M.A.

HISTORY - II SEMESTER

STUDY MATERIAL

PAPER – 2.1

MEDIEVAL STATE AND SOCIETY

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Prepared by:

Dr.N.PADMANABHAN
Reader, P.G.Department of History
C.A.S.College, Madayi
Dt.Kannur-Kerala.

2008
Admission MA HIS Pr 2. 1 (M.S & S) 405
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
STUDY MATERIAL

II SEMESTER M.A. HISTORY

PAPER - 2. 1
MEDIEVAL STATE AND SOCIETY

Prepared by:

Dr. N.Padmanabhan
Reader
P.G.Department of History
C.A.S.College, Madayi
P.O.Payangadi-RS-670358
Dt.Kannur-Kerala.

Type Setting & Layout: Computer Section, SDE.

©
Reserved

2
CHAPTERS CONTENTS PAGES

I TRANSITION FROM ANCIENT TO MEDIEVAL

II MEDIEVAL POLITICAL SYSTEM

III AGRARIAN SOCIETY

1V MEDIEVAL TRADE

V MEDIEVAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

V1 RELIGION AND IDEOLOGY

V11 TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN

3
 CHAPTER- I
TRANSITION FROM ANCIENT TO MEDIEVAL

For the sake of the convenience of study history has been divided into three – the
ancient, medieval and modern periods.Of course we do not have any date or even a
century to demarcate these periods.The concept of ancient, medieval and modern is
amorphous.It varies according to regions. Still there are characteristic features of these
epochs.The accepted demarcations of ancient, medieval and modern world is a Europo
centric one.The fall of Western Roman empire in AD 476 is considered to be the end of
ancient period and beginning of the middle ages.The eastern Roman empire continued
to exist for about a thousand years more and the fall of the eastern Roman empire in
1453, following the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks is considered to be the end
of the medieval period and the beginning of modern period.The general features of the
transition from ancient to medieval world the decline of ancient empire decline of trade
and urban centres, development of feudal land relations growth of regional kingdoms
in the West, emergence of new empires in the Eastern, etc.
With the exception of ancient Greece all other city states and small kingdoms
developed into empires in the ancient world.Thus the empire of the Nandas and
Mauryas in ancient India, that of the Chou, Shang, Chin and Han in ancient China,
those of the Persian Hebrew and the like in West Asia and above all the Roman empire
have been characteristic of ancient world. But all declined giving way to a new world
under. But their decline was not sudden; it was through centuries, “Rome was not built
in a day; nor was it destroyed in a day”, so goes the proverb.The fall of the empires
were seemingly political. But they involved deep economic social and cultural aspects.
In Egypt the empire continued through varying fortunes till the 1 st century BC
when it became part of the Roman empire.The land of Mesopotamia witnessed the rise
and fall of four major empires – the Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and
Chaldean.Following this Mesopotamia witnessed the ascendancy of the Persians and
the Jews.With the emergence of Rome as an imperial power the area from Red Sea to
Persian Gulf became part other empire.Roman empire had been the most extensive
empire known so far incorporating the regions in Europe, Africa and Asia.The decline
of such a vast empire of course had repercussions throughout the known world.In India
by the 2nd Century BC, the Mauryan empire collapsed. Mauryan Empire has been a
good example for the state as empire. Following its decline their developed regional
kingdoms.
Decline and fall of empires have been a regular feature of history Ancient world
witnessed the development of state as empire.With the exception of ancient Greeks all
other city-states and small kingdoms of the ancient world developed into empires.Thus
the empire of Nandas and Mauryas in ancient India, that of Chow, Shang, Chin and
Han in ancient China that of Persians, and the like in west Asia and above all the
Roman empire have been the great empires of ancient world.Before the development of
these there flourished the Egyptian empire Ancient Mesopotamia had four vast
empires.All these declined giving way to anew order.But the disintegration of most of
these empires was not sudden. It was through centuries. The decline and downfall of

4
the Roman Empire had been a slow but steady process through centuries. “Rome was
not built in a day nor was it destroyed in a day” so goes the proverb.The fall of the
empires is seemingly political. But they involved deep economic, social and cultural
issues. The decline and downfall of the Roman Empire that stood as a mighty edifice for
centuries holding all the grandeur of a magnificent civilization has been sensational
events in history.With its decline began a new epoch in the history of Europe. In 476
A.D. the barbarian chief Odoacer defeated the last western Roman emperor Romuls and
this year in considered to be the fall of the Western Roman empire.The eastern Roman
empire continued to exist for about a thousand years more and it fell only in1453.This
year, A.D.1453 is considered to be the beginning of modern epoch in the history of
Europe. Generally for the sake of convenience of study A.D. 476 is regarded as the end
of the ancient period and a beginning of medieval period and AD.1453 is considered as
the end of medieval period and the beginning of modern period.This of course has been
a Europo centric view.
The decline of an empire like Rome was not due to a single cause. There has been
a variety of causes behind it. Vastness of the empire, division of empire, foreign
invasions, economic decline, social degeneration, etc., have been considered as the
factors behind the decline and final disintegration of the Roman empire.In A.D. 330
emperor Constantine had founded a second capital to the Roman empire at Byzantium,
that later came to be called Constantinople.This marked the division of the empire into
two – the western empire with its capital at Rome and eastern with its capital at
Constantinople. This division itself had adversely affected in integrity of the empire.
From the 3rd Century onwards Rome has been subject to the barbarian invasions.The
invading tribes Goths, Vandals, Franks, Huns and the like were called as barbarians by
the Romans.
According to Toynbee foreign invasions arenot a cause but symptom of the
decline of civilizations.When an empire is powerful outsiders would no one dare to
attack it. But when it shows marks of decline outsiders will be bold enough to attack it.
Infact much before these ‘invasions’ there has been a regular infiltration of these foreign
tribes into Rome.They were employed in Roman army civil service and various other
fields and the Romans were familiar with the barbarians.But from the 3 rd century
onwards there were regular barbarian invasions on Rome.The invasion of the Huns,
Germans and the Goths proved fatal to the empire.The Germans settled in the region of
Gaul (present France).The Goths over ran the Danubian provinces of Rome. The
barbarian tribes Alamans, the Franks and the Saxons had made a powerful
confederation within the empire. From the 1st century A.D. there has been a shortage of
troups in the Roman legions and this led to the recruitment of African Moors, Syrian
Arabs the Germans of the bordering areas of the empire into the army.Along with this
the tribes of Visigoths, Vandals and the like were admitted into the Roman empire as
Faederati or allies to whom lands had been assigned in return for military duty on the
frontier.These soldiers on the frontiers used to quarrel with the Roman officials and
such quarrels led to the Battle of Adranople in 378 A.D. Barbarian leaders like Stilicho,
the chief of Vandals had a position of eminence in western empire. Alaric the king of
the Gothic tribes and such other leaders managed to imitate Stilicho.There were mutual
struggles among the barbarians also.There developed matrimonial alliances between
the Visigoths and Romans.It was with the help of the Visigoths that the Rome emperor

5
Valantineal managed to defeat the Huns under Attila. In A.D. 455 Roman was sacked
by the Vandals. By this time the political fabric of the western empire had
disintegrated. As noted about in A.D.476 the barbarian chief Odoacer deposed the last
emperor Romulus Augustus.Even though Odoacer recognised the supremacy of the
eastern Roman emperor Zeno over the two empires, the rule of the Roman emperors
over the West ended.
Following the fall of western Roman empire barbarian Kingdoms were
established in various parts of the empire.Among them were the kingdom of
Ostrogoths.The great king of Ostrogoths namely Theordoric has been the most loved
barbarian king.The kingdom of Visigoths comprised mainly Spain. The Burgundians
established themselves at Sovory.The kingdom of Vandals included parts of Gaul Spain
and Northern Africa. These Vandals were called Wykings.Lombards captured parts of
Italy. Anglo-Saxons conquered England. The Franks who established themselves in a
corner of Gaul was destained become the founder of an empire under their leader
Clovis.Clovis and his followers were converted to Christianity.Clovis and his followers,
known as the Merovingian’s were able to carve out an independent kingdom in France.
By the time of Charles Martel this kingdom came to have close alliance with the pope of
Rome.It continued during the period of Pepin.This relation was cemented with the
establishment of the Holy Roman Empire by Charlemagne or Charles the great.
Politically the fall of Rome meant the end of the rule of Roman emperors. The
Germanisation of Italian army and government had proceeded so long that the political
consequences seemed to be “negligible shifts on the surface of the national scene”.Here
come the relevance of the Braudalian concepts of swift moving”political time” the slow
moving “social time”.Through the centuries there has set in a change in the Roman
society.The impact of the barbarian conquests were endless.It resulted in the decline of
trade and cities. The barbarians lived by tillage; herding, hunting and war.They were
not familiar with the commercial complexities on which the cities thrived.
Consequently cities declined.The redeveloped are-ruralisation of the society. The
migration brought about new minglings of racial elements in various parts of the
empire.There was a reinvigorisation of population.The change in the character of the
people was not mystical but substantial.The compulsion of the circumstances forced the
people to develop strength stamina and courage that the long security had
suppressed.There was a renewal of simpler and healthier habits of life. Actually the
Barbarian conquest was destroying the outward form of what had already decayed.A
new beginning became possible. The Western Roman Empire fell. But the states of
modern Europe were born.
During the period of Germanic invasions the cities of Italy and Gaul became
unsafe it forced the aristocrats to move to their rural villas. There they surrounded
themselves with agricultural dependants and client families. In the monasteries the
monks tilled the soil ad practiced handicrafts.These monasteries accentuated the
centrifungal movements towards isolated economic units in the country side. Roads
injured by war and endangered by highway man could no longer maintain adequate
communication and exchange.The decline in industry and trade made the government
impoverished and it could no longer give protection to life, property and trade. The
obstruction of trade forced the villas to seek economic self sufficiency.

6
 The economic collapse of the Roman Empire in the 3rd Century A.D. had been
caused largely by invasions and civil war, with all their attendant evils ravaging of
cities and fields, heavy tax burdens, the decline of trade and small industry etc.Inflation
and debasement of coinage have been among the results of this. Of course there was
occasional restoration or disciplined army. But the undisciplined individual soldiers
could manage a good deal of depredations. It was not easy to stem the tide of inflation
Diocletian through his famous price edict of AD 301managed to check inflation. Both
Diocletian and Constantine had arranged for the collection of taxes in kind. This marks
the decline in coinage which adversely affected trade and commerce. Many of these
changes proved irreversible.The decline in trade and industry adversely affected the
middle class and the ruined middleclass could not be recreated on the level of local
government especially the members of the city councils the Decurionus.The Decurionus
when saddled with compulsory and heavy financial burdens.
During the period of disintegration of the empire many a tenant famer was
changed virtually into serf.They were no longer free to leave their tenant contracts and
were bound to the soil.There was a general tendency to bind men to their occupations
and their work became hereditary.The Roman state, by the time of Constantine began
to control the lives of all citizen in an unprecedented manner.It was compelled by the
turmoil of the times.Thus the policies of the Roman emperors during the period of
decline destroyed the freedom of the people and the limited autonomy of the
provinces.These despotic acts of the rulers were deeply resented by the people.The
tyranny of the provincial governors added to the dissatisfaction of the people.
During the period of decline there broke out civil wars in the empire. This was
because of the absence of a systematic law of succession. Sometimes it was the emperor
who decided his follower. Sometimes it was by the senate. Certain emperors ascended
the thrown through military power.Rome had become vast and unweildy.It was too
vast to be administered from a centre. Among the various tribes that inhabited the
frontiers provinces there was no spirit of patriotism.
When Rome became an empire, military service became a permanent job. In
course of time new tribes and even foreigners joined the army.They joined it not out of
patriotism but for money. Naturally they were not interested in the safety of the empire.
When the barbarian joined the Roman they studied the military tactics of the Roman
army.The barbarians used this knowledge for plundering the empire at a later stage.
Large chunks of the population of the Rome were slaves.Many of them were captives of
war.The influx of the slaves made the Romans idle and luxury living.The increase is the
number of slaves made the common man unemployed.The Roman were very cruel
towards the slaves and this made the slaves rise against their exploiters.The greatest
enemies of the Roman were their slaves.
During the period of its decline there was a steep decrease in the population of
Rome.Prolonged wars and internal disturbances were the cause for it. In AD 166 and
252 there broke out plague in Italy and it destroyed a large portion of the
population.When there was a decline in population, the Romans employed barbarians
in the military service ad agricultural sector. This increased the population of the
barbarians in the empire. It was this hike in the number of barbarians inside the empire
that caused the decline rather than the barbarian attack from outside.

7
 When money and agricultural products began to pour into Italy the agricultural
development of Italy was neglected.But it led to the under dependence on the provinces
for goods especially corn. During the period of decline when the trade routes to Rome
were obstructed there was no inflow of corn to Italy.This resulted in a decline of
internal trade.Then the Romans began to import more goods from regions outside the
empire which created a drain of wealth from the empire. It was allied with the
increasing ups ad downs in the economic conditions of the people. It was in this
circumstance the barbarians became more and more daring to attack the empire.
The transition from ancient society to medieval society has been differently
interpreted March Bloc considers the changes resulting from barbarian invasions not as
a transition but as a continuation.The Marxist historians consider it as a transition from
slave Moderate of production.Anderson stresses this change in the mode of production
Lynn white attributes the transition to the changes in military technology. Duby gives
importance to the warrior peasant society while discussing the transition. According to
Toynbee the religion of Christianity led to the decline of the empire.When Rome
became an empire by foreign conquest there was a great increase in the member of
slaves. And there was a change in the character of the Romans. Christianity that
adhered to the principle of poverty and chastity was against the luxurious life of the
Roman rulers and nobility. In the beginning the Roman rulers followed a policy of
persecution towards Christianity.The Christians formed what may be called an
“internal proletariat” of the Roman Empire, in the Toynbean sense. The barbarians have
been the external proletariat.When the ‘external proletariat’ attacked Roman empire the
internal proletariat welcomed them. The barbarians accepted Christianity.
Henry Pierenne does not give much importance to the Germanic invasions of
Roman Empire as a factor contributing to the transition from ancient to the medieval
society. According to him it is a mistake to suppose that the German tribal invasions led
to the introduction of the agrarian economy in the occupied zone of the Roman
empire.Instead he gives importance to the Islamic invasions of the 7th Century A.D. The
occupation of Syria, Tunisia and Spain by the Muslim invaders destroyed the
Mediterranean unity and caused the final seperation between East and West.The
economy of the ancient Roman World depended on the commercial navigation in the
Mediterranean. So long as this commercial navigation remained unmolested there was
a regular flow of commerce and the population of Rome would be fed on African corn.
Pierenne attributes the decline of trade and commerce to the decline of the empire.He
shows how the agricultural wealth was locked up within the country when their
happened to be no outlet for the same to the world outside Pierenne characterizes this
as the “economy of no outlets”. When commerce ceased to be one of the branches social
activity, each domain endeavoured to provide for all its needs from it own
resources.Land came to be the only source of wealth and feudalism was the outcome of
this economy of no outlets.Pierenne comes to the conclusion that the Mediterranean
commerce so far as the Latin west was concerned came to an end by the last quarter of
the 7th century.According to him the invasion of the Muslims might be taken as an
important factor in disrupting the Mediterranean navigation.By the beginning of the 8 th
A.D the Muslims captured Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia and Spain.After the
occupation of Tunisia the Muslims could disrupt the communication between the
eastern and western halves of the Mediterranean.The Italian cities of Pisa Genoa and

8
Provence were cut of from navigation on which their commerce depended. A vacuum
was created in the great port of Marseilles, the principle mart connecting the west with
the east. This affected the cities of southern Gaul also.Pierenne shows the
disappearance of a few commodities of overseas trade especially spices, olive oil,
oriental silk, pepper etc from the Frankish Kingdom before the last quarter of the 8th
century as a symptom of the decline in overseas trade.Pierenne comes to conclusion
that it was the incursion of the Muslims into the Mediterranean that caused the fall of
the empire and the transition from ancient period to the medieval.
Change in the mode of production, moral degeneration of the people change in
character of the army, changes in military technology, decline of trade-all were behind
the long process of decline and fall of the Roman Empire. All these factors are
International connected.

9
 CHAPTER – II
MEDIEVAL POLITICAL SYSTEM

Feudalism is a decentralized sociopolitical structure in which a weak monarchy

attempts to control the lands of the realm through reciprocal agreements with regional
leaders. In its most classic sense, feudalism refers to the Medieval European political
system composed of a set off reciprocal legal and military obligations among the
warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs.
Although derived from the Latin word feodum (fief), then in use, the term feudalism
and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the
people living in the Medieval Period.
There is no broadly accepted modern definition of feudalism.The term, which
was coined in the early modern period (17th century), was originally used in a political
context, but other definitions of feudalism exist. Since at least the 1960s, many medieval
historians have included a broader social aspect, adding the peasantry bonds of
manorialism, sometimes referred to as a “feudal society”.Still others since the 1970s
have re-examined the evidence and concluded that feudalism is an unworkable term ad
should be removed entirely from scholarly and educational discussion, or at least used
only with severe qualification and warning.Outside of a European context, the concept
of feudalism is normally used only by analogy (called semi-feudal), most often in
discussions of Japan under the shoguns, and sometimes medieval and Gondarine
Ethiopia. However, some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing it in places
as diverse as ancient Egypt, the Parthian empire, the Indian subcontinent, and the
antebellum American South.
The term feudal has also been applied- often inappropriately or pejoratively – to
non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval
Europe are perceived to prevail. Ultimately, the many ways the term feudalism has
been used has deprived it of specific meaning, leading many historians and political
theories to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.

CHARACTERISTICS
Lords, vassals and fiefs
Three primary elements characterized feudalism: lords, vassals and fiefs; the
structure of feudalism can be seen in how these three elements fit together.A lord was a
noble who owned land, a vassal was a person who was granted possession of land by
the lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the fief, the vassal would
provide military service to the lord. The obligations and relations between lord, vassal
and fief form the basis of feudalism.Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone,
he had to make that person a vassal.This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony
called a commendation ceremony composed of the two-part of homage and oath of
fealty.During homage, the lord and vassal entered a contract in which the vassal

10
promised to fight for the lord at his command.Fealty comes from the Latin fidelitas and
denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. “Fealty” also refers to an oath
that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage.
Such an oath follows homage. Once the commendation was complete, the lord and
vassal were now in a feudal relationship with agreed-upon mutual obligations to one
another.
The vassal’s principal obligation to the lord was to provide “aid”, or military
service.Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues
from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer to calls to military service on behalf
of the lord.This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into
the feudal relationship.In addition, the vassal sometimes had to fulfill other obligations
to the lord.One of those obligations was to provide the lord with “counsel”, so that if
the lord faced a major decision, such as whether or not to go to war, he would summon
all his vassals and hold a council. The vassal may have been required to yield a certain
amount of his farm’s output to his lord. The vassal was also sometimes required to
grind his own wheat and bake his own bread in the mills and ovens owned and taxed
by his lord.
The land-holding relationships of feudalism revolved around the fief.
Depending on the power of the granting lord, grants could range in size from a small
farm to a much larger area of land.The size of fiefs was described in irregular terms
quite different from modern area terms (see medieval land terms).The lord-vassal
relationship was not restricted to members of the laity; bishops and abbots, for example,
were also capable of acting as lords.There were thus different ‘levels’ of lordship and
vassalage.The King was a lord who loaned fiefs to aristocrats, who were his vassals.The
aristocrats, through subinfeudation, were lords to their own vassals, Knights who were
in turn lords of the manor to the peasants who worked on the land. Ultimately, the
Emperor was a lord who loaned fiefs to Kings, who were his vassals. This traditionally
formed the basis of a ‘universal monarchy’ as an imperial alliance and a world order.
Historiography-Invention
The word feudalism was not a medieval term but an invention of 16th century
French and English lawyers to describe certain traditional obligations between
members of the warrior aristocracy.The earliest known use of the term feudal was in the
17th century (1614), when the system it purported to describe was rapidly vanishing or
gone entirely. No writers in the period in which feudalism was supposed to have
flourished are known to have used the word itself.It was often used as a pejorative by
later commentators to describe any law or custom that they perceived as unfair or out-
dated. Most of these laws and customs were related in some way to the medieval
institution of the fief (Latin: feodum, a word which first appears on a Frankish charter
dated 884), and thus lumped together under this single term.“Feudalism” comes from
the French feodalisme, a word coined during the French Revolution.
Evolution of the term
Feudalism became a popular and widely used term in 1748, thanks to
Montesquieu’s De L’Esprit des Lois (The Spirit of the Laws).In the 18 th century, writers
of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism to denigrate the antiquated system of the

11
Ancien Regime, or French monarchy.This was the Age of Enlightenment when writers
valued Reason and the Middle Ages were viewed as the “Dark Ages”.Enlightenment
authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the “Dark Ages” including
feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a
means of political gain.
In the late 19th and early20th centuries, John Horace Round and Frederic
William Maitland both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as
to the character of English society before the Norman Conquest in1066. Round argued
that the Normans had imported feudalism, while Maitland contended that its
fundamentals were already in place in Britain.The debate continues today.In the 20 th
century, the historian Francois-Louis Ganshof was very influential on the topic of
feudalism. Ganshof defined feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective,
arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility
itself.Ganshof articulated this concept in Feudalism (1944). His classic definition of
feudalism is the most widely known today and also the easiest to understand, simply
put, when a lord granted a fief to a vassal, the vassal provided military service in
return.
Bloch and sociological views
One of Ganshof’s contemporaries, the French historian Marc Bloch, was arguably
the most influential 20th century medieval historian.Bloch approached feudalism not so
much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one. He developed
his ideas in Feudal Society (1939-40; English 1960). Bloch conceived of feudalism as a
type that was not limited solely to the nobility.Like Ganshof, he recognized that there
was a hierarchical relationship between lords and vassals, but Bloch saw as well as a
similar relationship obtaining between lords and peasants.It is this radical notion that
peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers. While
the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed
physical labour n return for protection. Both are a form of feudal relationship.
According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects
of life were centered on “lordship”, and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church
structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy.
Karl Marx.
Marx also used the term in political analysis.In the 19 th century, Marx described
feudalism as the economic situation coming before the inevitable rise of capitalism. For
Marx, what defined feudalism was that the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy)
rested on their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the
exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under serfdom.“The hand-
mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill, society with the industrial
capitalist”.Marx thus considered feudalism within a purely economic model.
Revolt against the term
In 1974, U.S. historian Elizabeth A.R. Brown rejected the label feudalism as an
anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the
current use of many – often contradictory – definitions of feudalism, she argued that the
word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern

12
historians read back “tyrannically” into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have
suggested that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on
medieval history entirely.
In Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted (1994), Susan Reynolds’s
expanded upon Brown’s original thesis.Although some contemporaries questioned
Reynolds’s methodology; other historians have supported it and her argument. Note
that Reynolds does not object to the Marxist use of feudalism. The tern feudal has
also been applied to non-Western societies in which institutions and attitudes similar to
those of Europe are perceived to have prevailed (See other feudal-like systems).
Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term feudalism has been used have deprived
it of specific meaning, leading many historians and political theorists to reject it as a
useful concept for understanding society.

