location for elders to converse, an arena for story-
telling or musical events, and a site for ceremonies marking birth, marriage or death (FIG. 4). It is also the ring
where petty family quarrels occur and where their solution is arbitrated. During the monsoon, when water is
everywhere, the courtyard may become a pool, and residents may throw a line from their door and wait
patiently for a bite. It is also here that the children may float banana leaf rafts or

Bangladesh’s current religious makeup is a product of tumultuous events from the 20th century. The historic
region of Bengal encompassed the modern Bangladeshi state, as well as a large part of what is today
northeast India, including the major city of Calcutta. However, during the 1947 partition of India, Bengal was
roughly split along religious lines. The larger, eastern part initially became East Pakistan, but became
independent Bangladesh after 1971. Islam became the state religion in 1988.

The significance of Islam in Bangladesh is attested by the magnificent Sixty Dome Mosque in the southwestern
district of Bagerhat. The 15th-century mosque, beautifully situated between a lake and an exquisitely tended
garden, offers a fascinating perspective on the divergent schools of thought in mosque architecture: The low
ceilings and hypostyle plan echo early mosques such as that of Ibn Tulun in Cairo; the multiple, regular domes
recall the Old Mosque in Edirne, Turkey. The thick brick walls are typical of the Tughlaq style, named after the
dynasty that ruled the Indian subcontinent in the 14th and 15th century. Inside, the white ceilings and cool brick
floor offer a welcome respite from the oppressive tropical sun.

Further north, ruins from many more long-dead civilizations demonstrate Bangladesh’s rich cultural diversity.
The ruins at Somapura Mahavihara have survived in an excellent state since the 8th century, when the Bengal
region was under the control of the Pala Empire, which at its height dominated the north Indian subcontinent in
the foothills of the Himalayas. The ruins were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985.

The power of that empire is evident from the magnificent remains of the temple’s central shrine. The
foundations of the complex’s 177 monks’ cells laid out around its periphery indicate the complex’s enormous
size. A terraced brick superstructure rises 21 meters to dominate the flat landscape of the surrounding paddy
fields. Around its edges are hundreds of intricate, individually unique terracotta tiles that offer enough intrigue
to keep the curious traveler entertained for an entire day.
Between these two ancient sites, on the Padma River that bisects western Bangladesh, is a completely
different example of historical Bangladesh. Lining a small, still lake, a number of terracotta Hindu temples
make up the Puthia Temple Complex.

Built in 1823, the Bhubaneswar Shiva Temple - the largest shrine to Shiva in the country - features a raised
central spire decorated with hundreds of mini-domes. On the four corners of the square base, painted a cool
white, sit ancillary domes. A sweeping staircase leads visitors down onto a rich green lawn, and then onto the
lake.

A short distance away, in the inner precincts of the magnificent Puthia palace, the Pachna Ratna Govinda
Temple echoes its neighbor in form, but its walls are decorated in unpainted terracotta tiles of a deep brown.

Architecture of Bangladesh is intertwined with the architecture of the Bengal region and the broader Indian
subcontinent.[1] The architecture of Bangladesh has a long history and is rooted in
Bangladesh's culture, religion and history.[2] It has evolved over centuries and assimilated influences from
social, religious and exotic communities. The architecture of Bangladesh bears a remarkable impact on the
lifestyle, tradition and cultural life of Bangladeshi people. Bangladesh has many architectural relics and
monuments dating back thousands of years.

Pala Buddhist architecture

The Pala Empire was an early Indian empire of Bengali Buddhist dynasty ruling from Bengal (which included
present day Bangladesh) from the 8th to the 12th centuries. The Palas created a distinctive form of Bengali
architecture and art known as the "Pala School of Sculptural Art." The gigantic structures of Vikramashila
Vihar, Odantpuri Vihar, and Jagaddal Vihar were masterpieces of the Palas. These mammoth structures were
destroyed by the forces of the infamous Bakhtiar Khilji. The Somapura Mahavihara, a creation of Dharmapala,
at Paharpur, Bangladesh, is the largest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian subcontinent, and has been described as
a "pleasure to the eyes of the world." UNESCO made it a World Heritage Site in 1985. The Pala architectural
style was followed throughout south-eastern Asia and China, Japan, and Tibet. Bengal rightfully earned the
name "Mistress of the East". Dr. Stella Kramrisch says: "The art of Bihar and Bengal exercised a lasting
influence on that of Nepal, Burma, Ceylon and Java." Dhiman and Vittpala were two celebrated Pala sculptors.
About Somapura Mahavihara, Mr. J.C. French says with grief: "For the research of the Pyramids of Egypt we
spend millions of dollars every year. But had we spent only one percent of that money for the excavation of
Somapura Mahavihara, who knows what extraordinary discoveries could have been made".[3]