QUESTIONING FEUDALISM-USE AND DEFINITION OF THE TERM

The following are historical examples given by Susan Reynolds that call into
question the traditional use of the term feudalism:
Extant sources reveal that the early Carolingians had vassals, as did other
leading men in the kingdom.This relationship did become more and more standardized
over the next two centuries, but there were differences in function ad practice in
different locations.For example, in the German kingdoms that replaced the kingdom of
Eastern Francia, as well as in some Slavic kingdoms, the feudal relationship was
arguably more closely tied to the rise of Serfdom, a system that tied peasants to the
land.Moreover, the evolution of the Holy Roman Empire greatly affected the history of
the feudal relationship in central Europe.Long accepted feudalism models could imply
that there was a clear hierarchy from Emperor to lesser rulers, be they kings, dukes,
princes, or margraves.These models are patently untrue; the Holy Roman Emperor was
elected by a group of seven magnates, three of whom were princes of the church, who
in theory could not swear allegiance to any secular lord.
The French kingdoms also seem to provide clear proof that the models are
accurate, until it is cons that, when Rollo of Normandy knelt to pay homage to Charles
the Simple in return for the Duchy of Normandy, accounts tell that he knocked the
king down as he rose, demonstrating his view that the bond was only as the lord - in
this case, not strong at all.This reveals that it was possible for ‘vassals’ to openly
disparage feudal relationships.The autonomy with which the Normans ruled their
duchy supports the view that, despite any legal “feudal” relationship, the Normans did
as they pleased. In the case of their own leadership, however, the Normans utilized the
feudal relationship to bind their followers to them.It was the influence of the Norman
invaders which strengthened and to some extent institutionalized the feudal
relationship in England after the Norman Conquest.
In modern times, controversy has existed over the use of the term
feudalism.Though it is sometimes used indiscriminately to encompass all reciprocal
obligations of support and loyalty in the place of unconditional tenure of position,
jurisdiction or land, the term is restricted by most historians to the exchange of
specifically voluntary and personal undertakings, to the exclusion of involuntary

13
obligations attached to tenure of “unfree” land: the latter are considered to be rather an
aspect of Manorialism, an element of feudal society but not of feudalism proper.
CAUTIONS ON THE USE OF FEUDALISM
Owing to the range of meanings they have, feudalism and related terms should be
approached and used with considerable care.A circumspect historian like Fernand
Braudel puts feudalism in quotes when applying it in wider social and economic
contexts, such as “the seventeenth century, when much of America was being
‘feudalized’ as the great haciendas appeared” (The Perspective of the World, 1984,
p.403).Medieval societies never described themselves as feudal. Popular parlance
generally uses the term either for all voluntary or customary bonds in medieval society
or for a social order in which civil and military power is exercised under private
contractual arrangements.However, feudal is best used only to denote the voluntary,
personal undertakings binding lords and free men to protection in return for support
which characterized the administrative and military order.

GROWTH OF ISLAMIC STATE

The religion of Islam originated in Arabia, a country which from time immemorial
has been inhabited by nomadic tribes, over whom at various times a somewhat
shadowy authority has been exerted by Egypt, Persia, Macedonia, and Rome.This
country is, for the most part, sparsely populated and thinly cultivated. Among its
important towns are Medina and Mecca, both of them on the main caravan route from
Syria. Mecca, from early times, has been a holy city containing a temple called the
Kaaba, the most important part of which is a black meteoric stone, which was at one
time regarded as the chief of the many gods whom the Arabs worshipped. During
certain months of the year all the tribes of Arabia observed a truce from the struggles
for power in which they frequently indulged, and then pilgrims flocked to Mecca, and
after their religious ceremonies had been duly performed it was their custom to hold
contests of musical and literary skill, a practice which resembles the Olympic festivals
of the ancient Greeks.
It was in the holy city of Mecca that Mohammed, the Prophet, was born in the
year 570. Mohammed was the son of very poor parents. His mother died soon after his
birth and he was brought up first by his grandfather and then by his uncle who was a
merchant in Mecca. When he was about 24 years old he entered the service of a certain
Khadija, the widow of a rich merchant, and eventually married her. It is probable that
he accompanied her caravans to Syria and Palestine, and so became acquainted with the
monotheistic beliefs of the Jews and the Christians.As a young man he turned away
from the idolatry practiced by his fellow Arabs and spent a great deal of his time in
contemplation. But it was not until he was forty years of age that a new religion, which
meant the worship of one god, was revealed to him in a vision by the archangel Gabriel.
At first his only converts were his wife Khadija, his cousin Ali, his friend Abu Bakr,
and a slave named Zeid, and the authorities at Mecca treated him with indulgent
contempt, but when the number of his disciples began to increase they became alarmed.
The city was so sacred that no blood could be shed in it, and other methods, such as
confiscation of property ad the boycott, had to be adopted against the Muslims.When
the people of Medina heard of this persecution of the Muslims in Mecca, they invited

14
the Prophet and his followers to come to Medina and settle there.At first he sent some
of his followers to do the work of missionizing, and did not follow himself until his
enemies in Mecca, alarmed at the conversion of Medina, decided to violate the sanctity
of their city ad kill the Prophet.Mohammed’s flight to Medina is known as the Hijira. It
took place on 24 September 622, and was taken by his followers as the beginning of a
new era, the Year One as all true Muslims reckon time.
Mohammed was enthusiastically received by the people of Medina, and there
immediately followed a series of wars, or rather skirmishes, between them and the
people of Mecca, ending in 630 in the complete victory of Mohammed, who entered in
630 in the complete victory of Mohammed, who entered the town of Mecca as its master
after a treaty with its inhabitants which involved a little compromise, such as returning
the sacred stone of the Kaaba to its hereditary keepers.When pilgrims go to Mecca
today they still walk round the Kaaba seven times, and on each occasion they kiss the
black stone, which is fixed in the outside wall at the south-east corner. After the fall of
Mecca the power of Mohammed was extended, until when he died in 632 he was the
master of the whole of Arabia. Mohammed never claimed divinity. He was merely the
Prophet of Allah, the divinely chosen interpreter of his will, and because of that he
demanded unswerving obedience from his followers and from all who became subject
to his authority. He showed great courage and enlightenment in his curbing of blood
feuds in Arabia, ad in his suppression of the long established practice of infanticide.
His teachings and his precepts are to be found in the Holy Koran, the Sacred Book of
Islam. It has 114 suras or chapters of varying length. Each chapter save one starts with
the words, ‘In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, and the Merciful’. It is
unquestionably one of the most widely read and most influential books in the world.
All good Muslims regard its authority as absolute.
The Holy Koran is, for the most part, a collection of the sayings of Mohammed,
written down by his disciples as they heard them from his lips, and collected into a
volume shortly after his death. Unlike the New Testament of which many versions
exist, there is only one version of the Holy Koran. The original Arabic text has been
carefully preserved and all true Muslims believe that it consists of the very words of
God as revealed to his Prophet. It contains the chief beliefs of the new religion as well as
the rules which are to regulate the lives of all good Muslims. The Holy Koran teaches
reverence for one God, ‘the lord of the worlds, the merciful and compassionate’, and
admits that Abraham, Moses, and Jesus were great prophets (but none of them as great
as Mohammed, the last Prophet, to whom a complete revelation had been made); it
enjoins honour to parents, charity towards the poor and afflicted, and justice towards
all men; and it bids men abstain from strong drink altogether. Like the Christian
religion, it speaks confidently of a life after death and of a last judgment, when all men
shall receive the reward of their earthly actions.
Islam was a much simpler religion than the religion of the Christian Church of
the middle Ages; it was easily understood and it contained no doctrines likely to
confuse and perplex men’s minds. It permitted every man to have four wives provided
he was able to support them. It did not provide for priesthood and it was not obscured
and over-cast by a multitude of ceremonies. The Muslim mosque is a house of prayer
and a place for reading the Holy Koran; it has no altars and no images or pictures of
any kind; its walls are adored with passages from the Holy Koran, and rich rugs cover

15
the floors. Many of the mosques are very beautiful, with colonnaded courtyards,
exquisite mosaic work, and lovely stained-glass windows.They have one or more
minarets, from which an official called the muezzin calls the people to prayer five times
a day, for every true Muslim is expected to pray just before sunrise, just after noon, just
before and after sunset, and when the day has closed. In addition there are four other
things which he is expected to do. He must recite daily the simple creed, ‘There is no
god but God (Allah), and Mohammed is His Prophet’; he must give alms to the poor; he
must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his lifetime; and he must fast
during the month Ramadan, when he is allowed neither to eat nor drink from sunrise to
sunset, for it was in this month that the archangel Gabriel came down from heaven to
reveal the Holy Koran to Mohammed. A Muslim must also always be prepared to fight
for his faith and for God. If Fihad (holy war) is declared he cannot refuse to fight for
Islam.
Up on the death of Muhammed in 632 A.D the believers in Islam decided to
remain a single political community and chose the prophet’s father-in-law, Aba Baker
to be his successor. Abu Baker and his successors as leaders of the Islamic community
are known as caliphs, from the Arabic word khalifa meaning successor or
representative.So also there arose challenges to the young Islamic state. Certain groups
among them refused to give taxes to Abu Baker.Certain others refused to give
assurance that they would continue to be believers.So also there arose leaders claiming
to be prophets. Against all these Abu Baker sent armed bands of believers and the wars
faught by them are called the Apostacy on Ridda wars. Within two years by 634 Abu
Baker managed to bring the entire Arabian Peninsula under his control.The participants
of the Ridda wars became almost a standing army.The Islamic state in Madeena
represented the domination of pastoral and mountaineer populations of Arabia by an
elite groups of towns men.
The Ridda wars brought the Muslims to the door steps of the Byzantine and
Sasanian empires.Soon by means of a series of conquests they could invest vast
territories from those empires.These early conquest were during the period of the
second Caliph Umer Ibn al-Khattab and the third Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan. The wars
of conquest continued and the Islamic state with the centre at Madeena came to include
Syria, Palestine, Eraq, Egypt, Armanea, Anatoha Iran, Afganistan, etc and the Muslims
established a large new empire in the near East destroying the Sasaman empire and
occupying important parts of the Byzantine empire. During the period of these early
conquests certain bureaucratic institutions were set up by the Caliph to co-ordinate the
wars and conquest from a single centralized government.These institutions were a
regular payroll (diwan) for the soldiers, and the creation of garrison settlements in
distant areas that became the nucleus of new cities in the conquered areas.The
leadership of the new empire was committed to the religious ideology of Islam.New
economic structures were built with the demise old ruling classes.Property and political
powers was redistributed. Effective arrangements were made by the state for the spread
of the religion of Islam among the conquered people.
The first two Caliphs had wide spread support from their followers, but
dissensions arose during the period of the third Caliph, Uthman, which grew onto a
violent uprising culminating in the murder of the Caliph in 656.This was followed by a
violent civil war. After Uthman Ali Talib was recongnized as the Caliph but this was

16
not liked by Uthman’s kinsman of the Umayad clan led by Muawiyah.The supporters
of Ali (Shiat Ali or party of Ali) who came to be referred to as Shia) and those of
Uthman mets in a series of battles and finally Ali was killed.Muvawiah became the
Caliph and with him starts the Ummayad Caliphate. Following the death of Muvaviah
again a civil was broke out on the question of succession to the post of the Caliph.
Ultimately the Ummayads became successful.The leader of the Shiats including Ali’s
son and family were slaughtened at Karbala by the Kharijites or the followers of
Uthman and following their martyrdom of the Shiahs became a completely distinct
group within the community. It was it during the civil wars that the sectarian groups
within the community.The Shiah, Kharijites and the Sunni or the Orthdox majority
emerged in Islam.The ideal of a politically unified community of believers under the
Caliph became unrealiable as the Islamic empire came to span thousands of Kilometers
and millions of people.Still the Caliphate symbolized the unity of the community and
that was why it was retained for long.
The early Islamic community and state had been united not so much by
institutional structures but mainly by ideologies that is the belief that in God’s name
they were engaged in a common effort a righteous regime on earth. During the three
centuries following the second civil war the rudimentary institutional structures of the
early community of believers matured providing the Caliph with the military and
administrative machinery needed to contain the division and disunity.The period from
AD 700 to 950 has been an age of commercial expansion, great institutional and cultural
development and economic growth.The Ummayad dynasty was over thrown in AD 750
by the Abbassids another branch of the Prophet’s family, the descendants of the
prophet’s uncle Al Abbas Ibn Abd al-Muttalib.This also resulted in the shifting of the
capital from Damascus in Syria to Baghadad in Iraq.During these centuries, inspite of
the change of dynashes and the shifting of capital the Islamic empire continued to
expand. And the Islamic community itself spread beyond the empire. It was through
traders and preachers. Another important feature of this period has been the rivalry for
the caliphate.The Abbasids claimed to have started the Caliphate a new, from new
capital.Many Islamic rulers would follow this precedant of founding new capitals when
they began their rule. The Shiahtes were more favourably disposed to the Abbasids
than to the Ummayads.The complex relationship between the Abbasid’s and Alids, two
branches of the prophets family has been central to the history of the Caliphate in the 8th
and 9th centuries.Caliphs like Harun al Rashid were suspicions the Abbasids. By the
beginning of the 9th century the separateness of the Shiya from the Sunni majority
became clearly visible. Along with this the struggle for the position of the Calipha also
continued.
The period from 700 to 950 was also marked by important developments in the
various institutions of the Caliphate and the Muslim empire.The most important
changes were in the army and the imperial bureaucracy.Ummayads built a potent new
army based on the Arab tribe of Syria.But the early Abbasid armies relied especially on
soldiers from Khurasan.But the elements of the early Ummayad army were not
completely swept away.The early Ummayad and Abbasid armies were composed of
ordinary soldiers with ordinary social ties. Most often they were part-time and were
loose in structure but were not lacking in efficiency. But by the 9 th century this pattern
of loose organization of army was replaced by an army built around smaller and highly

17
trained corps of professional soldiers.This group was called ghulams and were a full
time permanent standing army.This kind of an army came into being from the time
Caliph al Mutasiam who had a body guard of mercenaries many of whom were slaves
(Mamuluks).The idea behind this was that such soldier would be completely loyal to
the ruler who had raised them to power.These soldiers had few ties to the families,
tribes or the capital city.They were an increasingly effective group of soldiers.They
were professionally trained mercenaries. These soldiers did not know Arabic and in
order avoid the friction between this army and the Arab speaking peoples of the capital
city, the capital was shifted from Damascus in Syria to Bagdad in Iraq. As the affairs of
the empire outside Iraq were neglected numerous rebellions were sprang up.
By the 9th century imperial administration also underwent significant
changes.These changes were aimed at creating a unified bureaucracy. It was created to
increase the efficiency, especially in the collection of revenue. The army was
professionalised.There developed a new lucid Arabic prose style. Individual hailing
from Iran especially Kurasan were given importance, in all Departments of the army
and government.They were held in high esteem in the Caliphal court also.Around the
mid 9th century, the Abbasid administration was composed of a larger number of
separate departments (Diwans) staffed by thousands clerks or secretaries or
(Kuttab).The main duties of this bureaucratic were the assessment and collection of
land taxes from various provinces, income form state lands etc., and the disbursement
of salaries to the members of the army and other government servants.It included a
treasury, an accounting officer and intelligence service, a chancery officer to handle
official correspondence and department for the court of appeal of Caliph.In the long
run the cost of the vast bureaucracy became a burden to the government.There were
struggle between the Caliph and their army commanders for the control over the
bureaucracy.Sometimes army commanders’ secured appointments as viziers.
There were occasional rebellions against the Caliphs.The authority of Caliphs did
not go unchallenged.There were occasional rebellions against the Caliph.The areas of
the empire outside Iraq were more or less autonomous under their government.But
those governors did not make real financial or military contribution to the empire.
These governors or head of local tribes were weakly integrated with the Caliphate.
When the grip of the Caliphas over such governors became weak there arouse fighting
among the bureaucratic army factions.After the military interaction of 932 the army
officers used to ensure that they were paid first.During this period of civil war there
was a general shortage of money.This was caused by the extravagance bureaucracy,
loss of revenues from independent province and decline in the agrarian productivity of
Iraq.This created a crisis and to cope with the revenue shortage, the Abbasids began to
rely on the institution of Iqta. Iqta has been translated as fief even though the term has a
variety of meaning. It has been a kind administrative device by which a military general
or soldiers was given the right to collect tax revenue directly from a certain district.The
military general was to pay he troops under him from this revenue.This advantage of
this system was that the troops could be paid even if the treasury was empty. So also
those parts of bureaucracy who were engaged in revenue collection could be
eliminated. But it led to the abuse of the peasantry also. The officers were interested in
the lands granted to them, but often their subordinates tried to squeeze as much as
possible. In the beginning the Iqta had only a remote resemblance with the feudal

18
system of Europe.There was mutual loyalty between the granter of the Iqta and the
granter.But those developments considerably decreased the actual power of the
Abbasid Caliph.Their power became symbolic religious authority and lacking in real
power.Their access to resources had passed into the hands of powerful military
figures.There arose competition among the local political leaders for becoming the
protectors of the Caliph. Beyond the members of Buyad family of Iran and the Sulthans
of the Seljuk dynasty of Turky were such local leaders. But during all this period the
expansion of the empire was taking place.So also the propagation of Islam and its
culture. It was also associated with a large scale urbanization in the empire.The early
centres of military garrisons like Kufa, Basra, Fustat and the like bustling developed
into towns and great trading centres.They became the centres Islamic and Arab
studies.The Caliph also presided over economic developments that had global
repercussions.The vast extent and relative stability of the empire, along with the
movements of soldiers, pilgrims and scholars greatly developed the trade routes
also.The Arabic as a common written language helped the merchants. In this empire the
merchants were free to move with little need for travel documents. The needs arising
out of city life greatly helped the development of trade and exchange.Goods were
brought to cities like Baghdad from different parts of the globe. The famous city of Siraj
in the Persian Gulf has been an example to a key transit point for food stuffs, textiles
etc., from regions like Africa, East Africa and India. Islamic civilization stimulated the
revival of economy and culture, generally called as the Carolingian renaissance.
Provinces distant from Damascuss or Baghdad enjoyed a significant measure of
autonomy.The Caliphs were not having the means to keep the distant lands under close
supervision.So they relied on strong governor to manage distant provinces.The
provincial governors were given autonomy on the pretext that they would contribute to
the Caliphal treasury and military system. There was the system of the frequent
rotation of the governors by the Ummayad and Abbasid Caliphs.The provinces where
governorship was hereditary often remained loyal to the Caliphate.The first province to
be detached from the Caliphate was Spain. Parts of North Africa also became
independent. Much of the Northern and central Arabia was the preserve of local
pastured nomadic groups over whom the Caliphs had little control. But Mecca and
Madina, as the focus of the annual pilgrimages were firmly under their governors’
supervision.Local and regional autonomy developed in the Iranian Platean also. Certain
provinces had governmental organization after the model of the Caliphate.For example
the Samanids of Translation Oxiano had established and extensive bureaucracy after
the model of the Caliphate, staffed by caderes of highly literate scribes.
The expansion of Islam promoted one man rule. For the unity of command and
quickness of decision a martial and imperialist policy was essential. Under the
Ummayads the government became monarchical and Caliphate was transmitted either
by succession or by trial of arms.The Caliphate was more a religious office than a
political one. But the Caliph was not a priest. He could not issue any decree of
faith.Theoretically the Caliph enjoyed absolute power, limited only by Koran. Still there
was democracy of opportunities. Any man might reach high office unless both father
and mother were slaves.
Under the Abbassids a complex system of central provincial and local
administration operated by a bureaucracy, evolved.This bureaucracy was little affected

19
by the change of Caliphs, or palace revolutions.At the head of the administrative
structure was the hajib or Chamber-Iain who in practice accumulated power, by
controlling entry to the Caliph. Next in rank was the Vizier who guided all the policies
of the state and appointed and supervised all governmental officials.The leading
governmental Departments were those of taxation, accounts, correspondence, police,
post and a department of grievances. The department of grievance was a court appeal
from judicial and administrative decision.The efficacy of the revenue department is
revealed on the great balance in the treasury especially during the period of rulers like
Harun al-Rashid.
The department of post served only the government and very important persons.
Its main duty was to transmit intelligence and directives between the provinces and the
capital.It served as a means of espionage also.The system issued itineraries that gave
the names of various provinces and the distances between them. These itineraries were
the basis of Arabic geography.Trained pigeons were used as letter carriers. Intelligence
was provided by merchants and travelers’ also.In 1700 A.D.Baghdad employed 1700
woman spies. Still the provincial governors and even judges were not with out
corruption. Muhammad is said to have opined that out of the three judges two will go
to hell.
In the Caliphate law and religion were one.Jurisprudence was a branch of
theology.As the kingdom became extensive including various peoples the Muslim
hurists used traditions that met their needs.Thus the Koran and Hadiths were the
sources of Islamic laws. Legal profession was held in high esteem in Islam. The
organization of Caliphate shows how successfully the early Caliphas gave organization
to human life over a wide area.

NATURE OF STATE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

The nature of State in Medieval India has been a subject of great controversy amongst
the scholars. Scholars like Dr. R.P. Ashraf, Dr.Ishwari Prasad, Prof A.L.Srivastava, etc.
hold that the Muslim state in Medieval India was theocracy. For example Dr. R.P.
Tripathi says, “All the institutions that the Muslims either evolved or adopted were
intended to subserve the law”. Similarly Dr. Ishwari Prasad says that like other Muslim
states, the state in Medieval India was a theocracy.The king was both Caesar as well as
Pope. But, his authority was restricted by the principles of Sharit. His rule was based
on religion and the Ulemas predominated the State.
However, certain other writers like Dr. I.H. Qureshi holds, “The supremacy of the
shar’ has misled some into thinking that the Sultanate was a theocracy. The essential
feature of a theocracy – the rule of an ordained priesthood – is however, missing in the
organization of Muslim state; the jurists are laymen who claim no sacerdotal immunity
from error.Gibb is right in calling the Islamic policy theocentric”.Even Mohammad
Habib says, “It (Muslim state in India) was not a theocratic state in any sense of the
word” and that “its foundation was, nevertheless, non-religious and secular”.
In view of the two conflicting views offered by the scholars regarding the nature of
the state in Medieval India, it becomes imperative to examine this issue more
thoroughly.First of all, we must try to find out what is meant by theocracy.Only then
we will be able to arrive at some conclusion regarding the nature of state in Medieval

20
India.The term theocracy is derived from the Greek word theos, meaning
God.Therefore, a theocratic state is one which is governed by God or sacerdotal
class.According to the Chamber’s Twentieth Century Dictionary theocracy has been
defined as “that constitution of a state in which the Almighty is regarded as the sole
sovereign, and the laws of the realm as divine commands rather than human ordinance
– the priesthood necessarily becoming the officers of the invisible ruler”.
An analysis of this definition shows that theocracy has three essential features:
(1) presence of a sacerdotal class or priesthood, (2) prevalence of the law of God, and (3)
the sovereign or ruler who promulgates this law. Let us examine how far these
elements were present in the state in Medieval India.
In the first place we can agree with Dr.Qureshi that there was no ordained or
hereditary priesthood in Medieval India which is the essential feature of a
theocracy.The Jurists were laymen who claimed no sacerdotal immunity from error and
certain laymen like Ibn Battuta acted as Qazi of Delhi during Muhammad bin
Tughlaq.However, the appointment of Ibn Battuta was a unique case. It cannot be
denied that mostly the Jurists were taken from class of Ulemas.These Ulemas were
orthodox and wielded great influence with the Sultan. Even Dr. Yusuf Husain has
testified that these Ulemas were orthodox and were given education in Madrasas.This
education had a distinct religious voice. The Jurists and advisers of the Sultans and
kings were appointed from amongst these Ulemas and they interpreted the Shara
(Islamic law).According to Ibn Hasan, “The protection of Shariat has two aspects: The
propagation of the knowledge of Shara ad its enforcement as law within the state. The
one implies the maintenance of a class of scholars devoted to the study, the teaching ad
the propagation of that knowledge and the other the appointment of one from those
scholars……as an adviser to the king in all acts of state. The scholars devoted to that
knowledge are called Ulema and the one selected from among them is termed Shaikh-
ul-Islam”. He further says that the Shaikh-ul-Islam was the representative of Ulema and
it was his duty to bring “to the notice of the king what he thought detrimental or
prejudicial to the interest of his religion, and the king had little option in acting upon
such an advice”.The Shaikh-ul-Islam not only supervised the educational institutions
but also exercised a sort of censorship over the books prescribed, in various educational
institutions as well as over the moral ideas of the people.The Shaikh-ul-Islam also kept
a close touch with the Muslim scholars to ensure a regular supply of Muslim
theologicians.These Ulemas exercised great influence on the rulers.Henry Blochmann
says although “Islam has no state clergy, but we find a counter-part to our hierarchial
bodies in the Ulemas about the Court from whom the Sadars of the provinces, the Mir
Adils, Muftis and Qazis were appointed. At Delhi and Agra, the body of the learned
had always consisted of staunch Sunnis, who believed it their duty to keep the kings
straight.How great their if was, may be seen from the fact of all Muhammaden
emperors only Akbar, and perhaps Alauddin Khilji, succeeded in putting down this
haughty sect”.
The second feature of the theocracy is the prevalence of the law of God, or
religious law (as opposed to secular law).It is admitted by almost all the scholars that
the Medieval Indian state was run on the dictates of the Shara. Dr. Qureshi himself
admits that Shara, “is basd on the Quran which is believed by every Muslim to be the
word of God revealed to His prophet Muhammad….On these two rocks- the Quran

21
and Hadis (the prophet’s interpretation on the revelation embodies in his tradition) is
built the structure of Muslim Law….This Law was the actual sovereign in Muslim
lands. In other words, we can say that it is admitted on all hands that the Law which
prevailed during Medieval India was Shara; it was not a secular Law. This religious law
naturally went against the interests of the non-Muslim population of the country which
was in majority.It is admitted on all hands that the Hindu population suffered from a
number of disabilities.These included the imposition of an invidious taxation Jazia.
According to Abu Hanifah; Jazia was collected from the Hindu as an alternative to
death. It was imposed for the first time in India by Muhammad Bin Qasim, the
conquerer of Sindh because he could not apply the Quranic law strictly on the Hindus
who were in much greater numerical strength. He followed a policy of religious
tolerance towards Hindus of a Sindh and Multan.This precedent was followed by the
later Turkish and Afghan rulers of India.Sir Jadunath Sarkar says that it was considered
to be the highest duty of the Muslim rulers to carry on Jihad by “waging war against
infidel lands (Dar-ul-Harb) till they became a part of the realm of Islam (Dar-ul-Islam),
and their populations re converted into true believers”.
During the rule of the early Muslim rulers, the Hindus were relegated to an
inferior position and were not permitted to observe their religious rites in public.They
were also not permitted to carry on any religious propaganda or to build new temples
or repair the old ones.Certain disabilities were also imposed on them with regard to
civic rights and employment under the State. In fact they were considered as second
rate citizens as compared to the Muslim population. Prof A.L. Srivastava says
“Throughout the period of the Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526) and in fact for nearly 40
years after its extinction, there existed in our country two grades of citizenship- the
superior grade for Muslims who constituted the privileged class, and the inferior grade
for the Hindus who were treated as a depressed class in their own homeland”.The
Brahmans were exempted from the Jazia by the early Sultans but Firoz Tughlaq
imposed Jazia on them also. This was greatly resented by the Brahmans and they
resorted to huger strike.According to Afif, seeing miserable conditions of the Brahmans,
the Hindus of Delhi wet to them ad said that they should not sacrifice their lives for the
sake of jazia and offered to pay jazia on their behalf.V.A. Smith says that as a result
Firoz Tughlaq became little lenient and reduced the amount of jazia to be paid by the
Brahmans, but he did not fully exempted them from this tax. Dr. Pandey is of the
opinion that jazia was only collected from the Hindus living in the cities, and those
living in the countryside were not subjected to it for the purpose of realisation of jazia
the entire population was divided into three categories: those belonging to the first
category had to pay 48 dirhams while those belonging to the second and third
categories had to pay 24 and 12dirhams respectively. Women, children, beggars and
lame people were exempted from jazia.This tax was purely a religious tax and was a
clear proof of discriminatory policy followed by the contemporary rulers.
All the rulers during the Medieval times were bound to rule according to the law
of Islam.Though the Muslim rulers were permitted to frame new laws according to the
circumstances with the counsel of wise men, but very few rulers dared to frame such
laws and the Shara continued to be supreme throughout the Sultanate period.Many
rulers during Medieval times were tolerant by nature but none (except Akbar) could
ever dare to make laws which could ensure equity and fair play to all the sections of the

22
population. We do not come across any law or regulation promulgated by the other
Medieval Indian rulers to this effect. It was for the first time Akbar, who promulgated a
number of regulations for the good of the people.These regulations included the
abolition of the practice or enslaving prisoners of war, pilgrim tax and jazia. Akbar also
passed number of laws imposing restrictions on the sale of liquor, child marriage,
restraining of early marriage, prohibition of sati, widow re-marriage etc. He took a bold
step of according freedom to the people to choose the religion of their choice. He even
permitted the forcibly converted people to go back to their original religion.Although;
Akbar laid down certain rules and regulations, these survived only during his life time.
Furthermore the orthodox nobles and Ulemas greatly disliked these rules.
In the third place, we find that during the Medieval times no ruler could be safe
o his throne unless he enforced the Shara. No doubt, certain rulers like Ala-ud-Din
Khilji and Muhammad Tughlaq made efforts to free themselves from the restraints of
Shara but this was greatly resented by the Ulemas. That is why the Ulemas obtained
from the successors of these two rulers an assurance that they would rule according to
the tenets of justice and law. It is well known to the students of Medieval Indian
history that Firoz Shah Tughlaq fully lived up to undertaking and carried on his
administration according to the religious laws. Similarly, Akbar’s policy of tolerance
was greatly disliked by the orthodox Muslims and they secured a promise from his
successor Jahangir that he would defend Muslim religion.Another example is provided
by Aurangzeb who claimed that he was fighting against Dara Shikoh, an apostate, for
the re-establishment of the Law of Islam.
Position of Khalifa: Although the Sultan rulers of Delhi considered themselves as fully
independent, they acknowledged the suzerainty of Khalifa. According to the Muslim
Law there could be only one ruler of the Muslims and Delhi Sultans always gave the
impression that they were acting as the representatives of the Khalifa.They put the
name of the Khalifa on their coins and inscriptions. Ala-ud-Din Khilji was the first ruler
who abandoned the policy ad asserted his independence. He did not approve of the
interference of the Ulemas in the matter of administration because he believed that any
interference by the religious officials in the state’s affairs was harmful. He held that as
the Khalifa was the gent of God in religious matters, the king was the agent of God in
worldly matters. Justifying this stand, Ala-ud-Din Khilji said that ‘I am not sure
whether my stand is in accordance with the principles of Islam or not, but I do
whatever I feel is in the interests of the State’. Even Qutb ud Din Mubarak, son of Ala-
ud-Din Khilji, tried to bypass the authority of the Khalifa and himself took the title of
the Khalifa.Apart from these two Sultans, all other rulers of the Sultanate period
attached much importance to the position of the Khalifa.Some of these Sultans even
tried to obtain certificates from the Khalifa, the last one to do this was Firoz Tughlaq.
The Mughal rulers tried to assert their independence of the Khalifa by assuming
the title of Badshah.They did not recognize the suzerainty of Khalifa or any other
Muslim ruler outside India. For example, they did not recognize the Sultan of Turkey
who had assumed the title of Khalifa also. Thus the Mughal rulers widely differed from
the Sultans of Delhi in this regard.Akbar particularly tried to evolve anew theory of
kingship which was essentially national in character. He made an effort to remove all
checks on the authority of the king which existed in the nature of the Ulemas or
Millat.In fact he combined in himself both the ecclesiastical authority as well as the

23
secular power, because he felt that the separation of the two powers was detrimental to
the interest of the state. No doubt, this policy of Akbar was greatly resented by
orthodox Sunni Ulemas but ultimately Akbar emerged victorious.
Akbar was one of the first Muslim rulers to propound the theory of the divine
origin of monarchy. He asserted that the king was God’s representative on the earth
and His shadow (Zill-Europe-Illahi) and greater knowledge and wisdom were given to
him than any other human being. This theory of divine origin of monarchy though not
quite popular with the Muslim nobility, was accepted by vast majority of the Hindu
population. In fact they felt that this theory was akin to their ancient Indian view of
sovereignty.They welcomed this theory also because it rejected the Quranic law as the
basis of State and promised a benevolent system of Government.The subsequent
Mughal rulers like Jahangir and Shah Jahan also continued to believe in the theory of
divine origin in monarchy.Even Aurganzeb claimed to be the advocate of divine theory.
It may be noted that although the Mughal rulers believed in theory of divine monarchy
and considered themselves as a part of God, but they could not act g the religious laws
prescribed by Quran in order to make any modification in this law.All the rulers were
bound by the Shara and no Mughal ruler could dare to openly challenge its authority.
Muslim Concept of Sovereignty: According to the Muslim principles of sovereignty for
all the Muslim rulers there can be only one Muslim king wherever they might be living
and this Muslim ruler was the Caliph (Kahlifa). According to Dr. A.B. Pandey just a
according to the Muslim there is one God, on prophet, and his teachings are contained
in one book. Similarly there should be only one ruler for the Islamic state.The God has
sent his representatives to all the countries to carry out his orders and Muhammad
Sahib as the last representative of God.To carry out orders of the prophet tantamounts
to carrying out the orders of the God, but even for the prophet, it was obligatory to
carry out the orders of God.
After the departure of Muhammad there was only one ruler of the entire Muslim
community and he was the Khalifa or Imam. According to the Sunni principle the
sovereignty resides in the Muslim brotherhood which can bestow it to any true
Muslim.But usually the Sunni Muslims bestowed this sovereignty on persons belonging
to the Qureshi dynasty, the dynasty to which Muhammad belonged. The Khalifa or the
Imam was to be elected by entire Muslim public. But in actual practice it was not
feasible for the entire population to take part in the election and only some prominent
members residing at the capital participated in the election.Thus we find that the
Muslim concept of sovereignty had certain peculiar features.Some of the important
features were as follows:
1. God is the master and ruler of the entire world and Khalifa is the human
representative of God on this earth.
2. The human ruler of Khalifa was acting according to the religious principles.
3. All the Muslims of the world wherever they may be residing, must have one ruler
and that ruler is known as Khalifa or Imam.
4. Imam must be elected by the people.
5. According to Dr. Tripathi, sovereignty resides in the Muslim brotherhood which
can transfer it to any true Muslim and make him the ruler.

24
6. Imam has the supreme power and nobody can interfere and challenge his
authority.
7. It is not only a legal duty but also a moral duty of the people to carry out orders of
the Imam.
8. The income of the state is the property of the society and it cannot be considered as
the individual income of the Imam or his family members.
9. The Imam possessed military as well as civic powers and exercised both direct as
well as indirect control over the ruler. According to Dr. R.P.Tripathi, an important
feature of the Muslim conception of sovereignty was its indivisibility.Within his
powers the Imam was supreme.No power on earth could even share with him his
sovereign rights.He was the final living authority. He further says, “In fact all the
powers of a strong executive head were vested in the Imam”. Though Imam had
very extensive powers he could not go against the rules of Shariat. He was as
much subject to the rules of Shariat as any other citizen. He had even to show due
regard to the orders of the Sultan.As Dr.Tripathi says, “Another and more
practical check on the power of the Imam was the Muslim doctrine of obedience to
the sovereign”.
Military State: Another important feature of the State in Medieval India was that it was
military in character.The Muslim rulers maintained a strong military force for the
maintenance of law and order within the country and for the protection of the country
from any possible aggression. In fact, the State was a police state and it discharged
mainly the functions of maintenance of law and order and collection of revenues.The
Government paid no attention to the welfare of the people. No doubt, Government
made some arrangement for the education of the Muslim population, but it did
practically nothing for the education of the Hindu population, who had to depend on
their private efforts. The State was in no sense a welfare state. The rulers paid no
attention to the economic and social development of the people, nor did the pay any
attention to the promotion of literature and culture.What ever encouragement was
given to the fine arts it depended on the personal attitude and interest of the rulers.
Similarly no attention was paid to the development of means of communication for the
use of ordinary public.Whatever roads were constructed they were built mainly for the
use of the military. In short, we can say that the State in general did not bother about
the welfare of the people at all.Only some of the benevolent rulers like Akbar, Jahangir
and Shah Jahan paid some attention to the welfare of the people.

RAJADHARMA OR THE SCIENCE OF GOVERNANCE

From time to time one reads articles in Indian newspapers and magazines that the
System of Governance that Bharat follows today were borrowed from the West. It
subtly seeks to imply how grateful we must be to the West, read British, for having
passed this system to India.How the Indian Kings governed. The book written by Sri
Aurobindo titled “Out of the Ruins of the West, India’s Rebirth” briefly referred to
governance in ancient India.More over Chapter 6 of Satyarth Prakash or Light of Truth
by Swami Dayanand Saraswati is titled Raja Dharma and tells us about governance in
Bharat.

25
 This is dedicated to Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya for two reasons.One
they successfully drove away the Greeks and destroyed the myth about Greek
superiority.Two Chanakya wrote a great treatise called Arthashashtra which is a must
for every Indian to read. It has chapters on the King, the Well-organized State,
Treasury, Sources of Revenue, Accounts and Audit, Civil Service Regulations, Law and
Justice, Foreign policy, Defence and War etc. Research work done by Swami Dayanand
was successfully used in a vital political controversy that erupted in the 20 th
century.When the British set about newly declared goal of setting up responsible
government in India, an eminent historian Vincent Smith, rushed to prove that the
attempt to set up self-governing institutions in India was bound to fail as being alien to
it. Sir Shankaran Nair, a member of the Governor-General-in-Council disagreed on the
basis of Kashi Prashad Jayaswal’s “Hindu Polity” written to expand Dayanand’s hints
on the places of the Sabhas in ancient India.
Those who want to study the duties of rulers in greater detail would need to
refer to the Vedas, the seventh, eighth and ninth chapters of Manu, the Shukraniti,
Vidurprajagar, Rajadharma, and Apatadharma, chapters of Shantiparva of the
Mahabharata.
Manu – The great Manu says to the Rishis, after discoursing on the duties of the
four Classes and the four Orders, we shall now describe Raja Dharma or the duties and
qualifications, etc., of Rulers, in other words, we shall discuss as to who is fit to be a
King, how he is to be selected, and how he can attain the highest bliss-salvation. Let a
Kshatriya, whose knowledge, culture and piety are as perfect as those of a Brahman,
govern the country with perfect justice”, in the following way:-
Rig Veda - (God teaches),”Let there be for the benefit of the rulers and the ruled three
Assemblies -1.Religious, 2.Legislative, 3. Educational. Let each discuss and decide
subjects that concern it, and adorn all men with knowledge, culture, righteousness,
independence, and wealth, and thereby make them happy.
Atharva Veda – “Let the three Assemblies, Military Councils, and the Army
harmoniously work together to carry on the government of a country.”
Atharva Veda - “A king should address the Assembly thus:- Let the leader of the
Assembly abide by the just laws passed by the Assembly, and let other members do the
same.”It means that no single individual should be invested with absolute power.The
king, who is the president of the Assembly itself, should be interdependent on each
other.Both should be controlled by the people, who in their turn should be governed by
the Assembly.
Shatpatha Brahman - If this system be not followed and the king are independent of
the people and live absolute power.”He would impoverish the people - being despotic
and hence arrogant-and oppress them, aye, even eat them up, just as a tiger or any
other carnivorous animals pounces upon robust animals and eats it up. A despotic rule
does not let any one else grow in power, robs the rich, userps their property by unjust
punishment, and accomplishes his selfish end. One man should, therefore, never be
given despotic power.”
Atharva Veda – “O men! Let that man alone among you be made a king – the president
of the Assembly – who is a very powerful conqueror of foes, is never beaten by them,

26
has the capacity to become the paramount soverign, is most enlightened, is worthy of
being made a President, who possesses most noble qualities, accomplishments,
character and disposition; who is thoroughly worthy of the homage, trust and respect
of all.”
Yajur Veda – “O ye learned men! Proclaimthat man with one voice your king-the
President and Head of the State-who is just, impartial, well-educated, cultured and
friend of all. In this way alone shall ye attain universal sovereignty, be greater than all,
manage the affairs of the State, obtain political eminence, acquire wealth, and ride the
world of its enemies.”
Rig Veda – God teaches in the Veda. ”Rulers! your implements of war fare, (such as,
guns, rifles, Bows, arrows, etc.) and war-materials (such as, gunpowder) be worthy of
praise, strong and durable to repel and conquer your enemies.Let your army be a
glorious one, so that you may always be victorious.But the aforesaid things shall not be
attainable to the contemptible, the despicable, and the unjust.” In other words, it is only
as long as men remain honorable, just and virtuous that they are politically great. When
they become wicked and unjust, they are absolutely ruined.
Let a nation, therefore, elect the most learned men, as members of the
Educational Assembly, the most devout men, as members of the Religious Assembly
and men of the most praiseworthy character, as members of the Legislative Assembly;
and let that great men in it, who possesses most excellent qualities, is highly
accomplished, and bears most honorable character, be made the Head or President of
the Political Assembly.
Let the three Assemblies harmoniously work together, and make good laws, and
let all abide by those laws. Let them all be of one mind in affairs that promote the
happiness of all. All men should subordinate themselves to the laws that are calculated
to promote general well being; they should be free in matters relating to individual well
being.
(To summarize the above, the objective of governance is to promote happiness.Equal
importance is given to religion, legislature and education that with the aid of the
military are responsible for governance. It means that religion read Dharma played an
important role in society and government responsibility.Education was stressed, is
probably; why we Indians take so naturally to education since it was an important of
our lives from ancient times. Note that the Military is subordinate to the Legislature
and is not part of three assemblies.This could be one of the reasons why the Army
never ruled India. Adequate safeguards existed to prevent the King from becoming a
dictator. Also one of the primary duties of the King was to protect his subjects from
enemies.The importance of good Laws and enforcement is stressed.That is perhaps one
of the biggest failings of Post Independence India. The belief is you can get away with
worse that murder in India today.Take the stock market, Harshad Mehta, Hiten Dalal,
Ketan Parikh and Dawood.The list is endless.Ask yourselves how many governments
in medieval and modern India have met these criteria?)

27
 QUALIFICATIONS OF TRUE KING OR THE HEAD OF THE STATE

Manu – “He should be as powerful as electricity: as dear to his people’s hearts as their
very breath, able to read the inmost thoughts of others, and just in his dealings as a
judge.He should enlighten people”s minds by the spread of knowledge, justice, and
righteousness, and dispel ignorance and injustice as the sun illuminates the world.He
should be like one who consumes wickedness like fire, keeps the wicked and the
criminal under control like a jailer, gladdens the hearts of the good like the moon;
makes the country rich and prosperous, as a treasurer keeps his treasury full; it
powerful and majestic like the sun, keeps the people in fear and awe; and on whom no
one in the whole world dares to look with a stern eye. He alone is then fit to be the
Head of the State who is like fire, air the sun, the moon, a judge, a treasurer, a gaoler in
keeping the wicked under control, and like electricity in power.”

THE TRUE KING

Manu – “The law alone is the real king, the dispenser of justice, the
disciplinarian. The Law is considered as the surety for the four Classes and Orders to
discharge properly their respective duties.The Law alone is the true Governor that
maintains order among the people.The Law alone is their Protector.The Law keeps
awake whilst all the people are fast asleep. The wise.Therefore, look upon the Law
alone as Dharma or Right. When rightly administered the Law makes all men happy
but when administered wrongly, i.e. without due regard to the requirement of justice, it
ruins the king. All the four Classes would become corrupt, all order would come to an
end, there would be nothing but chaos and corruption if the Law were not properly
enforced.Where the Law – which is likened unto a fear-inspiring man, black in color
and with red eyes – striking fear into the hearts of the people and preventing them from
committing crimes rules supreme, there the people never go astray, and consequently
live in happiness if it be administered by a just and learned man. He alone is considered
a fit person to administer the Law by the wise, who invariably speaks the truth, is
thoughtful, highly intellectual and very clever in the attainment of virtue, wealth nd
righteous desires.The Law rightly administered by the king greatly promotes the
practice of virtue, acquisition of wealth and secures the attainment of the heart-felt
desires of his people.But the same Law destroys the king who is sensual, indolent,
crafty, malevolent, mean and low-minded.
Great is the power and majesty of the Law. It cannot be administered by a man
who is ignorant and unjust. It surely brings the downfall of the king who deviates from
the path of rectitude.The Law cannever be justly administered by a man who is
destitute of learning and culture, has no wise and good men to assist him, and is sunk
in sensualism. He alone is fit to administer the Law-which is another name for justice-
who is wise, pure in heart, of truthful character, associates with the good, conducts
himself according to the law and is assisted by the truly good and great men in the
discharge of his duties”.

28
 CHIEF OFFICES

Manu – “The four chief Offices –Commander-in-Chief of the forces. Head Of the Civil
Government, Minister of Justice, and the Supreme Head of all – the king-should be held
only by those person who are well-versed inall the four Vedas and the Shastras, are
conversant with all the sciences and philosophies, devout, and have perfect control over
their desires passions, and posses a noble character. Let no man transgress that law
which has been passed by an assembly of ten men learned and wise, or at the very least
of three such men.This Assembly must consistof members who are well versed in the
four Vedas, keen logicians, masters of language, and men conversant with the science of
religion; they must belong to the first three Orders – Brahmacharya, Grihastha and
Vanaprastha.Let no man transgress what has been decided by even an Assembly of
three men who are scholars of the Rig Veda, theYajur Veda and the Sama Veda
respectively.
Even the decision of one Sanyasi, who is fully conversant with all the four Vedas
and is superior to all the twice-born (Dwiyas) should be considered of the highest
authority.But let no man abideby the decision of myriads of ignorant men.Even a
meeting ofthousands of men cannot be designated an Assembly, if they destitute of
such high virtues as self-control or truthful character, be ignorant of the Vedas and be
men of no under standing like the Shudras. Let no man abide by the law laid down by
men who are altogether ignorants, and destitute of the knowledge of the Veda, for who
soever obeys the law propounded by ignorant fools into hundreds of kinds of sin and
vice. Therefore, let not ignorant fools be ever made members of the aforesaid three
Assemblies-Political, Education and Religious.On the other hand let learned and devout
persons only be elected to such high offices.
(Note the importance given to Law and its implementation. It was one of the
foundations on which society worked.In India today, wecontinue to follow a legal
system that is British in substance. We understand that some laws being followed were
passed between 1860 and 1900 i.e. over 125 years ago. Now take this concept of giving
Bail.Most criminals manage to get bail and are back to business. Also please note the
importance given to the quality of Law Makers.Take one example; we had Shri Ram
Jethmalani as our Law Minister recently.An outstanding criminal lawyer he used his
brilliance to protect Mumbai’s underworld who have joined hands with Pakistan’s ISI
to destroy India.We can admire Shri Jethmalani for having publicly admitted this at the
Signing Ceremony of India’s Extradition Treaty with the U.A.E.He said that the Treaty
would force all people who were his clients to be sent to India).