Indo-Islamic Architecture

The Sultanate of Bengal was an era of the Central Asian origin Muslim Nawab dynasty that ruled
independently of the Mughal Empire from 1342 to 1576. Most of the Muslim architecture of the period is found
in the historic Gaur region, today's Rajshahi division and Malda district in West Bengal. The architecture of the
period is noted for the development of a uniquely local style influenced by Bengali architectural
traditions. Sultanate architecture is exemplified in structures such as the Shat Gombuj Masjid, the Shona
Masjid and the Kusumba Masjid.[4]

Mughal Architecture

In 1576, much of Bengal came under the control of the Mughal Empire. At the time, Dhaka emerged as Mughal
military base. The development of townships and housing had resulted in a significant growth in population, as
the town was proclaimed by Subahdar Islam Khan I as capital of Bengal Subah in 1608, during this time many
mosques and forts had been built. Bara Katra was built between 1644 and 1646 CE to be the official residence
of Mughal prince Shah Shuja, the second son of emperor Shah Jahan.

Indian Mughal architecture in present-day Bangladesh reached its peak during the reign of Subedar Shaista
Khan, who encouraged the construction of modern townships and public works in Dhaka, leading to a massive
urban and economic expansion. He was a patron of the arts and encouraged the construction of majestic
monuments across the province, including mosques, mausoleums and palaces that represented the finest
in Mughal architecture. Khan greatly expanded Lalbagh Fort (also Fort Aurangabad), Chowk Bazaar
Mosque, Saat Masjid and Choto Katra. He also supervised the construction of the mausoleum for his daughter
Bibi Pari.

Terracotta temple architecture

Much of the terracotta temple architecture in Bangladesh dates to the late Islamic period and early British
period during which wealthy Hindu zamindars commissioned these structures.

 Temple architecture styles:

o ek-bangla, have a curved roof with two sloping sides
o Jor-bangla, has a roof of the ek-bangla (or do-chala) style, with two curved segments that meet
at a curved ridge
o ek-chala, single-story or has a second story built into a sloping roof
o Do-chala, have a curved roof with two sloping sides
o Char-chala, have a curved roof composed of four triangular segments
o At-chala, base structure is similar to the four-sided char-chala temple style, but with a small
replica of the base temple on top
o Deul, were generally smaller and included features influenced by Islamic architecture
o Ek-ratna, base structure is similar to the four-sided char-chala temple style, but the roof is quite
different, flat with a tower in the centre.
o Pancharatna, has five pavilions or towers on the roof; four stand at the corners of the main level,
and one above.
o Navaratna, incorporates two main levels, each with four spired corner pavilions, and a central
pavilion above, for a total of nine spires.

British Colonial period

Common Bungalow Style Architecture

 The origin of the bungalow has its roots in the historical Province of Bengal.[5] The term baṅgalo,
meaning "Bengali" and used elliptically for a "house in the Bengal style".[6] Such houses were
traditionally small, only one storey and detached, and had a wide veranda were adapted by the British,
who used them as houses for colonial administrators in summer retreats in the Himalayas and in
compounds outside Indian cities.[7] The Bungalow style houses are still very popular in the rural
Bengal. In the rural areas of Bangladesh, it is often called Bangla Ghar (Bengali Style House). The
main construction material used in modern time is corrugated steel sheets. Previously they had been
constructed from wood, bamboo and a kind of straw called Khar. Khar was used in the roof of the
Bungalow house and kept the house cold during hot summer days. Another roofing material for
Bungalow houses has been red clay tiles.

Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture

In the British colonial age predominantly representative buildings of the Indo-European style developed, from a
mixture of mainly Indian, European and Central Asian (Islamic) components. Amongst the more prominent
works are Ahsan Manzil in Dhaka and Tajhat Palace in Rangpur City.