QUALIFICATIONS&DUTIES OF MINISTERS AND MEMBERS OF ASSEMBLY

Manu – “Those men alone are fit to fill such high offices, as of the President or a
member of the Political Assembly, who have learnt the three kinds of knowledge, of
good deeds and their practice, of elevation of mind by meditation, and contemplation
of abstruse subjects, and of that superior wisdom that results from the first two-from
the scholars of the four Vedas – the true system of Government, the science of Logic, the
Divine science which consists of the knowledge of the nature, character and attributes
of God and the arts of education and debate. Let all members and leaders always
walkin the path of rectitude, keep the sense under perfect control and keep aloof from

29
sin. Let them always practice yoga, and meditate on God morning and evening, for he
who cannot control his mind and sense-which are subjects of the soul-can never keep
the people under control. Let a man, therefore, most diligently shun (and help others to
do the same) eighteen vices-vices from which a man once entangledinto them can
hardly escape-ten of which proceed from love of pleasure ad eight from anger.
A king addicted to vices arising from the love of pleasure loses his kingdom,
wealth and power and even his character. Whilst one who is addicted to vices arising
from anger may even lose his life.The ten vices proceeding from love of pleasure are:-
(1).Hunting, (2) gaming-playing with dices, gambling, etc., (3) sleepingby day, (4)
gossiping or talking of sensual subjects, (5) excess with wome, (6) use intoxicants such
as alcohol, opium, cannabis India and its productsetc., (7) excessive indulgence in
singing, playing and dancing or hearing and seeing other people do so, (8) and useless
wandering about from place to place.
The vices that proceed from anger are:-
(1) Tale-hearing, (2) Violence, such as outraging another man’s wife, (3) Malevolence,
(4) Envy, i.e., mortification excited by the sight of another person’s superiority or
success, (5) Detraction from one’s character, (6) Expenditure of money, etc., for sinful
purposes, (7) Saying unkind or hard words, (8) Infliction of punishment without any
offence.
Let him assiduously shun self-love that all wise men hold to be the roof of all
evils that are born of the love of pleasure and anger, it is through the love of self that a
man contracts all these vices.The use of intoxicants, gaming, excess with women, and
hunting-these four are the most pernicious vices that arise from the love of
pleasure.Infliction of punishment without offence,the use of slanderous language, the
expenditure of money for unrighteous purpose-these three are the great vices born of
anger that bring extreme suffering on the possessor thereof.Out of these seven vices
proceeding from the love of pleasure and anger the one preceding is worse than the one
following.In other words, the use of slanderous language worse than the abuse of
money, punishing the innocent worse than the use of slanderous language. Hunting is
worse than punishing the innocent, excess with women worse than hunting and the use
of intoxicants worse still.
It is certain that it is better to die than to be addicted to vices, since the longer a
wicked man lives, the more sins he will commit and consequently lower and lower will
he sink and thereby the more will he suffer. Whilst he who is free from vices enjoys
happiness even if he dies”.Therefore, it behoves all men, especially the king, to keep
aloof from hunting drinking, and other vices, and instead, to develop a good character
and a noble disposition, and to devote themselves to the practice of virtuous deeds.

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF MINISTERS AND MEMBERS OF ASSEMBLIES

Manu – “Let a king appoint seven or eight good, righteous and clever ministers
who are natives of the country, are thoroughly conversant with the Vedas and the
Shastras, are very brave and courageous, whose judgment seldom errs, who come from
good family and are well-tried men.Even an act easy in itself becomes difficult to be
accomplished by a man when single-handed.How much more so then, is the great work

30
of the government of a country by a man single-handed. It is, therefore, a most
dangerous thing to make one man a despotic ruler, or entrust a single man with the sole
management of the affairs of the State.
Let the Head of a State, then, constantly consult with his clever and learned
ministers on the affairs of the State, such as (1) Peace, (2) War, (3) Defence-quietly
protecting his own country against a foreign attack and a waiting for an opportunity,
(4) Offence, i.e. attacking a wicked enemy whe he finds himself strong enough to do, (5)
proper management of the internal affairs of the State, the exchequer and the Army; (6)
Pacification of the newly conquered countries by freeing them from all kinds of
disturbance. Let him daily reflect on the six subjects.
Having ascertained the individual opinion of each of his ministers and other
members of the Assembly let him abide by the decision of the majority and do what is
beneficil for him as well as for others.Let him likewise appoint other ministers who are
men of great integrity, highly intellectual,of resolute minds, of great organizing power
and of vast experience. Let him appoint good, energetic, strong, and clever officers,
as many as he requires, for the due transaction strong men of great integrity and of
noble lineage fill positions involving great responsibility and risk, whilst let timid and
faint-hearted men be employed for the administration of internal affairs.
Let him also appoint an Ambassador who comes from a good family. Is very
clever, perfectly honest, able to read the in most thoughts of others and to foretell future
developments and events by observing the expression of faces and other significant
signs and acts, and is well versed in all the Shastras-branches of knowledge.He alone is
a fit person to be appointed an Ambassador who is very much devoted to politics, loves
his country with all his heart, is of irreproachable character, pure in heart, highly
intelligent and endowed with an excellent memory, who can adapt himself to the
manners and customs of different countries and different times, is good looking,
fearless and a master of elocution”.

DUTIES OF MINISTERS AND OTHER HIGH OFFICIALS

Manu – “The power to enforce the law should be vested in a minister who
should see that the law is administered justly, treasury and other affairs of the State
should be under the control of the king, peace and war under that of the Ambassador,
and everything under the control of the Assembly.It is the Ambassador alone who can
make peace between enemies, or war between friends.He should so strive as to divide
enemies united against his country.Thus having learnt the designs of his enemy let a
king – the President of the Assembly (as well as members of the Assembly,
Ambassadors and others) – endeavor to guard himself against all danger from him.
In a thickly wooded country, where the soil is rich, let him build himself a town
surrounded by a fortress of earth, or one protected by water or one surrounded by a
thick wood on all sides, or a fortress of armed men, or one surrounded by a mountain.
Let him build a wall round the city, because one brave, well-armed soldier
placedinsideit is a match for a hundred, and a hundred for thousands. It is therefore,
extremely necessary to build a fort. Let the fort be well-supplied with arms and
ammunitions, with various kinds of grain and other food stuffs, with conveyances and
beasts of burden, etc., with teachers and preachers, artisans, various kinds of machines,

31
with grass and grain, etc., for animals and with water, etc. In the centre of the town let
him build for himself a Government house, well-protected from wind, etc., suited to all
weathers, with well-provded parks and gardens round it, and well-supplied with
water. It should be big for all the state functions.
(This strategy of getting into a Fort, like Chittor might have been sensible in the ancient
times but during the Muslim invasion it proved to be counter productive.After all for
how long can a group of people survive in a fort of they are faced with attack from all
sides.)
Having done so far, that is having completed his studies in the order of
Brahmacharya and settled the affairs of the State, let him choose a consort of Kshatriya
Class, born of a high family, endowed with beauty and other excellent qualities dearest
to his, blessed with charming manner etc., and equal to him in knowledge, acquisitions,
accomplishments and of like temperament.Let him take one wife and one only, and
consider all other women as unapproachable, therefore let him not even look at another
woman (with the eye of lust).Let him retain a chaplain and a spiritual teacher to
perform Homa and Yajnas suitable for different seasons and other religious duties for
him in the palaces, and let him always devote himself to the business of the State.To
devote himself day and night to the affairs of the State without allowing anything to go
out of order is the highest duty of a kig, aye, this is his worship, this is his communion”.

REVENUE

Manu – “Let the king collect his revenue through honorable, trust worthy and
accomplished men possessed of excellent character.Let him, who is the President of the
Assembly, his ministers and other officials, and the Assembly observe the eternal
principles taught by the Vedas, and let them act like fathers to the people.Let the
Assembly appoint officials of various kinds whose sole duty it should be to see that the
State officials in all departments do their duties faithfully according to the regulations.
Let them, who discharge their duties satisfactorily, be honored, whilst those who do
not, be punished properly.
In order to disseminate the knowledge of the Veda which is truly called the
imperishable treasure of the kings, let the king and the Assembly show due respect to
students, who return from their seminaries after having studied the Vedas and Shastras
in the Order of Brahmacharya as well as their teachers. This helps forward the spread
of education and the progress of a country.If a king, devoted to the welfare of his
people, be defied by an enemy of equal, greater, or less strength, let him remember the
duty of a Kshatriya and never shrink from going to battle.Let him fight with such skill
as may ensure his victory.Those kings who, with the object of defeating their enemies,
fight fearlessly to their utmost and never turn away from the field of battle shall obtain
happiness.They must never turn backs upon the field of battle, it is sometimes
necessary to hide away from the enemy in order to obtain victory over him. Let them
employ all kinds of tactics to ensure their success in battle, but let them not perish
follishly like a tiger who, when his temper is roused, exposes himself foolishly to the
fire ad is thereby killed.

32
 In the field of battle let soldiers bear in mind the duty of men of honor, and,
therefore, never strike a man who is standing near the field of battle – a non-combatant
– nor one whois a eunuch, nor one who with folded palms begs for peace, nor one
whose hair is disheveled or scattered (over his eyes), nor one who is sitting at each, nor
one who says ‘I am at your mercy’, nor one who is asleep, nor one who is unconscious
or in a fit, nor one who is disarmed, nor one who is naked, nor one who is a mere
spectator, nor one who is only a camp-collower, nor onewho is in agony of pain from
his wounds, nor one who is an invalid, nor one who is seriously wounded, nor one who
is terrified, nor one who is running away (from the field of battle). They should make
them prisoners and provide them with food, drink and other necessaries of life. The
wounded should be medically attended to.They should never be teased or made to
suffer inany way.They should be employed in the kind of work that suits their station,
etc.The king should especially see that no one strikes a woman, a child, and old man, a
wounded man and onewho is diseased or afflicted with sorrow. Let him protect and
bring up their children as if they were his own, and let their women be also well looked
after.He should look upon them as he would upon his own daughter or sisters. Nor
should he never look upon them with the eye of lust.After the country has settled
down, let him send all those, from whom he does not fear a fresh revolt, away to their
own homes; but let him, keep in prison all others who, he fears, may possibly raise the
standard of revolt.
(Interesting thoughts.Now lets compare how the Hindus nd Muslims fight. Lets take
the last war Kargil.Every time Indians came across dead Pakistanis we buried them if
they were alive they were taken prisoner ad released later. The Pakis either killed our
soldiers or cut their organs and sent them back. The same is the case with Bangladesh
when they killed 16 BSF jawans. Muslim invaders raped our women and destroyed our
temples.How many times have we heard Hindu rulers raping women or destroying a
place of worship as a sign of conquest? The award winning movie Gladiator shows
how gruesome the Greeks of 2000 years ago were, they had no scruples, killed
mercilessly.On the other handlets go back further in India to the Mahabharat war. War
stopped at sunset, a person who was injured or on the ground was never attacked, in
short, thre were certain rules that governed war.The question that you need to ask
yourself is that must we become ruthless, have the killer instinct and kill our enemies
without mercy or like Nehru and Vajpayee walk around with this badge of being
magnanimous, international statesmen, restraint allowing our jawans to die in the
process).
The soldier, who cowardly turns his back on a field of battle and is slain (by the
enemy), is thus rightly punished for his disloyalty to his master who shall take unto
himself all the honor due to the deceased on account of his past good conduct which
begets happiness in this world and in the next.The solder, who is killed whilst running
away from the field of battle, shall never obtain happiness. All his good work is
nullified by this act of cowardice.He alone wins laurels who fights faithfully.Let the
king never violate this law that carriages, horses, elephants, tents, umbrellas, grains
silver and gold, cattle such as cows, women cases of oil and butter, and various other
articles are lawful prize of the soldier or of the officer who take them in war. The
captors should give the sixteen part of their loot to the king, andso should the latter
distribute among the whole army the sixteen part of what was taken by them

33
collectively”. Let his wife and children have the share of the man who is killed in
war.The wife and children of that man should be well looked after till the children are
grown up when the king should offer them suitable state appointments.Let no one, who
is desirous of augmenting the prosperity of his State and of gaining fame, victory, and
happiness, transgress this law.
Manu – “What the king and the Assembly have not let them strive hard to get,
what they have acquired, let them preserve with care, what they have preserved let
them augment, nd let them spend the augmented wealth in the diffusion of the
knowledge of the Vedas, the spread of the principles of true religion, in helping
scholars and preachers of the Vedas religion, and bringing up orphans.Having learnt
the fourfold object of activity let him shun sloth and live an active life. Let him obtain
what he has not got by the observance of the law, and what he has acquired let him
protect with diligent attention, what he has protected let him augment by investing
profitably, and let him always spend his augmented wealth in the furtherance of the
aforesaid cause.
Let him on all occasions act without guile never without sincerity, but, keeping
himself well on his guard let him discover and ward off the evil designs of his
enemy.Let him ponder over the acquisition of wealth like a heron that pretends to be as
if in meditative attitude just before catching fish. Having obtained the necessary
material nd augmented his power, let him put forth his strength like a lion to vanquish
hs foe; like a tiger let him stealthily creep towards his enemy and catch him When a
powerful enemy has come close by, let him run away from him like a hare and then
overtake him by stratagem.Let not his foe discover his weak points but the vulnerable
points of his foe let him himself well discern. Let him hide his vulnerable points from
his enemy just as a tortoise draws in his limbs and keeps them concealed from view.
Let such a victorious soverign reduce all dacoits, robbers and the like to
submission by conciliating them, by giving them presents or by turning them against
each other. If he fails to restrain them by those means let him do so by inflicting heavy
punishment on them. As a farmer separates the husk from the corn without
injuring the latter, so should a king exterminate dacoits and burglars, and thus protect
his people.
The king, who through neglect of duty and lack of understanding oppresses his
people, soon loses his kingdom and perishes with his family before his time.Just as
living beings lose their lives through the failure of their bodily strength, so do kings as
well as their families lose their power, and even their lives by oppressing their
subjects.Therefore, in order toconduct the government properly let the king and the
assembly so strives as to fully accomplish this object.The king who is always devoted to
the welfare of his people obtains perpetual happiness.Let him, therefore, have an
administrative office in the midst of two, three, five and a hundred villages, wherein he
should keep the required number of officials to carry on government business. Let him
appoint an official at the head of one village, a second one over ten such village, a third
one over twenty, a fourth one over one hundred village, and a fifth one over a thousand
such villages.

34
 Let the Lord (i.e., Administrator) of one town daily apprise the Lord of Ten
Towns privately of all crimes committed within his jurisdiction and the Lord of Ten
submit his report to the Lord of Twenty.Let the Lord of Twenty notify all such matters
to the Lord of one Hundred every day and the Lord of one Hundred, to the Lord of one
Thousand, in other words, five Lords of Twenty, to a Lord of one Hundred, ten Lords
of a Hundred, to a lord of Ten Thousand, and the Lord of Ten Thousand to an
Assembly which governs the affairs of a hundred thousand townships and all such
Assemblies, to the Supreme International Assembly representing the whole world.Over
every ten thousand villages let him appoint two presiding officials, one of whom
should preside over the Assembly, whilst the other should tour all over the country and
diligently inspect the work and conduct of all the magistrates and other officials.
For the purpose of holding the meetings of town councils let him erect a Town
Hall in every big town.It should be lofty, capacious and beautiful like the moon,
wherein left the members of the town council, who should be men of vast learning and
experience, deliberate over the affairs of their town, and make such laws as will
promote the welfre of the people and advance the cause of education and
enlightenment.Let the inspecting governor have detectives under him – who should
come from Kshatriya as well as other Classes – and through hem let him secretly know
perfectly the conduct – good or bad – of the Government servants as well as that of the
people. Let him punish those who do not faithfully discharge their duties, and honor
those whose conduct is praiseworthy.
Let the king appoint such men guardians of his people as are virtuous, well-
experienced, learned and of good lineage; under such learned officils let him also place
men who are very wicked as burglars and robbers, i.e. who live by seizing what belongs
to others. It will help to keep those men from the pursuit of their wicked ways, as well
as, to protect the people properly.Let the king punish properly the magistrate who
accepts bribe either from theplaintiff or the defendant in a case and, therefore, gives an
unjust decision, confiscate all his possessions, and banish him to a place from which he
cannever return. Were that man to go unpunished, it would encourage other officials to
commit similar wicked crimes, whilst the infliction of punishment would serve to check
them. But let those officials be paid handsomely for their services – either by gifts of lnd
or in lump sums of money, paid annually or monthly – enough to keep them in comfort
and even to make them rich.Let an old official in consideration of his services be
granted a pension equal to half his pay. This pension must last only so long as he lives,
not after.But let his children be properly hnored or given Government appointments
according to their qualifications.Let his wife and children be given an allowance their
qualifications.Let his wife and children be given and allowance by the State enough for
their subsistence which should be stopped if they turn wicked. Let the king constantly
follow this policy”.
TAXES AND WAR.

Manu – “Let the king in conjunction with the Assembly, after full consideration,
so levy taxes in his dominins as toensure the happiness of both the rulers and the
ruled.Let the king draw annual revenue from his people little by little just as the leech,
the suckling calf and the bee take their food little by little. Let him not, through extreme
covetousness, destroy the very roots of his own and others, happiness, since he, who

35
cuts off the roots of happiness and temporal prosperity, brngs nothing but misery of
himself as well as on others.
The king who can be both gentle and stern as occasion demands is highly
honored if he is gentle to the good and stern towards the wicked.Having thus arranged
the affairs of the State let him devote himself to the protection and welfare of his people
with diligent attention.Know that king as well as his ministers to be dead, not alive, the
lives and property of whose subjects are violently taken awy by ruffians whilst they
lament and cry aloud for help. Great shall be his suffering.Promotion of the happiness
of their subjects, therefore, is the hghest duty of kings.The king who discharges ths duty
faithfully, levies taxes and governs the country with the helps of the Assembly enjoys
happiness, but he who does otherwise is afflicted with misry and suffering”.
Manu – Let the king rise in the last watch of the night, have a wash, meditate on
God with his whole attention, perform Homa, pay his respects to the devoutly learned
men, take his meal and enter the audience chamber. Let him standing there show
respect to the people present.Having dismissed them, let him take counsel with his
Prime Minister on state affairs.Thereafter let him go out for a walk or a ride, seek the
top of a mountain wilderness, where there is not even the tiniest tree (to hide a person),
or a sequestered house and discuss (state affairs) with him in all sincerity. “That king
whose profound thoughts other men even though combined cannot unravel, in other
words, whose thought are deep, pure, centered on public good, and hidden shall rule
the whole earth, even though poor. Let him never do even a single thing without the
approval of the Assembly”.
Manu – “The king and other person in authority should keep it in view that it is
their duty to adopt after due deliberation one of the following six measures as occasion
demands:-
1. Remaining passive.
2. Marching to action.
3. Making peace with the enemy.
4. Declaring war against wicked enemies.
5. Gaining victory bydividing his forces.
6. Seeking the protection of or alliance with a powerful king when a ruler is weak.
Let the king thoroughly acquaint himself with the twofold nature of each of these
measures:-
The two kinds of peace with the enemy re – (1) the contracting parties act in
conjunction, and (2) they act apart.But let the king always go on doing whatever is
necessary for the present or will be required for the future.
War is of two kinds: - (1) When it is waged on accountof an injury to himself, and
(2) when it is waged on account of a injury to a friendly power or an ally inseason or
out of season.
Remaining quiet is of two kinds – firstly, when it is done when the king’s own
power is weakened through some cause, and secondly, when he remains quiet on the

36
advice of his ally.To divide one’s force-rank and life-into two sections in order to gain
victory is called the Division of the force.
Seeking the protection of or alliance with a powerful ruler or the advice of a
great man in self-defence when threatened by an enemy or when on the offensive is the
twofold Protection or Alliance.When a king ascertains that by going to war at the
present time he will suffer, whilst by waiting and going to war at some future time he
will certainly gain in power and vanquish his enemy, let him, then make peace with
him and patiently wait for that favorable opportunity.When he finds his people and the
army considerable happy, prosperous and full of spirits and himself the same, let him
then declare war against his foe.When he knows his own troops to be contented,
cheerful and fit well fed, we nourished and well-clothed, etc. – and those of his enemy
the reverse, let him then attack or march against his foe.When he finds his foe much
stronger than himself, let him accomplish his object by doubling or dividing his
force.When it becomes clear to him that his enemies will soon march against him, let
him then seek speedily the protection of or alliance with, a just and powerful king.
Let a king serve him who would help him in restoring order among his people or
in keeping his army under control or his enemy in check, as he would, histecher-
temporal and spiritual.But ifhe finds his protector or ally full of evil designs, let him
then fight him too fearlessly.Let him never be hostile to a king who is just and virtuous.
On the other hand, let him always be on friendly terms with him.All the aforesaid
measure are to be adopted in order to vanquish a wicked man who is in power”.
Manu – “Let a king who is true statesman, adopt such measures that neither his
allies neutral powers, nor his foes may grow in power or gain any great advantage over
him.Let him thoroughly deliberate over the advantages and disadvantages of his past
actions, his present and future duties.Then let him strive to ward off evils and promote
good results.That king shall never be vanquished by his enemies who can foresee the
good and evil results likely to follow from the measures that he would adopt in the
future, who acts according to his convictions in the present without delay and knows
his failings in the past.Let a statesman, especially the king, viz., the President of the
Assembly, so endeavor that the power of his allies, natural powers and foes may be
kept within limits and not otherwise. Never should he be negligent of this. This alone
is, in brief, true statesmanship”.
Manu – “Before a king begins his march against his enemy, let him secure the
safety of his dominions, provide himself with all that it necessary for the expedition,
take the necessary number of troops, carriages and other conveyances, weapons, fire-
arms, etc and dispatch his spiesin all quarters. Having seen that all the three ways-by
land, on water and through air- are clear and well secured, let him traverl on land by
means of cars, on foot, on horseback, or on elephants, on water by boats, andthrough air
by air-ships and the like, well provide himself with infantry, cavalry elephants cars,
weapons of war, provisions and other necessary things, and proceed gradually towards
the chief city of the enemy having first given out some reason for his march.In his
conversation let him be well on his guard against, and keep a strict watch on the
movements of a man who is inwardly a friend of the enemy and privately gives him
information, whilst outwardly keep with him also on friendly terms; because he who is

37
inwardly an enemy and outwardly a friends must be looked upon as the most
dangerous foe.
Let the king see that all officers learn the science and art of war, as well as he himself
and other people. It is only those warriors who are well experienced in the art of war
that can fight well on the field of battle. Let them be welfare drilled in the following
various dispositions:-
1. Marching troops in file.
2. Marching troops in column.
3. Marching troops in square.
4. Marching troops at the double.
5. Marching troops in Echelon.
6. Advancing in skirmishing order.
Let him extend his troops to the flank from which he apprehends danger like a
lotus flower.Let him keep his troops with their Commanders on four sides and himself
in the centre.Let him place his Generals, and Commanding Officers with their brave
troops in all the eight directions. Let him turn his front towards the fighting.He must
also have his flanks and rear well guarded, otherwise, the enemy may attack him on
these positions.On all sides let him station whose soldiers who are well-trained in the
art of war, firm in their places like the pillars of a roof, virtuous, clever in charging and
sustaining a charge, fearless and faithful.
When he has to fight an enemy superior to himself innumbers, let him then
arrange his troops in close formation or quickly deploy as occasion demands. When he
has to fight his way into a city, a fort or the ranks of his enemy, let him arrange
hierarchy troops in various forms of military array, such as marching them in Echelon
or in the form of a double-edged sword that cuts both ways; let them fight as well as
advance. Before artillery or musketry fire let him order his troops to crawl like snakes
till they get near the guns, shoot or capture the gunners and turn those very guns on the
enemy or shoot him with his rifles. Or let him make old soldiers run on horses before
the guns, keep good soldiers in the middle and thus attack the enemy. Let him shoot
the enemy, scatter his forces or capture them by a vigorous assault.
On level ground let him fight on foot, on horseback, or in crs, on sea in men-of-
war, in shallow water on elephants, among trees and bushes with arrows. And in sandy
places with swords and shields.When his troops are engaged in fighting, let him cheer
and encourage them. At the close of a battle let him gladden the hearts of those who
have distinguished themselves, by making nice speeches, providing them with
everything they need, looking after their comfort, and helping them in every other
way.Let him never engage in a fight without forming his troops ito the necessary array
of battle.Let him always watch the behavior of his troops and see whether they
discharge their faithfully or not.Let him. If occasion arises surround the enemy and
detain him, harass his country, and cut off his supply of grass, water, food and fuel.Let
him destroy the reservoirs, city walls, and trenches of his enemy, alarm him by night,
and adopt other measures to vanquish him.

38
 Having conquered his foe let him have a treaty signed by him. Let him, if
necessary, depose him from the throne and appoint another righteous man from the
same dynasty as king, and have a document signedby him to the effect that the would
carry out his orders, in other-words that he would adopt a just system of Government,
serve his people and protect them.Let him give him the aforesid advice and leave such
men with him as would prevent any further disturbance.Let him honor his vanquished
foe with the gifts of gems and other valuable presents. Let him not behave so meanly as
to deprive him even of his subsistence. Even if he were to keep him as his prisoner, let
him show him such respect as may free him from the sorrow consiquent on his defeat
and make his life happy; because the seizure of other property in this world gives rise
to hatred, whilst the bestowal of gifts on others is the cause of love. Let him especially
do the right for him at the right moment, it is a laudabe thing to give the vanquished
foe what is his heart’s desire.Let him never taunt him, nor laugh at him, nor poke fun at
him, not even remind him of his defeat. Instead let him always show him respect by
addressing him as hiw own brother”.

THE QUALIFICATION OF A FRIEND.

Manu – “A king does not gain in power so much by the acquisition of gold and
territory as by securing a friend who is firm, loving and far-seeing.Such afriend is
valuable no matter whether he is powerful enough to help him in the attainment of his
wishes or is even weak.It is laudable for a king to secure a friend-feeble though he be-
who knows what is right, remembers gratefully and kindness shown to him, is cheerful
intemper, affectionate and persevering. Let him bear in mind that is not proper to make
a foe of a man who is eminently wise, comes from an excellent family, and is brave,
courageous, clever, liberal-minded, grateful, firm, and patient.Whosoever makes such a
man his foe is sure to suffer.He called neutral (i.e. neither an avowed friends nor a
declared foe) who is possessed of good qualities, knowledge of mankind, valor,
kindness of heart, and who never discloses the secret of his heart.
Let a king get up early in the morning, attend to his toilet, worship God, perform
Homa himself or have it done by his chaplain, consult with his ministers, inspect and
review his troops, cheer their spirits, inspect stables of horses and elephants, cow
houses, etc., stores of arms and ammunition, hospitals and the treasury, in short,
inspect everything with his owneyes and point out shortcoming.Let him then go to the
gymnasium, take physical exercise and, thereafter, in the middle of the day enter his
private apartments to dine with his wife.His food should be well tested and be such as
will promote health, strength, energy and intellect. It should consist of various kinds of
eatables, drink, and sweets, juicy and fragrant dishes as well as condiments, sauce, etc.,
that may keep him free from disease”.Let him thus promote the welfare of his people.

RATE OF TAXES.

Manu – “Let the king take from trades – people and artisans one-fiftieth part of
their profits in silver and gold, and one-sixth, one-eighth, or one-twelfth of agricultural
produce such as rich”. If he takes it in cash instead of inkind, then too let him take it in
such a way that the farmers and others would not suffer from poverty or from want of
necessaries of life such as, food, drink and so on. Because when the people are rich,

39
healthy and have abundance of necessaries of life, the king flourishes.Let him therefore
make his subject happy as he would his own children, and let the people regard the
king, his ministers and other officials as their natural protectors, since it is a fact that the
farmers and other wealth producers are the real source of kingly power. The king is
their gurdian. If there were no subjects whose king would he be? Or on the other hand
if there were no king whose subjects will they be called? Let both – the rulers and the
ruled – be independent of each other in the performance of their respective duties, but
let them subordinate themselves to each other in all those matters that require mutual
harmony and co-operation. Let not the rulers go against the voice of the people, nor let
the people and ministers do anything against the wish of the soverign.
The political duties of kings have thus been briefly described. Let those who
want to study this subjects indetail consult the four Vedas, the Manu Smriti, the
Shukraniti, the Mahabhat and other books.The method of administering justice may be
studied from the eighth and ninth chapters of Manu, but they are also described below:-

THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.

Manu – Let the king, the Court and the Judge daily decide justly law suits –
which are classified under eighteen heads – according to the laws of the land and the
teachings of the Dharma Shastra.If it be found necessary to undertake fresh legislation –
in respect of matters about which no laws are to be found in the Law books of Rishis -
let such laws be framed as will promote the welfare of the rulers and the ruled.
These are the following 17 causes of disputes:-
1. Debt.
2. Deposit – the dispute arises when a man deposits an article with another and is
refused its return on demand.
3. Sale by one person of a thig is owned by another.
4. Association of some persons against a particular individual for a criminal
purpose.
5. Refusal to return a loan.
6. Non-payment or inadequate payment ofone’swages.
7. Disputes with regard to sale or purchase.
8. Disputes between the owner of an animal and the man who looks after it.
9. Boundary disputes.
10. Assault
11. Slander.
12. Larceny, burglary, and decoity.
13. Violence
14. Adultery.
15. Disregard of conjugal duties.
16. Disputes about inheritance.
17. Gambling with animate as well as inanimate things.

40
 These are the 17 causes of disputes among men.Let the judge observe the eternal
law of justice and decide all these cases of disputes among men justly, that is, without
partiality.Where Justice, having been wounded by Injustice, approaches the Court, and
no one extracts the dart, shot by Injustice, from the wound, all the judges who
constitute the bench deserve also to be counted as wounded.Either a just and virtuous
man should not enter an Assembly (or a Court of justice), or, when he does enter it,
should invariably speak the truth. He who looks on injustice perpetrated before his
very eyes and still remains mute, or says what is false or unjust, is the greatest sinner.
Where justice is destroyed by injustice and Truth by Untruth under the very nose
of the Judges who simply look on, all those who preside over that Court are as if dead,
not one of them is alive.Justice being destroyed shall destroy the destroyer.Justice being
protected shall protect the protector.Let no man, therefore, violate the laws of justice
lest, being destroyed, destroy him. He who violates the laws of justice - justice that
gives power and prosperity, and showers happiness like rain from haven-is considered
as lowest of the low by the wise. Let no one, therefore, violate the laws of justice. Justice
alone, in this world, is the true friend that accompanies a man even after death; all other
companions become extinct with the extinction of the body.Justice never for sakes a
man.
When injustice is perpetrated in a Court of Justice (or an assembly) by partiality
being shown to one party, the justice is divided into four equal parts. One quarter falls
to the share of the party in the cause, one quarter of his witnesses, one quarter of all the
judges (or members of the assembly), and one quarter of the presiding judge (or
President of the Assembly). Where he, who deserves condemnation, is condemned; he
who is worthy of praise, is praised, he, who merits punishment, is punished; and he,
who deserves honor, is honored, in that court (or assembly) the Presiding Judge and
other Judges (or the President and the members of the Assembly) are guiltless and
innocent, and the evil deed recoils on him alone who committed it,”

WITNESSES AND THEIR APTITUDES.

Manu – “Among all classes those persons alone are eligible as witnesses who are
men of character, learned, straightforward, who know their duty properly, and are
truthful and free from covetousness.Never should men of opposite character be
considered as eligible to bear witness.Let women be witnesses for women, the twice-
born for the twice born: Shudras for Shudras, and outcasts for outcasts.Let a judge
never deem it extremely necessary to examine too strictly, the competence of witnesses
in cases of violence, theft, adultery, the use of abusive language and assault, all these
things being done in the private, witnesses are not easily available in such cases.If there
be contradictory evidence let him accept as true the evidence of the majority; if the
conflicting parties are equal in number, that of those distinguished by good qualities; on
a difference between equally distinguished witnesses, that of the best among the twice-
born, viz., sages, seers and Sanyasis - altruistic teachers of humanity.
Two kinds of evidence are admissible, (1) what has been seen and (2) what has
been heard by the witnesses. A witness who speaks the truth in a court of law neither
deviates from righteousness nor deserves to be punishsed, but he, who does otherwise,
should be properly punished.A witness, who says anything in a court of law or in an

41
assembly of good men, different from what he had seen or heard, should have his
tongue cut-off.He will consequently live in misery and pain for the rest of his life and
will have no happiness after death in consequence of having perjured himself. Let
only that which a witness declares naturally be received as evidence, but what he says
on being tutored by others be considered useless for the purposes of evidence by a
judge.The witnesses being assembled in the court let the judge or the counsels in the
presence of the plaintiffs and defendants address them in the following way:-
“O ye witnesses! Whatever you know with regard to the matter before us in
relation to both prties declare truthfully, for your evidence is needed inthis case. A
witness who speks the truth shall hereafter - in future rebirths – attain to exalted
regions and states, and enjoy happiness; he will obtain glory in life As well as in the
next, because the power of speech has been declared in the Vedas as the cause of honor
and disgrace. He who invariably speaks the truth is worthy of honor, while he who
falsifies his speech is disgraced.By truthfullness in speech is the cause of justice and
Righteousness advanced. It behooves witnesses of all classes, therefore, to speak the
truth andnothingbut the truth.Verily, the soul itself is its own witness; the soul itself is
its ownmotive power. O Man! Thou who art the chief witness on behalf of others
destroy not the purity of theory own soul; in other words do thou know what is inthy
own mind and to which theory speech corresponds as truth and the reverse as
utruth.The wise considers no man greaterthan one whose discerning soul feels no
misgivings when speaks. O man! If thou desire to obtain happiness by uttering a
falsehood when thou art alone, thou art mistaken, for the Supreme spirit that resides
inthy soul see whatever thou does – good or bad. Fear Him O man! And live constantly
a truthful life”.
Manu – “Evidence given through covetousness, through love, through fear,
through friendship, through lust, through hunger, through anger, through ignorance
and through childishness, must be held false. Should a witness give false evidence from
either of these motives, letfitting punishment is inflicted on him. If a man gives false
evidence through covetousness he shall be fined one thousand panas or one pound ten
pence, if through love four shillings three pence, if through fear eight shillings four
pence, if through friendship sixteen shillings eight pence, if through lust one pound
thirteen shillings four pence, if through anger, three pounds two shillings six pence, if
through ignorance eight shillings, and if through childishness two shillings one pence.
Punishment may be inflicted, through property, the penis, the back, the tongue,
hands, feet, eyes; ears, the nose, and the whole body.The amount of various
punishments (with regard to fines) that have been described above or shall be done
hereafter, should vary with the pecuniary circumstances of the offender; with the time
and place andnature of the offence, and with the general character and position (social
and the like) of the offender.The infliction of unjust punishment destroys reputation
and honor-past, present and future – in this world as well as the glory to come. It
causes great misery and intense suffering even after death; let a judge, therefore. Avoid
infliction of unjust punishment.A king who inflicts punishment on such as deserve it
not, and inflicts no punishment on such as deserve it, brings infamy on himself in this
life and shall sink to great depths of misery in the next.Let the guilty, therefore, be
invariably punished, and the innocent never punished.For the first offence let the
offender be punished by gentle admonition, for the second by harsh reproof, for the

42
third by a fine, and for the fourth by corporal chastisement, such as flogging and
caning, or by imprisonment or death penalty”.
Manu – “With whatever limb a mancommits an offence, even that limb shall the
king remove or destroy in order to set an example to others and prevent the repetition
of the same crime. Whosoever – be he father; tutor, friend, wife, son, or spiritual
teacher –deviates from the path of duty, becomes liable to punishment; in other words,
when a judge sits on the set of justice, let him show partiality to no one and punish all
justly.Where an ordinary man is fined one penny, a king shall be a thousand, i.e.,
punishment inflicted on a king should be a thousand times heavier than that on an
ordinary man, the king’s minister eight hundred times, the official lower than him
seven hundred, and one still lower six hundred and so on; even the lowest official such
as a constable, should be punished not less than eight times as heavily as an ordinary
man would be, for if the government officials or servants be not punished more
severely than ordinary people, they would tyrannize over them. As a lion requires a
severer punishment than a goat to be well broken, similarly do the rulers (from the
highest officials – the king - to the meanest servant of the State), and require heavier
punishment than ordinary people. If a person possesses the power of discrimination,
and yet commit theft, let his punishsment be eight fold - i.e., eight times the amount of
the theft - if he be a Shurdra; sixteen-fold, if a Vaishya thirty-two fold, if a Kshatriya,
sixty-four or a hundred-fold, or even one hundred and twenty-eight-fold if he be a
Brahman, i.e., the more knowledge a man possesses and the greater his reputation and
influence, the heavier his punishment should be.
Let not the king and other persons in authority, who desire wealth and
prosperity, and love justice and righteousness, delay even for a single moment the
punishment of man who has committed atrocious violence as dacoity, robbery, etc.A
man who commits violence is wicked and a more grievous offender than a slander, a
thief, and even one who assaults another without provocation. A king, who suffers a
man that perpetrates such atrocities to go unpunished, incurs public displeasure and
shall soon perish. Neither through friendship, nor even at the offer of immense wealth
should a king let a criminal, who commits violent acts, go unpunished.On a criminal
who is a terror to the people, let the king inflict just punishment, such as imprisonment
or death. Let him put a man, who is convicted of the murder of another (but not in self-
defence, etc.) to death without a moment’s hesitation, be he his tutor, his child, his
father or some other elderly person, a Brahman, or a great scholar.He commits no sin
who passes the sentence of death on a criminal convicted of murder and such other
highly heinous crimes whether he be executed publicly or privately. It is like opposing
anger to anger.Most excellent is the king in whose realm there is neither a thief nor an
adulterer, nor a slanderer, nor a perpetrator of atrocious violence such as a decoit not a
transgressor of the law”.
Manu – “Should a wife out of her family pride desert her husband and
misconduct herself, let the king condemn her to be devoured by dogs before all men
and women. Similarly should a husband forsake his wife and misconduct himself with
other women, let the king cause that sinner to be burnt alive publicly on a red hot iron-
bed.”

43
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON GOVERNANCE

Q. Who shall punish the king or the queen, the Lord Chief Justice or his wife, if any
one of them commits such wicked crimes as adultery?
A. The Assembly (or the court of justice). They should be punished even more severely
than other people.
Q. Why will the king and other high personages suffer the Assembly (or the court of
justice) to punish them?
A. The king but a man endowed with virtue and favored by fortune.The king and other
high personages to go free. They would simply set justice and righteousness at naught,
sink into the depths of injustice and ruin the people as well as themselves.Remember
the teaching of the Vedic text that says “Verily the just Law alone is the true king, yes;
the just Law is the true religion”. Whosoever violates it is lowest of the low.
Q. How can it be right to inflict such severe punishments, since man has no power
tomake a limb or bring the dead to life again?
A. Whom soever calls it severe punishment is ignorant of the true principles of Right
Government.The infliction of a heavy punishment on one man prevents others from
commiting similar crimes, and tends to keep them steadfst in righteousness.Truly
speaking this so-called heavy punishment is no heavier than the weight of a mustard
seed whe distributed amog all the members of a community, whilst so-called light
punishment, by its failure tocheck crime, is really a thousand times heavier than the
first, as it is multiplied a thousand times by the proportional increase of crime Now take
for an illustration a community of one thousand persons.If every one of them be
punished, say, one pound each, the total punishment will be one thousand pounds,
whilst if one man in this community of one thousand persons bepunished, say, one
hundred pounds and should that punishment succeed in preventing the
repetitionofsimilar crimes, the total punishment will not be more thana hundred
pounds, which is ten times less than one thousand pounds.Thus the seemingly light
punishment in the long run turns out to be the heavier one.
Manu – “Let the king impose toll on all the ships and boats passing up and down sea-
canals (or bays) and rivers – big and small – proportionate to the length of the country
that they traverse; at sea no settled duty can be imposed, hence let him do what best
suits the occasion. Let him in such cases make laws that may prove beneficial both to
the state and the proprietors of ships. Let him always protecthis subjects, who go to
different foreign lands by means of these ships, wherever they are. Let them never
suffer inany way. “Let the king daily watch the results of various measures (adopted for
the good of the state, etc.) inspect elephants, horses and other conveyances, inquire into
his income and expenditure, inspect his mines of precious gems, and his treasury.A
king who discharges all these duties most faithfully is freed from all taint of sin, and
shall attain to the Supreme State”.
Q. Is the ancient Aryan system of Government perfect or imperfect?
A. Perfect; because all other systems of Government, that prevail at person or shall
prevail, have and will have for their basis the Aryan system of Government.The laws
that have not been declared expressly have been provided for by the text. “Let the

44
Parliament composed of scholars, frame such laws as are just and beneficial to the
rulers and the ruled”.Let the king as well as his advisers bear inmind that early
marriage must not, be allowed, nor the marriage of grown us people without mutual
consent. Let the king encourage the practice of Brahmacharya; let him put a stop to
prostitution and the customof plurality of wives (as polygamy, etc) so that bothbody
and soul may attain perfect strength and power.For if only mental powers and
knowledge be developed, but not physical strength one man of great physical strength
may vanquish hundreds of scholars.On the other hand if physical strength alone be
sought after and not mental, the high duties of Government cannever be rightly
discharged. Without proper training andrequisite knowledge and without the proper
discharge of these duties, there can be harmony.All will the discord, division, mutual
disputes, quarrels and feuds that ultimately all. Let, therefore both mind and body be
developed. There is nothing more prejudicial to the growth of physical and mental
powers than prostitution and excessive sexual indulgence.Kshatriyas should, in
particular, be physically strong and possess well-developed bodies, because if they be
lascivious, the government of the country is irrevocably ruined.The proverb “As is the
king, so shall the people be” should never be lost sight of. It therefore behoves the king
and other high personages never to misconduct themselves.Instead, let them always set
a good example to others in the matter of just and righteous living.
Thus have the duties of Rulers been briefly described.Those, who want to study them
in detail, are referred to the Vedas, the seventh, eighth and ninth chapters of Manu, the
Shukraniti, Vidurprajagar, Rajadharma, and Apatadharma, chapters of Shantiparva of
the Mahabharata.They should perfectly master the science and art of government, and
rule one country or Empire or the whole earth.
Yajur Veda- Let all understand “We arethe subjects of the Lord of the Universe – the
king of kings, He is true king and we areall His humble servants”, May we inthis world,
through His mercy, be privileged to occupy kingly and other high offices and may He
make us the means of advancing His Eternal Justice.And so ends this discourse by
Swami Dayanand Saraswati. It is brief and gives us an insight into governance in
Bharat. As referred to above, we would need to study a lot more for exhaustive
knowledge on the governance.