Modern Bangladeshi Architecture

In modern context, Bangladeshi architecture has become more diversified comprising reflections of
contemporary architectural attributes, aesthetic and technologically advanced aspects. Since the inception of
Bangladesh, economical advancement has boosted the architecture from its traditional forms to contemporary
context. With the growing urbanization and modernization, the architectural form is turning into modernity
covering a wide range of its heritage and tradition.[2] The architecture of Bangladesh can provide insight into
the history and lives of the Bangladeshi people.[8]

Fazlur Rahman Khan was a structural engineer and architect, who initiated structural systems that are
fundamental to tall building design today.[9][10][11] Regarded as the "Einstein of structural engineering",[12]
[13] his "tubular designs" for high rises revolutionized tall building design.[14][15]Most buildings over 40-
storeys constructed since the 1960s now use a tube design derived from Khan's structural engineering
principles. He is the designer of Willis Tower – the second tallest building in the United States (once tallest and
tallest in the world for many years), John Hancock Centre, Hajj Terminal, etc. Fazlur Rahman's innovations not
only make the buildings structurally stronger and more efficient, they significantly reduce the usage of materials
(economically much more efficient) while simultaneously allow buildings to reach even greater heights. Tubular
systems allow greater interior space and further enable buildings to take on various shapes, offering
unprecedented freedom to architects.[16][17]He also invented the sky lobby for high rises and helped in
initiating the widespread usage of computers for structural engineering. Fazlur Rahman is the foremost
structural engineer of the 20th century who left an unprecedented and lasting influence on the profession, both
nationally and internationally.[12] Fazlur Rahman, more than any other individual, ushered in a renaissance in
skyscraper construction during the second half of the 20th century[18] and made it possible for people to live
and work in "cities in the sky".[19] Khan created a legacy of innovations that is unparalleled and became an
icon in both architecture and structural engineering.

Architecture The remains of the ancient archaeological sites bear ample testimony to the fact that the art of
building was practised in Bengal from very early period of her history. The development of the building art in
Bengal has been dealt in the following pages under different sections:
Ancient The disappearance of most of the material evidence prohibits a satisfactory reconstruction of the
history of architecture in ancient Bengal. The little that has not yet been reduced to dust is of two basic types:
secular and religious, their purposes and, consequently, forms being different.

Secular architecture From the available information, albeit inadequate, it is now known that in neolithic-
chalcolithic Bengal there were settled habitations with permanent structures at sites like DIHAR (Bankura
district). The structures were rudimentary wattle-and-daub constructions with beaten earth flooring. The early
historic period witnessed the sprouting of a number of urban centres at sites like MAHASTHAN (Bogra district) in
Bangladesh and in West Bengal at Bangarh (Dinajpur district), CHANDRAKETUGARH (24 Parganas
district), MANGALKOT (Burdwan district), Pokharna and Dihar. Traces of mud ramparts, noticed at several of
these sites, may suggest that an early Bengal city often contained an acropolis. The very limited nature of
evidence is a major impediment for understanding civil construction. Apparently, mud, bamboo and timber,
and, occasionally, burnt bricks, were used for building houses. Terracotta drainpipes and ring wells were also
found. During the succeeding periods, represented by sites like Bangarh and Mahasthan, the houses became
more and more complex, with a simultaneous increase in the use of burnt bricks.
Its religious counterpart presents religious architecture while vagueness shrouds our knowledge of the
structural pattern of secular architecture a comparatively intelligible picture. Of religious monuments
the STUPA constitute an important category. If HIUEN-TSANG is to be believed, ASHOKA built stupas at several
places in Bengal, though none of them has yet been traced. A c.2nd-1st century BC terracotta plaque from
Chandraketugarh depicts the prototype of Sanchi stupa No.l. Extant examples, all belonging to the post-Gupta
period, have in common a tall circular drum lifted on a square base with faceted sides. At some places (eg,
Bharatpur in Burdwan district), the base was faced with a row of empanelled sculptures. Everywhere the stupa
has a little missing above the drum.

Additional links:

http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Architecture

https://www.revolvy.com/page/Architecture-of-Bangladesh?cr=1

https://www.albawaba.com/editors-choice/bangladesh-has-more-architectural-wonders-you-imagined-1289215

http://iaste.berkeley.edu/pdfs/05.2f-Spr94UlHaq-sml.pdf