VARNASRAMA DHARMA

There is a misconception that the Krishna consciousness movement represents

Hinduism.Krishna consciousness is in no way a faith or religion tht seeks to defeat
other faiths or religions.Rather, it is an essential cultural movement for the entire
human society and does not consider any particular sectarian faith.This cultural
movement is especially meant to educate people in how they can love God.
Sometimes Indians both inside and outside of India think that we are preaching the
Hindu religion, but actually we are not.One will not find the word Hindu in the
Bhagavad-gita. Indeed, there is no such word as Hindu in the entire Vedic lit.This word
has been introduced by the Muslims from provinces next to India, such as Afghanistan,
Baluchistan, and Persia. There is a river called Sindhu bordering the north western
provinces of India, and since the Muslims there could not pronounce Sindhu properly,
they instead called the river Hindu, and the inhabitants of this tract of land they called

45
Hindus. In India, according to the Vedic language, the Europeans are called mlecchas
or yavanas. Similarly, Hindu is a name given by the Muslims.
India’s actual culture is described in the Bhagavd-gita,where it is stated that
according to the different qualities or modes of nature there are different types of men,
which are generally classified into four social orders and four spiritual orders.This
system of social and spiritual division is known as varnasrama-dharma.The four
varnas, or social orders, are brahmana, ksatriya, vaisya, and sudra.The four asrams, or
spiritual orders, re brahmacarya, grhastha, vanaprastha, and sannyasa.The varnasrama
system is described in the Vedic scriptures known as the Purans.The goal of this
institution of Vedic culture is to educate every man for advancement in knowledge of
Krsna, or God. That is the etire Vedic program.
When Lord Caitanya talked with the great devotee Ramananda Raya, the Lord
asked him, “What is the basic principle of human life?” Ramananda Raya answered
that human civilization begins whe varnasrama-dharma is accepted. Before coming to
the standard of varnasrama-dharma there is no question of human
civilization.Therefore, the Krsna consciousness movement is trying to establish this
right system of human civilization, which is known as Krsna consciousness, or daiva-
varnasrama – divine culture.
In India, the varnasrama system has now been taken in a perverted way, and
thus a man born in the family of a brahmana (the highest social order) claims tht he
should be accepted as a brahmana. But this claim is not accepted by the sastra
(scripture).One’s forefther may have been a brahmana according to gotra, or the family
hereditary order, but real varnasrama-dharma is based on the factual quality one has
attained, regardless of birth or heredity. Therefore, we are not preaching the present-
day system of the Hindus, especially those who are under the influence of
Sankaracarya, for Sankaracarya taught that the Absolute Truth is impersonal, and thus
he indirectly denied the existence of God.
Sankaracarya’s mission was special; he appeared to re-establish the Vedic influence
after the influence of Buddhism. Because Buddhism was patronized by Emperor
Asoka, twenty-six hundred years ago the Buddhist religion practically pervaded all of
India.According to the Vedic literature, Buddha was an incarnation of Krishna who had
a special power and who appeared for a special purpose.His system of thought, or faith,
was accepted widely, but Buddha rejected the authority of the Vedas.While Buddhism
was spreading, the Vedic culture was stopped both in India and in other
places.Therefore, since Sankaracarya’s only aim was todrive away Buddha’s system of
philosophy, he introduced a system called Mayavada.
Strictly speaking, Mayavada philosophy is atheism, for it is a process in which one
imagines that there is God.This Mayavada system of philosophy has been existing since
time immemorial.The present Indian system of religion or culture is based on the
Mayavada philosophy of Sankaracarya, which is a compromise with Buddhist
philosophy.According to Mayavada philosophy there actually is no God, or if God
exists, He is impersonal and all – pervading and can therefore be imagined in any
form.This conclusion is not in accord with the Vedic literature.That literature names
many demigods, who are worshipped for different purposes, but in every casethe

46
Supreme Lord, the Personality of Godhead, Visnu, is accepted as the supreme
controller. That is real Vedic culture.
The philosophy of Krishna consciousness does not deny the existence of God and the
demigods, but Mayavada philosophy denies both; it maintains that neither the
demigods nor God exists.For the Mayavadis, ultimately all is zero.They say that one
may imagine any authority - whether Visnu, Durga, Lord Siva, orthe sun-god–because
these are the demigods generally worshipped in society. But the Mayavadaphy does
not in fact accept the existence of any of them.The Mayavadis say that because one
cannot concentrate one’s mind on the impersonal Brahman, one may imagine any of
these forms.This is a new system, called pancopasana. It was introduced by
Sankaracarya, but the Bhagavad-gita does not teach any such doctrines, and therefore
they are not authoritative.
The Bhagavad-gita accepts the existence of the demigods.The demi-gods are
described in the Vedas, and one cannot deny their existence, but they are not to be
understood or worshipped according to the way of Sankaracarya. The worship of
demigods is rejected in the Bhagavad-gita.The gita (7.20) clearly states:
Kamais Tai tair hrta jnanah
Prapadyante’nya-devatah
Tam tam niyamam asthaya
Prakrtya niyatah svaya
“Those whose minds are distorted by material desires surrender uto demigods and
follow the particular rules and regulations of worship according to their own
natures”.Furthermore, in the Bhagavad-gita, Lord Krishna states:
Bhogaisvarya-prasaktanam
Tayapahrta-cetasam
Vyavasayatmika buddhih
Samadhau Na vidhiyate
“In the minds of those who are too attached to sense enjoyment and material
opulence, and who are bewildered by such things, the resolute determination for
devotional service does not take place”.Those who are pursuing the various demigods
have been described as hrta jnanah, which means “those who have lost their
sense”.That is also further explained in the Bhagavad-gita:
Antavat tu phalam tesam
Tad bhavaty alpa-medhsam
Devan deva-yajo yanti
Mad-bhakta yanti mam API
“Men of small intelligence worship the demi, and thir fruits are limited and
temporary.Those who worship the demigods go to the planets of the demi, but My
devotees reach My supreme abode”.The rewards given by the demigods are temporary,
because any material facility must act in connection with the temporary body.Whatever

47
material facilities one gets, whether by modern scientific methods or by deriving
benedictions from the demigods, will be finished with the body.But spiritual
advancement will never be finished.
People should not think that we are preadhing a sectarian religion. No. We are
simply preaching how to love God.There are many theories about the existence of
God.The atheist, for example, will never believe in God. Atheists like Professor Jacques
Monod, who won the Nobel prize, declare that everything is chance (a theory already
put forward long ago by atheistic philosophers of Indiasuch as Carvaka).Then other
philosophies, such as the karma-mimamsa philosophy, accept that if one goes on doing
his work nicely and honestly, automatically the result will come, without need for one
to refer to God. For evidence, the proponents of such theories cite the argument that if
one is diseased with an infection and takes medicine to counteract it, the disease will be
neutralized. But our argument in this connection is that even if one gives a man the best
medicine, he still May die.The results are not always predictable. Therefore, there is a
higher authority, daiva-netrena, a supreme director.Otherwise, how is it that the son of
a rich and pious man becomes a hippie in the street or that a man who works very hard
and becomes rich is told by his doctor, “Now you may not eat any food, but only barley
water”?
The karma-mimamsa theory holds that the world is going onwithout the
supreme direction of God.Such philosophies say that everything takes place by lust
(kama-haitukam).By lust a man becomes attracted to a woman, and by chance there is
sex, and the womanbecomes pregnant.There is actually no plan to make the woman
pregnant, but by a natural sequence when a man and a woman unite, a result is
produced.The atheistic theory, which is described in the 16th Chapter of the Bhagavad-
gita as asuric,or demoniac, is that actually everything is going on in this way, because of
chance and resulting from natural attraction.This demoniac theory supports the idea
that if one wants to avoid children, he may use a contraceptive method.
Actually, however, there is a great plan for everything - the Vedic plan. The
Vedic literature gives directions regarding how menand women should unite, how they
should beget children, and what the purpose of sex life is. Krishna says in the
Bhagavad-gita that sex life sanctioned by the Vedic order, or sex life under the direction
of the Vedic rules and regulations, is bona fide and is acceptable to Him.But chance sex
life is not acceptable. If by chance one is sexually attracted and there are children, they
are called varna-sankara, unwanted population.That is the way of the lower animals; it
is not acceptable for humans.For humans, there is a plan.We cannot accept the theory
that there is no plan for human life or that everything is born of chance and material
necessity.
Sankaracarya’s theory that there is no God and that one can go on with his work
and imagine God in any form just to keep peace and tranquillity in society is also more
or less based on this idea of chace and necessity. Our way, however, which is
completely different, is based on authority.It is this divine varnasrama-dharma that
Krsna recommends, not the caste system as it is understood today. This modern caste
system is now condemned in India also, and it should be condemned, for the
classification of different types of men according to birth is not the Vedic ordivine caste
system.

48
 There are many classes of men in society – some men are engineers, some are
medical practitioners, some are chemists, tradesmen, businessmen, and so on. These
varieties of classes are not to be determined by birth, however, but by quality.No such
thing as the caste-by-birth system is sanctioned by the Vedic literature, nor do we
accept it. We have nothing to do with the caste system, which is also at present being
rejected by the public in India. Rather, we give everyone the chance to become a
brahmana and thus attain the highest status of life.Because at the present moment there
is a scarcity of brahmanas, spiritual guides, and ksatriyas, administrative men, and
because the entire worldis being ruled by sudras, or men of the manual laborer class,
there are many discrepancies in society. It is tomitigate all these discrepancies that we
have taken to this Krsna consciousness movement.If the brahmana class is actually re-
established, the other orders of social well-being will automatically follow, just as when
the brain is perfectly in order, the other parts of the body, such as the arms, the belly,
and the legs, all act very nicely.
The ultimate goal of this movement is toeducte people in how to love God.
Caitanya Mahprabhu approves the conclusion that the highest perfection of human life
is to learn how to love God.The Krishna consciousness movement has nothing to do
with the Hindus religion or any system of religion.No Christian gentleman will be
interested in changing his faith from Christian to Hindus. Similarly, no Hindus
gentleman of culture will be ready to change to the Christian faith.Such changing is for
men who have no particular social status.But everyone will be interested in
understanding the philosophy and science of God and taking it seriously.One should
clearly understand that the Krsna consciousness movement is not preaching the so-
called Hindu religion. We are giving a spiritual culture that can solve all the problems
of life, and therefore it is being accepted all over the world.

IMPERIAL SYSTEM IN CHINA

Among the most impressive concepts of medieval Chinese civilization was its
system of government. Despite the rise ad fall of dynasties, foreign ivasions civil wars
and other disturbaces the imperial government of China continued with art much
change through the centuries.Broadly, the government was a combination of
democracy and aristocracy.The imperial system of China lasted up to the revolution of
1911.A.D. It has been greatly influenced by philosophers is especially Confucius.The
Chin emperor of Shih Hwangti ordered the burning of the books of Confucius.But the
wise rulers of Ha dynasty incorporated the ideals of Confucism into administration and
a pass in Confucian texts was made compulsory of for getting a government job.
According to Confucius the existence of an individual in the society was as a member of
family.He was to be responsible for the acts of others in his house hold.There has
always been a powerful public opinion which was to be respected by the individual.If
the individual violates the moral laws of the society he was threatened with ostracism.
In China the period of the Han dynasty (200 BC to AD 250) is considered as the
beginning of middle Ages.Before this dynasty suppressing the feudal nobles that
developed during the period of Chow dynasty Shih Hwangli of the Chin dynasty had
established a powerful central government.Under the Han dynasty there developed a
new form of state, the gentry’ state. The basic unit of gentry’ classes are families not

49
individuals.Most of there families claimed their origin from the Chow noble
families.They included non noble families who were owner of large estates also. In its
beginning the Han dynasty entrusted the work of administration to these ‘gentry’
families.These gentry families differed from the English gentry.The gentry’ families
leased their kind of contract on a land of central basis.Theoretically these tenants cannot
be called serfs. But in practice they were almost serfs.The rent of these tenants form the
basis of the livelihood of these gentry’ families.One part of the gentry family would live
in the country in a house farm in order to collect the rents. If the family acquired land
in a far off place another branch of the family would go there set up another home farm
and live there for the effective collection of rent.Another branch of the family would be
in the administrative centre in official positions.These officials would be the most
educated members of the family ad were called the ‘literati’.There were literate who
were not interested in official positions also.The family member in official position
would manage to save their possessions in the country side in case of aggression or
other calamities.The family always has been particular to have at least a few of its
member in powerful administrative positions.The strong familism of the Chinese was
among other things that enabled the gentry families of to be in power for
centuries.Marriages between the gentry families were often with political motives.The
gentry members in the bureaucracy collaborated closely with one another because they
were tied together by bonds of blood or marriage.The gentry society continued with
varying fortunes till the 20th century.The leading gentry families were about a hundred
in member.
During the period from AD 220 to 580 China was divided into a number of
states.At the outset there were three kingdoms.Following this there developed tribal
unions also.These unions can be compared to a cone.The Toba was a typical union.At
the top of the cone there was the person of the ruler of the federation.He was a member
of the leading family of the tribe. The next layer was the inner circle of tribes.The next
are consisted of outer tribes.The leader of the federation built up a bureaucracy with his
kinsmen.Tribes were dissolved into military regiments.The second division of China
was in the 10th century.This is called the period of five dynasties but actually there were
ten dynasties.A dominant elements during this period in the Chinese polity has been
the Chinese gentry – soldiers.The whole statement was considered as a sort of family
enterprise by the ruling dynasty.Members of the family were placed in high
positions.When there was not enough of then they adopted into the family larger
members of aliens of all nationalities.
Local autonomy has been an important feature of the Chinese system of
government.The system of local autonomy was partly due to geographical
compulsions.The great distance that separated are city from another and call of them
from the imperial capital has been an important cause for this. More than this there was
the dividing effects of mountains, deserts, and unbridged and unnavigable rivers.The
lack of transport and quick communication added to this.It was difficult to support an
army large enough to enforce central will up on multitudes of millions of people. All
these compelled the state to leave to each district an almost complete autonomy.
The unit of local administration was the village. It was administered by a head
man.The next was a group of villages gathered about a town and was called a
Hien.During the early centuries of Christian era there were thirteen hundred Hiens in

50
China.Two or more Hiens were ruled from a city and such units were called Fu.Two or
more Fu formed a Tao (circuit) Two or more Tao formed a Shang (province).The
Manchus had 18 provinces in their empire. In each Hien the state appointed a
magistrate, collector and judge.Each fu had a chief officer.Each Tao also had a chief
officer? In each there was a judge a treasurer and governor.Provinces had viceroys.But
these officials were of normally contended with collecting taxes and squeezes.Normally
the administration of justice was according to custom, family and class decisions.
Each province was a semi independent state. It was more or less free from
imperial interference or the legislation of central government, so long as it paid tax
allotment.Central government was more an idea to the provinces rather than a
reality.Patriotism of the people was to their own districts.It rarely extended to the
empire as a whole.

51
 CHPTER – III
AGRARIAN SOCIETY

Slavery was replaced by feudal mode of production or what is simply called

feudalism.The feudal mode of production with some differences prevailed in several
countries of the world for many centuries. In essence, feudalism was a system whereby
all lay members of society had obligations to someone above until the supreme
authority or the king or emperor was reached.Thus the serf owed services and goods to
his lord; lesser lords like knights owed allegiance to some superior lord like a count or
baron; and the highest ranking lords owed fealty to the king.In Western Europe, the
feudal system emerged as a result of the interaction of the two processes: (i) The fall of
Roman Empire where slavery flourished, and (ii) The disintegration of the primitive
community system among the tribes which conquered Rome.Land and serfs were often
rewards for outstanding leadership and daring deeds in battle. Seizure and forfeit for
various reasons were also common.
If we look at the growth of lordship from above we see strong men gaining
power, property and privileges. If we look at it from below we see weak men sinking
into dependence or reaching up for protection. Some sank under the familiar burden of
debt or taxes. Some abandoned freedom in order to escape military service or secure
protection in troubled times……….if a strong state, able to defend its subjects from
attack and keep the peace, was not available, other sanctuary must be sought, and
many found it under the wing of some lord.To “commend” one’s life and land to him,
to accept liability for certain obligations and in return to get protection and the secure
use of some land was a wise, even if a hard bargain.At all events, princess got the
means of establishing an armed force to maintain order; the lords got a labour supply
for their holdings; and the lower classes got land for their own use.
To make these arrangements as binding as possible, one had to swear not only to
be loyal to one’s superior but one had in essence to recognize that it was impossible to
free oneself from one’s obligations.All society thus became bound together by an
intricate system of contracts, the sanctity of which was recognized by custom and
supported by force.Custom in the feudal period had the force that laws in the 20th
century have. There was no strong Government in the middle Ages that was able to
take charge of everything.The whole organization was based on a system of mutual
obligations and services from top to bottom. Possession of land implied obligations to
some one that had to be carried out. If not, the land could be taken away from the serf.
The services which the serfs owed the lord and those which the lord owed the serf – for
example, protection in case of war – were all agreed upon and enforced according to
custom.

FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION.

The mode of production under feudalism was simple and primitive. The technique
of production was simple.The instruments of production are inexpensive.The serfs’
usually tilled small plots of land with primitive instruments and with their own or
family labour. Production in a feudal society was organized to meet the need of the

52
household or a village community.Production was not for exchange or for the
market.The feudal economy was a natural economy. Its main object was consumption.
Under classic form of feudalism, transactions were mostly of a barter type.Cash
payments were rare. The feudal economy was a subsistence economy.It was an
economy organized by tradition and custom.Tradition solved the economic
problems.Men were directed to their tasks by tradition. Changelessness was another
attribute of classical feudalism. As Paul Sweezy mentions, “European village society
which characterized feudalism was conservative and change resisting”.
Under feudalism, as in capitalism, surplus value emerged.The serfs were under a
series of economic obligations which formed the core of the feudal economic
organization.The serfs had to pay a part of their produce raised on their plots, to the
lord.Sometimes the serfs were under obligation of rendering free services in the
manorial estates of the lord.Corvee is bonded labour or unpid labour.If originated from
older economies in which tasks like clearing of forests, digging canals, raising dykes
etc.,were performed by the peasants collectively as a service to the community as a
whole.Sometimes the corvee was three days in week through most of the year.Some
time it was four or five days a week.Additional labour were exacted in case of
emergencies.This obligation of Corvee lay up on only one male manor in each
house.Corvee was in vogue in various other feudal societies.Under the feudal mode of
production surplus value emerged because of the class composition of the feudal
society. “The relation between lords and serfs was often and even usually exploitative
in the extreme”.

MANORIAL SYSTEM

In the study of the organization of feudal society it is almost essential to begin

with the organization of the manor. It is this institution which gave life on the land its
eminent characteristics.Much of the farm land in Western and Central Europe was
divided into areas known as ‘manors’. In brief, the manor was a large estate where the
land was owned by a lord, where the common people were attached to the land which
they had a right to work, and where these serfs paid the lord for the use of land for
protection in stipulated amount of goods and services, and later in money.Manors
varied in different places in size, organization, and relationship between the people on
them, but their main feature was somewhat similar.
Every manorial state had a lord. It was commonly said of the feudal period that
there was “no lord without land, no land without a lord”. The lord of the manor was
regarded as the “tenant”, the holder, rather than the absolute owner of his estate. He
was a tenant of another lord higher up in the scale. The serf held his land from the lord
of the manor, who in turn “held” the land from a count, who in turn “held” the land
from a duke, who in turn “held” the land from the king. Only the king had the absolute
ownership of the land. The lord who might hold his manor either from the king or
form some other lord who held it from king, was secure in its possession, and he could
not legally be deprived of it, unless, indeed, he committed treason.
In the centre of the manor was the manorial village dominated by a castle or
manor house.This was much more solidly constructed than the cottages of the common
people. The manor house was always fortified.In this fortified manor house, the lord of

53
the manor lived (or visited, for often he owned several manors; some lords even owned
several hundreds) with his family, his servants, and his officials who managed his
estate. Clustering around the house, but in a more exposed position, were the
dwellings of the serfs. These were huts of wood roofed with thatch containing only one
or two rooms to serve all purposes whereas the manor house was of more than one
story containing several rooms. Then somewhere within the village there was a well or
fountain where people fetched their water. Finally, around the whole village there
might be a stone wall with heavy gates of wood reinforced with iron, which were
closed at night to keep out marauders.
The Ideal of the manorial system was self-sufficiency.Entire self-sufficiency was,
of course, never attained. It remained an unattainable ideal but reduction of external
trade to a minimum was regarded as a sign of good management. Natural economy
prevailed on a medieval manor; Goods were exchanged for goods.Little use was made
of money in manorial transactions.

THE MANORIAL AGRICULTURE

Outside the village was the manor’s forest, pasture, meadow’s waste and arable
land.All except arable land were used in common.Since the main economic activity of
the people was tillage, the arable land was of great importance. The arable land was
divided into two parts.One part usually about one-third of the whole, belonged to the
lord and was called his demesne.The other part was in the hands of the tenants who did
the actual work on the land. One curious feature of the manorial system was that every
farmer’s land was not all in one place, but was scattered into small strips intermingled
with the others. No fences existed on the great arable fields. The strips were marked off
by nothing more than a row of stones or a grass balk of the width of a furrow left
unploughed. Strip farming was typical of the feudal period.This arrangement was
usually called the “open field system”.
The manorial agriculture in early time was carried on under the open field system
which in course of time gave place to the three field system. Under the two field system
the arable land was divided into two parts, one of which would be sowed and the other
left to lie fallow to recover its fertility.Under the latter, two fields were cultivated and
one field lay fallow in any one year, each of the fields having its year of rest in the
course of a triennial rotation.The feudal peasants knew that planting the same crop each
year in the same place was bad.So they moved their crops from field to field every year.
One year the food crops wheat or rye might be cultivated in field I, alongside barley or
oats in field II, and field III meanwhile would lie fallow, “laid off”, for a one year
rest.Three field system of farming worked out something like this.
1st year 2nd year 3rd year
Field I Wheat Barley Fallow
Field II Barley Fallow Wheat
Field III Fallow Wheat Barely

54
 The yield was poor, averaging no more than six to eight bushels per acre. The
king of crop to be grown and the times of reaping were fixed by custom, to which all
strip holders were expected to conform.

THE INHABITANTS OF THE MANOR.

The inhabitants of the manor might be classed as free and unfree.The free
included the lord of the manor himself, his bailiff, the village priest, and usually a
number of other free men.The free men were independent proprietors and had never
owed labour services, but simply paid a tax to their overlord. But the unfree were the
economically important class, since they provided all or nearly all the labour supply of
the manor.
The peasants lived in a hovel of the most wretched type. By working long and
hard on his scattered strips of land, he managed to scratch a miserable living from the
soil.They worked on the lord’s land as well as on their own holdings. The peasants had
to work two or three days each week on the lord’s land without pay. At certain busy
times in the year, such as sowing and harvest, they were called up on to do additional
work known as boon work.The lord’s demesne had to be ploughed first, sowed first,
and reaped first. Furthermore, the serf had to deliver to his lord some of the produce of
his own land, may be fish or honey, or a lamb in spring, a pig in the late fall, a duck at
Christmas and eggs at Easter.In addition to fulfilling these regular requirements, the
serf was subject to additional payments upon special occasions.When he gave a
daughter in marriage, he had to make a payment in goods or money.When she lord was
in great need, as for example when he was at war, the serf had to pay an unspecified
amount determined arbitrarily by the lord and hence subject to considerable abuse. For
the use of the lords’ gristmill, drink making equipment and bakery, he had to pay fees
which consisted of a part of whatever was being produced. Up on his death, a serf’s
heirs had to deliver their best animal or some other subject of value to the lord and if a
serf died without direct heirs, the lord got all his property.Last but not least, the peasant
had to pay a title to the church, which was in theory at least a tenth of his annual
produce.
The peasants were not mere slaves.Most of the tenants were called ‘serfs’ from
the Latin word ‘servos’ which means “a slave”. Where the slave was a piece of property
which could be bought or sold anywhere, anytime, the serf could not be sold apart from
his land.His lord might transfer possession of the manor to another, but that simply
meant that the serf would have a new lord; he himself remained on his bit of land. This
was an important difference because it gave the serf a kind or security which the slave
never had. No matter how badly he was treated, the serf had his family and a home and
the use of some land.He also got help from the lord in times of famine and other
misfortunes. They also had time to play.
There were several degrees of serfdom.These were “demesne serfs” who were
permanently attached to the lord’s house and worked in his fields all the time not just
two or three days a week.There were very poor peasants called “bordars” who held
small-two or three acre-holdings at the edge of the village and “cotters” with not even a
small holding but only a cottage, who might work for the lord as hired hands, in return
for food.

55
 Then there were “villains”, who, it seemed were serfs with more personal and
economic liberties.They had more privileges, and fewer duties to the lord compared to
the serfs.This was a great advantage because then the villains knew where they were all
the time.Some villains were exempt from “boon work” and gave only the regular
labour services.Others gave no services at all, but paid the lord a part of their produce,
much as share-croppers do today.Still others gave no services, but made payments in
money instead.Some villains were almost as well off as free men. Free villain and serf
tenure faded into one another through many stages. It is difficult to establish exactly
which was which, and exactly what the position of each class really was.

ADVANTAGES

1. Saved civilization: It saved the civilization from the hands of barbarians. It

provided for defence at a time when the king was unable to protect the people.
2. Security: The manorial system was admirably suited in the middle Ages. The
manorial people enjoyed some amount of security. They were not liable to the
mischances which sometimes affect the well-being of the working man today.There was
no fear of unemployment. Neither old age nor sickness was to them an economic
disaster.
3. Social harmony: It created social harmony on the basis of fealty. Society was bound
by mutual obligations, loyalty and service.The lord depended on his vassal, who in turn
depended on the lord. It encouraged co-operation in farming operations. It gave
solidarity to the peasant society. Feudal society was like a “mutual insurance society”.
4. Solved economic problems: It solved the economic problems of the society by
providing for agricultural production and the making of various kinds of commodities.
5. Leisure: Though the serfs had to work hard they enjoyed sufficient leisure.There was
time for play and recreation. It was not to the lord’s interest to oppress his serfs.
6. Less Diseconomy: By keeping crop-lands, animals and implements mainly private,
the medieval manor avoided some of the most obvious external diseconomies of
primitive communism.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Less scope for initiative and innovation: There was no incentive to accumulate and
innovate under the manorial system of cultivation. Communal cultivation, regulated by
custom, prevented intelligent and enterprising men from making experiments.Farmers
could not introduce new crops into the rotation if the entire village did not introduce
new crops into the rotation if the entire village did not agree, because all crops had to be
harvested at the same time. Scientific breeding of livestock could not develop with the
promiscuous intermingling of everybody’s animals, and animal diseases spread
rapidly.
2. Disputes and Litigation: Bitter disputes and litigation arose when farmers tried to
enlarge their territory by stealing a furrow from their neighbours.
3. Too much waste: The manorial system involved too much waste. Strip farming
caused the villagers to waste much time walking from strip to strip.

56
4. Low Productivity: Manorial system of cultivation was less productive. Scientific
cultivation was impossible under this system. Weeds flourished and scattered the
seeds from the unploughed boundaries and good drainage was impossible. Inferior
implements and inefficient cattle and the very limited use of manured made
productivity extremely low.
5. Extreme Inequalities: Manorial system of cultivation created extreme inequality
between lord and the serfs. The serf worked the land and the lord worked the serf.As
far as the lord was concerned there was very little difference between the serf and any
of the live-stock on his demesne.
6. Low Standard of Living: The Standard of living of the peasants was very poor. Men
and the women had to toil long hours in the fields. They lived in unhealthy
surroundings. The food that they ate was of very poor quality. The common people
and the serfs suffered at the hands of the selfish and exploiting barons in peace and in
war.
7. Stagnant Society: Feudalism made society stagnant instead of progressive and
dynamic. The manor was a small world in itself in which the People took birth and
died without knowing much about the outside world.

CAUSES FOR THE DECLINE

1. Crusades: The Crusades or the Holy Wars between the Christians and Muslims
weakened the nobles. They lost heavily in the crusades in terms of men and money.
Many died, and those who returned had lost much of their wealth.The nobles
impoverished by the crusades began selling their feudal rights.
2. Development of technology and Commerce: Technological progress occurred in
agriculture, industry, transportation and communication. This was followed by a
commercial revolution. Trade rose with expanding markets. Consequently, there was
greater specialization in production on a large scale rather than for use. This has
tended to weaken the manorial system.
3. Rise of Towns: The rise of towns was a blow to feudalism. Many towns were able to
have their freedom from baronial control, by paying a large sum of money and securing
charters of rights. Towns also enabled serfs to have their freedom. The serfs who
wanted to risk flight could take refuge in the rapidly growing cities where life was
based on commerce and industry. According to custom if a serf ran away to a pearly
town, and evaded detection for one year and one day after his escape, he would earn
his freedom. Many serfs escaped to the towns, and evaded detection for a period
longer than the stipulated period.
4. Opening of New Agricultural Lands: New virgin lands were brought under
cultivation. The new agricultural lands offered favourable conditions to attract labour,
and freedom was often granted to any serf who would work there for a year and a day.
5. Growth of Nation States: The growth of the nation states saw a shift in military
power and responsibility for defence from lords to kings. The kings hired a professional
army for the purpose. With improved implements and tools the enterprising peasants
became independent of the services provided by the lord.

57
6. Rise of Middle class: The rise of the middle class also weakened the feudal
structure. Middle class people were against the mischievous and exploiting feudal
barons, and they were ready to help the king in crushing the power of the nobles.
7. Enclosure Movement: The enclosure movement also led to the decline of the
manorial system. As population increased, the villains applied to the lords for
permission to cultivate a portion of the waste land. The lords permitted this and
charged a money rent for these portions. Instead of cultivating small strips of land,
they cultivated such lands in compact blocks of five to ten acres. The enclosures
introduced a different system of farming, which was more efficient. It also gave them
an opportunity to sell their surplus produced to their neighbouring towns.
8. Communication: The lord required money to purchase the goods that only the
merchants could supply. He, therefore, began to convert or commute his serf’s
obligation into money.The peasants worked very hard and collected money with which
he could buy off some of his labour services to his lord. This development is an
important landmark in the decline of serfdom. Besides, as time went on the lords were
required to pay their-own taxes in money and the need for increase in their money
incomes was quite obvious. Usually, the week-work was commuted first, but later on
the boon work was also included. Villeins who commuted were freed from the
unpleasant part of their villeinage. The lords also learned from experience that free
labour was more productive than unfree labour. These changes have spread very
slowly but their impact was tremendous. Commutation helped to increase production
considerably. It also reduced frictions in society and did away with much waste of time
and energy.
9. Increasing Role of Money: The role played by money became widespread. It gained
prominence as a store of value. This affected fundamental relations. For some price
many lords would be willing to free many of their serfs. Many lords with good land
could reap a handsome profit by selling freedom to their serfs, renting the land and
certain implements out to them and living off the proceeds.
10. The Black Death: The Lord’s position in society declined both relatively and
absolutely as he faced a deteriorating labour market. The rising power and wealth of
the towns tempted more and more serfs to run away and made it harder for their
former masters to recapture them. On top of this came the Black Death of 1350 which
had killed more than one third of Western Europe’s population. The shortage of labour
had put the agricultural workers in strong position and had given them a sense of their
power. There was a demand for higher wages.The villains and the cottars who had
commuted could benefit from rise in wages. Those who had not commuted pressed for
commutation of their services. But the lords preferred to keep the villains in their
services and even tried to make them work harder than before. This led to much
disputes between lords and villains. Gradually lords were compelled to grant them
commutation. Thus by the beginning of the 16th century, villeinage had completely
disappeared and a free peasantry emerged.
11. Peasant Revolts: The disintegration of feudalism and the establishment of new
production relations represented by capitalism were not achieved without bloody
revolution. As a result of the growing exploitation and oppression of the serfs by feudal
lords there were a number of revolts of the peasants against them.The history of several

58
European countries such as England, France, Germany and Russia brings out the fact
that a large number of peasant uprisings took place against their landlords during the
feudal period.Since the government was controlled by the feudal lords, the peasant
uprisings were suppressed mercilessly by the landlords. But these peasant uprisings
shook the foundations of feudalism and ultimately led to its collapse.

FEUDAL PRACTICES IN THE REGION OF WEST ASIA

Under Islamic rulers began land grants from above i.e., land grant by the rulers.
By the beginning of the 10th century A.D. there broke out rebellions in the Abbassid
empire and the fighting between the bureaucratic and army faction became
common.The intensily of the struggle was exasperated by general shortage of money
arising from the extravagance of bureaucracy, loss of revenues from independent
provinces and greedy tax farmers ad a decline in the agrarian productivity of Iraq.To
cope with this financial stringing the Caliph resorted to an institution of Iqta loosely
meaning fief.The word iqta has much more connotations.It has been an administrative
device by which a general or soldier was given the right to collect tax revenues directly
from a district.Hither to it was the imperial bureaucracy that paid the generals and
soldiers.Now the area of a district came to be assigned to a military general. Out of the
income from the land he was to maintain an army.The immediate advantage of this
system was that soldiers could be paid even if the treasury was empty.The relevant part
of the bureaucracy could be eliminated and there was a decrease in the expenses of
maintaining the bureaucracy.But this system led to the abuse of the peasantry.The
holder of iqta were called Mukti. The Iqta system adversely affected the power of the
central government. The once powerful Abbassid at Caliph became more or less a
figure head by 940s. The Caliph came to have only symbolic religious authority and
little real political or military power or financial resources of their own.Power and
access to financial sources passed into the hands of military generals.

OTTOMAN AGRARIAN STRUCTURE AND THE TIMAR SYSTEM

Timar is a land granted by the Ottoman Sultans between the 14 th and 16th
centuries, with an annual value of less tha 20000 akces.The revenues produced on this
land acted as compensation for military service. A Timar holder was known as a
Timariot.The Timar system of the Ottoman Empire was the counter part of the Iqta
system.Timar is not the owner of the land. The land will be taken back by the king or
transferred when the military service of the holder of that land ceases.Timar lands were
assigned to woman also.
In the Ottoman Empire, the Timar system was one in which the projected
revenue of a conquered territory was distributed in the form of temporary land grants
among the Sipahis (cavalrymen) and other members of the military class including
Janissaries and other kuls (slaves) of the Sultan.These prebends were given as
compensation for annual military service, for which they received no pay.In rare
circumstances women could became Timar holders.This position however was
restricted to women who were prominent within the imperial family or high ranking
members of the Ottoman elite. Timars could be small, granted by governors, or large
which required a certificate from the Sultan but generally the fief had an annual value

59
of less than twenty thousand akces (Ottoman silver coin). This system of land tenure
lasted roughly from the 14th century through to the 16th century. The goals of the
system were necessitted by financial, state and expansionist purposes. The financial
aims of the system were to relieve pressure from the Ottoman state of paying the army
as well asto gain a new source of revenue for the central treasury.The expansionist aims
were to increase the number of cavalry soldiers and to gradually assimilate and bring
conquered countries under direct Ottoman control.The Ottoman state also desired to
centralize the sultan’s authority by removing the feudal system and aristocratic
elements from dominating the empire.
Power and conditions
Within the Timar system the state gave Timar holders, including the Sipahis
(cavalryman), the authorization to have control of arable lands, vacant or land
possessed by peasants, wastelands, fruit trees, forests or waters within the Timar
territory.The Sipahis employed agents or surrogates called Keetuda, Vekil, or voyvoda
to collect revenues and exercise the delegate powers.They had the right to collect
certain parts of the tax revenue from arable lands in certain localities in return for
service to the state. They were responsible to supervise their Timar territory and the
way it was cultivated and possessed by peasants.The Sipahis was rewarded if he
procured the settlement of vacant land. However he was punished if he caused the
abandonment of cultivated land. Timar holders had police authority to pursue and
arrest wrong doers within their territories.However they could not enforce penalties
until they received a verdict from a local judge with accordance to imperial law. Their
duties were to protect peasants and persons in their territory and to rejoin the imperial
army during campaigns.The Sultan gave Sipahis vineyards and a meadow which
would take care of their families, retainers and horses’ needs. One of the main
conditions imposed by the state was that a Timar holder did not own the land; land
ownership was held by the Ottoman state. Another essential condition was that Timrs
could not be inherited but it was not uncommon for a Timar to be reassigned to a son
provided they performed military service. Timar holding was contingent on active
military service and if a Sipahis failed to engage in military service for seven years he
lost his duty and land. Nevertheless the Sipahis retained their title and could be eligible
for another Timar if they remained in the military class and participated in military
campaigns.
Origins
Due to the nature of the documentation of the early history of the Ottomans it is
very difficult to assign the Timar system a concrete date. Elements of the Timar system
however can be seen to have their origins in Pre-Islamic antiquity (Ancient Middle
Eastern Empires, Rome, Byzantium, and Pre-Islamic Iran).Although elements of the
Timar system can be traced back to the beginnings of Ottoman history, it was not until
the re-emergence of the empire under Mhmed 1 in1413 that a tenure system that was
distinctly Timar was developed.Before the collapse of the empire by Timur in1402,
Bayezid had granted quasi-Timar holdings to his own slaves. With the reunification of
the Ottoman lands under a Sultan, these men would once again have legal title to their
holdings. Over the next 50 years this system of land tenure was largely expanded and
standardized.After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman turned once

60
more to the familiar policy of expansion through conquest.With the period of
consolidation tht followed there was a move towards total annexation and assimilation
of the provinces into the Ottoman system.This meant the elimination of local dynasties
and replacing them with the Timr system and other apparatuses of provincial
administration.
Surveying and Distribution
By the 15th and 16th centuries the surveying and distribution of conquered
territory among the Sipahis class had become a very complicated and highly
bureaucratic process.In the survey, known as the Tapu-tahrirs, all the fiscal information
about the territory would be collected and divided into Timar. The process went as
follows: (1) appoint Administrator (emin) –accompanied by clerk (Katip) and regional
Kadi collected available documentation about land and building ownership and local
taxes (2) information is written down and codified in a narrative called (Kanunname)
that mediated and resolved contradictions especially between those two non-Islamic
legal traditions – local and imperial; upon which the Ottomans based their dominion
(3) officials consult with local grandees and proceeded from village to village to inspect
and evaluate land and other holdings (4) draw up results of the survey in a register
prefaced by the Kanunname that listed the names of all the towns, villages and
popultions, what they produced and expected revenues.
Based on these fiscal projections, the Sultan would distribute the land and
villages to the soldiers who had participated in the conquest.Initially the candidates for
Timar were recommended individually to the Sultan.Upon receiving this
recommendation, the Sultan commanded the provincial governor to award the
candidate with Timar in the province.The candidate then, “with the Sultan’s order” (eli-
emirlu) would go out and find a vacant Timar suitable for him. It has been suggested
that there was a regular rotation system so that Timar holders were dismissed after
serving a defined period of tenure.This length would vary case to case.As long as the
candidate participated regularly in the Sultan’s military campigns who would be
eligible for a Timar grant.This made it so competing groups formed and were
motivated to fight for the Sultan’s favouritism and patronge.
Problems and Decline
By the time Mehmed II (1451-1481) reigned over the Ottoman Empire the
number of Candidates eligible for Timar grants had fallen substantially. There was a
growing expectation among the Janissary soldiers and other Kuls of the Sultan for these
grants in reward for participating in the growing number of campaigns.Further more
Timars were being offered to volunteers and members of the pre-Ottoman military class
for their loyalty and service to the Sultan.In order to meet this new demand, existing
Timars were turned into jointly held unites, or divided into shares.This growing demnd
also forced the Ottoman Sultan’s toengage infurther wars of conquest in neighbouring
countries thus creating Timar through new surveys.This however, also increased the
number of candidates for Timar grants.The solution to this crisis took two forms: more
than one Sipahis holding a single Timar and instead of being receiving an entire village,
Sipahis were given shares in many villages in order to make up their Timar.These
solutions likely had further implications than just meeting the demands of a growing
demographic.The Ottoman government had a policy of keeping the registered Timar

61
unites intact even while the number of Sipahis grew.Furthermore it prevented Sipahis
from gaining complete and independent control over the peasants and land within a
territory.
By the end of the 16th century the Timar system of land tenure had begun its
unrecoverable decline. In 1528, the Timriot constituted the largest single division ithe
Ottoman army.Sipahis were responsible for their own expenses, including provision
during the campaigns, their equipment, providing auxiliary men (celelu) and valets
(gulam).With the onset of new military technologies, particularly the gun, the Sipahis,
who had once made up the backbone of the Ottoman army, were becoming
obsolete.The long and costly wars which the Ottoman Sultans waged against the
Habsburgs and Iranians had demanded the formtion of a modern standing and
professional army. Therefore cash was needed to maintain them. Essentially, the gun
was cheaper then a horse. By the early decades of the seventeenth century, much of the
Timar revenue was brought into the central treasury as substitute money (bedel) for
exemption from military service.Since they were no longer needed, when the Timar
holders died off, their holdings would not be reassigned, but were brought under
imperial domain.Once under direct control the vacant land would be turned into Tax
Farms (muqãta’a) in order to ensure greater cash revenue for the central government.

PEASANTS’ REVOLTS IN CHINA (860-874 A.D)

The annals of medieval China are filled with popular uprisings.But most of them
were un successful and limited in extent, mainly because of the lack of proper
organization.The peasant revolts of 860 and 874 were the first successful peasant
revolts.They were so strong that they led to the collapse of the Tang empire.The revolt
of 860 was against the imperial gentry was caused by the famine in the province of
Chikiang.The government of the Tang dynasty suppressed the revolt with an iron
hand.But these followed other rebellions. In 874 there broke out a great uprising in the
southern parts of the province of Hopei, an important agrarian region.It also was a
peasant revolt d was caused by the famine conditions.The rebellion was led by Wang
Hsien-Chih, a peasant and Huang Cha’s, a salt merchant Hwang Chao’s has been the
representative of the merchants who had fallen into poverty and humanitarian because
of the rules and regulations of the government on trade.He had his own fighting groups
which joined the fighting hungry peasants.Huang Cha’o was an educated man and
tried for a government job.But he failed in the examination for the same. Hwang was
not the first merchant to become a rebel against the government.Trade had greatly
developed during the Tang period and in certain areas peoples were so interested in
trade that they paid little attachment to agriculture.But the merchants was subject to
many humiliating conditions arising from government policies. Legally they were not
permitted to appear for public examinations.The government had imposed a special
uniform on them, according to law of AD 300 which required them to wear a white turn
on which name ad type of business was written ad a white ad black shoe.Even though
the strict enforcement of the law is doubtful, it was a humiliation to the trading
groups.The traders were subject to various taxes but were allowed to own less lands
than ordinary citizens.Further the government used to extract forced loan from them.
In 782 when the emperor was in a financial crisis he requested a loan from the
merchants of the capital. It was a huge amount and actually a special tax.

62
 Wang and Huang were great organizers. So on after the rebellion broke out the
armed peasants captured the whole of Eastern China.The governors could not fight
against them as the provincial armies were on the side of the peasants.The government
was alarmed at the success of the rebels ad it issued orders to arm the people of the
other parts of the country against the rebels.But it proved favourable to the rebels
because the armed peasants turned over to them and did not fight for the government.
Wang was offered a high office if he stopped the rebellion.But the declined the
same.Then government sought the help of Turkish and Sha-t’o troops in a desperate
attempt at crushing the rebellion and with the help of there troops defeated Wang.
Wang was beheaded in 878.
This strengthened the rebellion Huang Chao formulated new policies. He moved
his armies in to the south east and south. In 870 he captured Canton. The great
emporium of trade was burnt down. In the war more than 120000 foreign merchants
also lost their lives.With the immense booty captured from Canton Huang Chao
returned to the north. But his advance was obstructed by the Sha-tao troops then he
turned away to temple lower Yang tze and from there marched to the north again.By
the end of 880 he was able to capture the eastern captured of the Tang rulers.Now the
emperor fled from western capital Ch’ang-an to Szechwan. Now Huang Chao could
easily capture the western capital also. The members of the royal family were captured
and killed Huang Chao declared himself to the emperor.This event is of great
importance in the history of China. For the first time a pleasant uprising succeeded
against the gentry.
Inspired by the success of the rebellion there broke out other peasant
uprisings.The peasant armies deserted their governors and were fighting far the for
themselves.The remaining supporters of royal power also rebelled against their
masters.The Shao T’o who had been Royal to the government also rose in
rebellion.Soon the government fell.The government again entered into relations with
the Shah t’o.With out them that was no possibility of defeating Huang Chao.At the end
of 881 Liko Yung the leader of the Shah T’o feels up a capital. There was a fierce battle
Huang Cho managed to hold out. But in 883 he was defeated and killed.Thus the
popular struggle of the peasants was overcome only with the help of the foreigners, as
in the case of the Boxer revolt, about 1100 years later. This peasant revolt brought about
the end of the Tang dynasty.

63
 CHAPTER – IV
MEDIEVAL TRADE

There is a positive correlation between trade and civilization. Often cultural

flowering finds roots and nourishments in the development of trade and commerce.The
development of trade during the medieval period also shows this.Karl Polanyi
differentiates between three form of trade – Gift trade, administrative trade and market
trade.Gift trade is based on reciprocal relationship between parties.Profit motive is not
important in this.In administered trade there will be state interference and the
government will also provide infrastructural facilities for trade.This category of trade
necessitates the existence of a port of trade which offers varied facilities for trade and
commerce like those of anchorage and storage protect.Market trade is in accordance
with the demand supply mechanism.These three categories of trade flourished during
the medieval period, whether it is in Western Europe, Egypt or India.The Indian ocean
region has been an important segment in the commercial world of the medieval period.
The belief that during the medieval period, being dominated by feudalism, there was
little development of trade has been a mere generalization.Experiences in the different
region of the world show that there flourished a brisk trade connecting different parts
of the world.The belief that medieval trade was an luxury items alone also has been
shattered.
The Indian Ocean region has been an important segment in the trade net work of
the medieval world. The accounts of medieval travelers of south India reveal facts of an
oceanic trade system extending from Red sea to the China Sea which was linked with
eastern Mediterranean. The centres of this oceanic trade system were Venice,
Alexandria, Hormuz, Aden, Cambay, Kollam, Kozhikode, Malacca, Canton and the like
port towns.These maritime cities had close links among them.The spice importing
ports of Aden, Jiddha and Hormuz were situated at the out lets of land routes through
which the products of Middle East and Mediterranean were carried by caravans.The
vigorous activities in international trade was facilitated by the establishment of
powerful governments in contemporary China, Indo-China, Burma South Indian states
and Egypt. These traders focused on two ends of Asia-Mediterranean in the west and
China in the East. According to Fernand Braudel, the Italian cities of Venice, Genoa and
Florence formed of the centre of economic life in the fifteenth century
Mediterranean.K.N.Choudhuri extends this ideal of world economy to the Indian
ocean.He affirms tat the whole of Indian ocean ad Eastern Mediterranean was held
together by the urban centres of Malacca, Cairo, Calicut and Alexandria. For about
three hundred years from the end of the seventh century the Middle East, South
Mediterranean and the ports of Western India constituted an area which shared some
features of the core penephery relations of a world system.

64
 NATURAL ECONOMY

According to Heri Pierenne, the Germans coined the term Natural Wirtschaft on
natural economy to describe the period before the invention of money.It was used to
mean the nature of exchange during the earliest phase of the economic
development.This term came to be used in the context of early medieval period in
Europe. But it is not used in absolute sense. Since its invention money has been in
continuous use among the civilized people. But by the early Middle Ages the use of
money decreased considerably that it why it is described as a period of natural
economy.
It is not correct to think that barter took the place of money as the normal means
of exchange.Barter has always been used in social intercourse Barter is used as a
temporary substitute for money.The capitularies of Charlemagne shows that money
was in use in small transactions also in the local markets. After the Carolingian period
the grant of the market by the sovereign also included the grant of the right to mint
money to the lord of the market.This shows that money was in use as a measure of
value and means of purchase. During the times of famine it was by means of hard cash
that the abbeys had the necessary provisions from outside.So it is incorrect to speak of
the substitution of a natural economy for a money economy. But during the period of
Norman and Sarassan invasions, transactions by means of gold coins almost
disappeared.The monetary reform of Charlemagne was suited to an age of rural
economy.The coins were made of silver. R.S. Sharma shows the decrease in coined
money in North India during the early medieval period and how it contributed to the
urban centres.
There has been a belief that medieval trade was centred on luxury goods and as
such it did not affect the society considerably. But even though luxury items were
important, the medieval trade both internal and overseas were in necessary goods
also.An analysis of east-west trade during the period shows that high bulk low priced
goods like porcelain, coarse cloths, iron, copper, rice, etc, formed a large chunk of the
goods transacted.Traditionally it has been the spices especially pepper, cardamom,
cinnamon clove etc., that were transacted in the east-west trade.But by the middle ages
goods for mass consumption also were exchanged in large quantities, as is revealed
from the Jewish and Chinese sources. Even a trade in luxury items like precious metals
gold, perfumes etc., affected the society.Jane Sneeder shows how these created new
artisanal groups in the society, thereby contributing to social stratification and social
mobility.
The first step in the economic revival of medieval Europe was the removal of
restraints on internal trade.Feudal lords used to extract tolls on wares passing through
their domain.The result was the large number of toll stations which was a hindrance to
trade.Roads and water ways were not so safe ad so the caravans were often
accompanied by armed troupes.But towards the medieval period in Europe, the
growing power of the kings diminished robbery and limited and regulated trade.The
establishment of uniform weights and measures also had a stimulating impact on trade.
Fairs greatly fostered trade in Europe.Whole sale and international trade centred
in the regional fairs held at London, one Stone bridge Paris, Champagne, Bruges,

65
Cologue, Frankfurt, Geneva and so on.The most famous of these was that Champagne
in France. There fairs lasted for six or seven weeks. In sequence they provided an
international market through most of the year.They were conveniently located to attract
merchants from various parts of western Europe African and the East.Originating in the
5th century these fairs declined by the 13th century.Ship building and navigation slowly
improved since Roman days. Many a city like Constantinople, Venice, Genoa, Marseille,
Barcelona etc., had good docks. Vessels were usually small.They could ascend rivers for
inland. So towns like Narbonne, Bordeaux, Nantes Brugus, though some distance from
the sea were accessible to ocean going ships and became flourishing ports. In the pre
modern period navigation was greatly depended on wind.The mariners compass came
to be used by Europeans only by the 13th century.
The recovery of Sardinia, Sicily and Corsica in the 11 th century from the Muslim
rulers opened the straits of Messina and the central Mediterranean to European
shipping.Commerce bound Europe into a widening web of trade routes and connected
it with not only with Asia but with the trading centres of Africa and Asia including the
Far East.Italy was geographically bound to profit most from the trade of Europe with
Byzantium Palestine and the Islamic empire.Italian cities of Genoa, Venice and Florence
attained international importance as great emporia of trade.

TRADE GUILDS

An important feature of medieval commercial towns has been the functioning of

the mercantile corporations called guilds. By 11th and early 12th century there
developed merchant guilds and craft guilds in Europe.It was the towns’ men who
secured freedom from the feudal lords that developed the guilds. And guilds became
an important feature of medieval towns and cities. The two kinds of guilds were the
merchant guilds and craft guilds.The traders of guild were very particular is
obstructing external interference in the trade and commerce in the city.They had the
monopoly of the trade in their cities.Each guild had its own rule and regulations and
the members were bound to obey them it was the guild that determined the prices,
checked adulteration of goods etc.The guilds acted as the government of the cities and
defended the city from its enemies.They had extra commercial activities like the
construction of roads and the maintenance of roads, maintenance of hospital, charitable
institutions, schools and the like social activities .They acted has banks also.This guilds
dominated the municipal council of the cities.Different artisan at groups had their own
craft guilds.Thus there developed the guilds of weavers, carpenters, goldsmith, tailors,
potters etc.The craft guilds offered training to craftsmen.It anybody had to study a craft
he was to join a guild.The training in the guilds continued at least for seven years.Craft
guilds also had social activities.They acted as banks also.In atypical craft guild there
were three kinds of members.The master craftsmen, journey men and apprentices.The
apprentices and journey men were under the strict control of Master craftsmen.The
journey men used to sell the goods of their particular guild. Each guild had its own
workshop. Its members were very particular in keeping the secret of their crafts.There
were officers in the guilds to check the quality of the goods produced.In North India
guilds were known as srenies. In South India there were various kinds of mercantile
and artisanal corporations like Anchuvannam, Manigramam, Nanadesikal,
Valanchiyars etc.hey had monopoly of trade in their nagarams.The trade guilds of

66
South India had armed forces to protect their men and goods.These guilds had overseas
trade contacts.

PORTS OF TRADE

Ports of trade have been crucial in overseas trade.They were meeting places of
goods and cultures.There is difference between ports and ports of trade.At ports of
trade a special area will be reserved for trade activities, having its own harbour quay,
war houses and accommodation for foreign merchants.It is separated from the local
market and may be under control of the state.According to Sherene Ratnakar, they are
major forms long distance administered trade.The concept of ports of trade has been
elaborated by Karl Polany.A port of trade is an emporium that offered political security
to visiting merchants and provide facilities for anchorage, loading and unloading of
ships the warehousing, banking, enforcement of contract, etc.But they are more than
institutions for administered trading in which government agencies played a leading
part.Merchants found in these places a choice of goods and of buyers and sellers as well
as opportunity compare prices. Ports of trade were more or less politically neutral.This
neutrality was essential for attracting traders.

CARAVAN TRADE AND SERAIS

During the period under study overseas and overland trade needed a collective
action. It was mainly for the safety ad security of good in overseas trader had to face the
threats from pirates overland trade also was not safe. So traders traveled in groups.The
groups of traders along with their merchandise were called Caranavans.The decision to
take goods to distant areas would be announced among the trade and those decision of
going would gather together.They would have this goods on mules, donkeys, horses,
camels etc.There would be armed soldiers among them for self protection Dogs would
be used as Pilots.The slow moving Caravan has been a usual site in medieval central
Asian regions. In a Caravan there would be traders, their assistance and servants,
soldiers, pack animals etc. In India they were called Sarthavahakas meaning carriers of
wealth.The word for merchant, Sethi, originated from this.The Veerakkals or hero
stones found along certain trade routes of South India are for erected for the soldiers
died fighting for their Sarthvahaka masters.There were well defined trade routes
connecting various emporia of trade.One among them was the famous silk route.The
journey of Caravan continued for days and weeks so the halting stations were
inevitable.Such halting stations were called Caravan serias.Among the welfare
measures of the ruling chiefs there was building of Caravan serais also. The Caravan
serais have been medieval motels for Caravans.They provided food and
accommodation for travelers and traders.There would barns for their pack animals.The
Caravans serais figure prominently in the accounts on medieval traders.
Inns of Europe were the counter parts of serais in Asia. But only very few
Caravan serais had good amenities Bernier speaks of the Inns that were not well
maintained between the Paris and Lyons. In such situation traveller would have to
move with everything about them.The eastern Caravans serais sometimes resembled
large barns.Hundred of humans beings were seen in them mingled with their horses,
mules and camels.Caravan serais were centres merchants and travellers from different

67
regions met together and as such were bases for the disimination of news.The serais
also served as post offices. During the period of Shersha North India had well
maintained serais along its trade routs.
SILK ROUTE
The Silk route have been the maintained trade route connecting India and China
during the medieval period.The term “silk route” was coined by the German orientalist
Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen in the 19th century.It existed since pre- Islamic period
as the major route for goods and ideas between China, India and the west.Buddhism
was carried along it from India to China.Monasteries were established along the way.It
has been one of the several routes that Zhang Qian traveled in 126 BC. In search of the
Farghana horses that “sweated blood” which the Han emperor had hoped to use
against the Huns.In addition to silk and horses’ innumerable commodities passed
through this route.The route was so long and passed through in surmountable
mountains ad deserts that traders rarely traveled the entire route. For reason of safety
traders moved in caravans.Caravans bound to China carried fold and other precious
metals, wool and linen ivory coral, jade and other rare stones, glass, etc.; from China
caravans carried wide variety goods like bronze weapons and tools, iron, furs, pottery
ceramics etc.The silk route passed across the Eurosean steppies and from the Chinese
side it started from Changan from the fringe of Gobi desert.The route passed through
the famous Jade gate ad there divided into a northernly and southernly route.One route
passed through the Pamirs ad reached Himalayas.One branch entered India and
another west westward.It was through the route that Buddhism and Islam reached
China.
OVERLAND TRADE ROUTES IN INDIA
The principal trade route in ancient India are revealed in many an ancient text,
especially the pali texts.An important route was between Kusinagara and
Rajagraha.There were twelve halts along it.Another route led from Sravasti to South
west to Paithan with six halts with frequent crossing of river.A third route led
westward to sind and to sauvira and its ports.The route from Sind has been famous as
the one that facilitated trade in horses.The caravans going overland towards cast and
west and across deserts required days to cross the deserts of Rajaputana.At night the
caravans were guided by the stars.The old grant trunk road leading from Rajagraha
through Banarese Saketa, and Sravasti towards tascile and frontiers, linked India with
central and western Asia. Megsthanese testifiers to the royal road leading from North
west frontiers up to Pataliputra.Apart from these arterial route the whole country was
connected by a net work of roads.Some of these roads had milestones to indicate
distances.Amenities were provided for travelers in the shape of shady trees, rest houses
ad wells on the rod side.During the Mauryan period passes were necessary for crossing
the boundary.On the boundaries tall carriage cess and transit duties were collected.
An overland route ran through the Khyber Pass ad across the Hindukush to Blkh.To
this route converged all the principal high ways from Central Asia ad China, on the east
and Mediterranean and Black sea ports on the west. One of the western routes went
down the Oxus across the Caspean and then along the Kur and Phasis to the Black sea
ports.The other route passed through Heart, the northern border of the Caramanean
desert ad to Antiochs.

68
 SEA-BORNE TRADE

India had commercial relations with the outside world from ancient times. The direct
sea routes connecting India with the West were mainly two: the Persian Gulf route and
the Red Sea route.The latter was rther hazardous due to the existence of a number of
rocks, violent winds and thick following. Therefore, sailors and merchants preferred
the Persian Gulf route which ran from Baghdad in Iraq to Canton in China.With the
advent of Islam and the supremacy of the Arabs on the high seas, these direct contacts
were not doubt affected to some extent but they were by no means cut off. Ibn Batuta,
the great Arab traveller (1333-1346), found at Aden a large number of ships belonging
to Hindu merchants.They had brought merchandise from many Indian ports, such as
Cambay, Quilon ad Calicut.Indian goods were carried from there to Damascus and
Alexandria, the coasts of Africa, and tovarious countries of Europe.From these ports
Indian goods were also shipped to China, Ceylon, Indonesia and the Indian
Archipelago.There were a number of im ports in India which were visited by a large
number of merchants from various parts of the world;namely Lahari Bandar on the
western coast, Cambay in Gujarat (till the 16th century) and Goa and Cochin further
south, Masulipatam, Pulicat and Najarkattan on the eastern coast, and Hugli, Satgaon,
Sripura and Chittagong in Bengal.About Surat the traveller Manucci (1653-1708) writes:
Arabian and Persian vessels which import great quantities of dates, horses, sea-pearls
and Jew’s stones, inreturn reloaded with white and balck sugar, butter, olive and
cocoa.The traders took Indian wares, particularly textiles, and brought back precious
and semi-precious metals which were required for the manufacture of utensils and a
variety of luxury items. Besides the overland trade with Afghanistan, Persia and
Central Asia through Multan, Quetta and the Khyber Pass, goods could also be shipped
to Persia via the Coromondel Coast.

EXPORTS

The main items of Indian export during medieval times were cotton manufactures,
food-grains, oil seeds, millets, sugar, rice, indigo, perfumes, aromatic wood and plants,
camphor, cloves, coconuts, skins of various animals, particularly rhinoceros (horn) and
leopard, sandlwood, opium, pepper and ginger.There was a greatdemand forindcotton
cloth abroad.It was not confined only to places in the east, such as Java, Sumatra,
Banda, Malaya, Borneo, Arakan, Pegu, Siam, Bantam, etc.Already in 1610 there was a
keen demand in Holland also. Indian calicoes were equally popular in England and
replaced the more expensive linens imported from Holland nd Germany.Fine muslin
was exported to Persia and Arabia, particularly Egypt.The Portuguese extended their
trade to north-west Africa and Indian items found a ready market there.Varthema, who
visited India (1503-1508), mentions that the two ports of Cambay in Gujarat and
Bangala in Bengal, supplied ‘all Persia, Tartary, Turkey, Syria, Brbary, that is Africa,
Arabia, Felix, Ethiopia andmany islands of the Indian Ocean with a variety of cotton
and silk goods’. He refers to about three ships of different countries visiting Cambay
each year and estimates that the export of cotton and silk from Bengal comes to 50
shiploads.Moreland, author of From Akbar to Aurangzeb, estimates that in the
seventeenth century the annual export of cotton goods amounted tonearly 8,000 bales of
which 4,700 went to European countries.There were about 150 varieties of cloth indexed

69
as cotton goods in the records of English factories. Indian taffets and brocades also
came to be exported by the end of the seventh century when the East India Company
introduced better techiques of dyeing and weaving.The silk manufactured at Surat,
Banaras, Bengal and Ahmedabad was exported mainly to Europe, Burma and Malaya.It
is also onrecord that one Shaikh Bhik or Shaikh Beg of Malda sent three ships of Malda
cloth to Russia by the Persian Gulf route. Gum lac was manufactured at many places in
Bengal and Orissa and at Dhar.It was exported in large quantities to Persia by the
Dutch.Opium, which was mostly grown in Bihar and Malwa and internally exported to
Rajputana, Berar and Khandesh, was also shipped in considerable quantities to Pegu
(Lower Burma), Java, China, Malaya, Arabia and by the overland route to Persia. Rice
was exported from Bengal to Batavia.Tobacco, too, figures among exports in1623. It was
sent to Arakan and Mocha.Sugar was exported in small quantities to Persia, Kabul and
even France.Saltpetre was used in Europe as a raw material for the manufacture of gun-
powder and was imported from India.Among other articles of export were iron and
steel, asafoetida, lace, myrobalan, drugs, precious stones, alabaster and marble.There
was, however, no market for grapes, leather goods, wood-work, shawls, carpets and
glass works. Table 1 has been reproduced from Moreland’s From Akbar to Aurangzeb
to indicate the principal exports, the ports from which they were sent and their places
of destination.

IMPORTS

As regars imports also, it is not possible to prepare a comprehensive list for lack
of sufficient evidence.However, there is no doubt that the chief item was precious
metals.Brij Narain, author of Indian Economic Life – Past and Present, quotes Van Twist
(1638) to system that ‘although there were no gold or silver mines in India, large
quantities, of both were imported from foreign countries and it was forbidden to export
them’. A seventeenth century English traveller’s remarks that ‘Europe bleedeth to
enrich Asia’ represented the contemporary Western view.Another traveller, William
Hawkins (1608-13), wrote in the same strain: ‘India is rich in silver for all nations bring
coin and carry away commodities for the same and this coin is buried in India and
goeth not out’.Goldcame chiefly from the Archipelago, China, Japan, Malacca and other
neighbouring countries, rubies from Pegu, pearls and various gems from Persia and
Arabia.The export of bullion to India was estimated to range between £500,000 to
£600,000.Terry, another traveller (1622), was of the view that an Indian ship returning to
India after completing Red Sea transactions was worth 2 million sterling, mostly in
bullion. Quick silver was imported from Lisbon. Lead as well as superior woollen, silk,
satin and velvet clothes came from Europe. In 1611 the English Captain Downton noted
that at Surat ‘they had extraordinary desire for our quicksliver, vermilion, velvet and
lead’.According to Bernier, a French traveller (1656-1668), the Dutch used to sell at Agra
quantities of broad cloth, large and small looking-glass, plain lace, gold and silver lace,
iron ware and spices.Chinese porcelain was much in demand and it is on record that
Akbar left behind him crockery worth Rs. 2,500,000.

70
 TABLE 1

Coastal Regions and

Principal Exports Destination
Chief Seaports

SIND Persian Gulf, coastwise to

Calico
Lahari Bandar Goa

GUJARAT
Cotton goods, yarn, indogo Red Sea; PersianGulf,
Cambay, Gogha, Diu, (also pilgrim traffic) Achin; coastwise to Goa
Surat

KONKAN Chiefly calico ad fancy

Red Sea; Persian Gulf,
goods; some pepper (also
Chaul, Dabhol, Rajpur coastwise to Goa
pilgrim traffic)

GOA Persian Gulf; East Africa;

Transhipment; few local
Libson; Malacca and
Goa (Bhatkal, decayed) exports
beyond; Ceylon

MALABAR Cochin to Lisbon, and to

Calicut, Cochin, several Pepper Ceylon andMalacca; Calicut
minor ports and minor ports to Red Sea

SOUTH COAST Mainly coastwise;

Quilon, Tuticorin, Calico, pepper Negapatam to Malacca and
Negapatam beyond

Malacca and beyond;

CROMANDEL COAST Fancy goods,calico and Achin, Pegu and
muslin, yarn Tenasserim; coastwise to
South: S. Thome, Pulicat Goa and Malabar
North: Masulipatam Malacca andbeyond; Achin,
Calico and muslin, fancy Pegu and Tenasserim;
goods, yarn Persian Gulf; coastwise,
north and south

GINGELLY COAST
Provisions (rice andoil-
Vizagapatam, Chiefly coastwise
seeds)
Bimlipatam

BENGAL Pegu and Tenasserim;

Provisions (rice & sugar),
Hoogly, Pipli, Balasore, Malacca andbeyond; Achin;
muslin
Chittagong extensive coastwise trade

71
 TRADE THROUGH LAND FRONTIERS

From Central Asia and Afghanistan, as noted by the French traveller Bernier
(1656-68), India imported large quantities of dried and fresh fruit, amber asafoetida,
rough rubies, etc. Babar refers to a brisk trade between India and Kabul.Indian exports
included cloth, rugs, sugar, indigo, medical herbs while in exchange she got fruits,
etc.From the Himalayan states and Tibet came caravans laden with musk, china wood,
rhubarb, mamiron (a root medicine for eyes), jade, fine wool, also gold, copper, led, the
tail of the yak cow, honey, borax, wax, woollen stuff and hawks.There is a reference to
te imports of Tibet in Brief Account of the Kingdom of Tibet by Horace Deela Penna
(1730); ‘From Mogol (Mughal India) came white and figured cloths, silk and
embroidered stuffs, brocades, scarlet, corals and amber (the last three articles from
Europe) small diamnds and other things’.Nepal exported to India, cattle and horns,
musk, borax, cheerata (a medicinal herb), maddr (dye), cardamoms, chauris (yak tails),
furs, hawks and balchar (a scented grass). It took back in return textile goods, salts,
metals, sugar, spices, etc. From Bhutan, India imported musk and yaks’ tails.The trade
with Burma (then known as Pegu) was not brisk due to the activities of Portuguese
pirates. India exported piece goods, yarn and opium.In return it imported gold, silver
and other precious stones.Thatta also carried on trade with Ispahan.The latter sent
dried and fresh fruit, wines, carpets, gold ducts, silk and madder.In return, Indian
merchnts exported cotton goods, indigo and sugar.
Horses were the most important articles of import.The people of Azq in
Turkistan specially bred horses for export to India.They were sent indroves of 6000 or
even more.The Arab traveller, Ibn Batuta (A.D. 1333), mentions that horses of good
breed from Hormuz, Aden, Crimea and Azaq were sent to India.These animals were
tamed both at Sind and Multan.It is not possible to determine the volume of the foreign
trade of Hindustan as no statistics are available.Moreland, in his India at the Death of
Akbar, calculates Indian shipping to Europe as being 6000 tons (1590-99), to the coast of
Africa as 1000 tons, to the Red Sea as 10,000 tons, and to Persia a little less.Thus,
according to him, the total tonnage of exports to countries in the West comes to between
25,000 and 30,000 tons.Trade to Pegu was in the neighbourhood of 5000 tons, to Malacca
and beyond, 17,000 tons, to Java 2000 tons and to the port of Achin, 3000 tons.
Moreland, therefore, estimates a total of 27,000 tons as being the trade of India with the
countries lyig to the east.Thus the total volume of trade to Europe and the east was a
little less than 60,000 tons, equivalent to 24,000 to 30,000 tons of today (1920).

TRADE BALANCE

The balance of trade on the whole was in India’s favour. Merchants from all
countries frequented Indian ports and paid in gold and silk in exchange for
commodities, herbs and gums.The British East India Company ordered the scrutiny of
the list of its exports to reduce the unfavourable balance of trade. Such was the demand
for the muslins and printed and dyed calicoes in England that the British Parliament
passed special statutes in 1700 according towh ‘from and after the 29 th of September
1701 all wrought silks, Bengals and stuffs mixed with silk or herba, of the manufacture
ofPersia, China or the East Indies and all calicoes, painted, dyed, printed or stained,
these which are or shall be imported into this Kingdom, shall not be worn or otherwise

72
used in Great Britain, all goods imported after that day shall be warehoused and
exported again’.

INTERNAL TRADE

The accounts of the foreign travellers and other contemporary literature throw light
on the great volume of inland trade in medieval India. Each village had a tiny market.
Besides, annual and seasonal fairs attracted a large number of people and traders from
the neighbouring villages and towns and a brisk trade was carried on.The pedlars ad
itinerary dealers were quite common and met the needs of the consumers.Then there
was the famous class of banjaras of Rajputana who carried all sorts of produce, like
foodgrains, sugar, butter and salt, laden on hundreds ofoxen from place to
place.Sometimes these caravans comprised as many as 40,000 oxen.The merchants also
went about in kafilas, or cravans, which afforded greater security and protection.They
visited the big marketingcentres which were usually located in the important
administrative and political centres such as Multan ad Lahore and in capitals like Delhi.

MEANS OF TRANSPORT

There were two means of transport. Goods were mostly set by roads which were no
better tha tracks with shady trees on both sides.There were, however, sarais, or resting
houses at regular intervals, for the use of travellers. Drinking water facilities for animals
was also provided.Small towers or minarets had also beenput up to show the way to
travellers.The bhats of Rajputana would also guide and protect caravans ondngerous
roads for a suitable chrge.The other means of transporting goods was by river which
was comparatively cheaper.For example, cartage charges from Agra to Multan were Rs.
2 per maund, while from Multan to Sind, the charges by boat were only ¾ of a rupee
per maund, though the distance was a little more. River transportation was mostly
resorted to in Kashmir, Bengal, Sind and Punjab.There were about 30,000 boats in
Kashmir during the time of Akbar, while Sind had about 40,000.Bengal could boast of a
large fleet of boats and even ships. Thre was considerable traffic in almost all the
navigable rivers, particularly the Yamuna, Ganges and the Jhelum. Ralph Fitch (1513-
91) travelled from Agra to Bengal in a fleet of 180 boats.Some of the barges on the
Yamuna were of 100 tons while those on the Ganges ranged between 400 and 500
tons.The boatmen on the rivers received a monthly salary of 100 to 500 dams. From
Thatta to Lahore it took 6 to 7 weeks, while the return journey was completed in 18
days only.

HEAVY IMPOSTS

Inland trade was, however, greatly affected by the heavy taxes imposed at many
places by different authorities.They were variously known as bay, tamgha or
zakat.Some of the Mughal Emperors, particularly Akbar, issued orders abolishing most
of these imposts, but it seems they were not scrupulously observed by the officers and
jagirdars.Further, there were the dues levied at all big markets andports which
amounted to 2½ per cent. Aurangzeb raised it to 5 per cent for Hindus and later on
abolished it altogether for Muslims.Another factor which greatly influenced the flow of
trade was law and order and security on the roads.The Sultans and the Mughal

73
Emperors did make efforts to keep the rods safe and stringent punishments were meted
out to robbers and dacoits, but it still remained the primary worry of the merchants
who usually travelled in kafilas with an armed escort.

PATTERN OF TRADE

Bengal and Patna: There was brisk trade between various regions of the country
as already stated. Bengal, which had such a great abundance of provisions, had a
regular coastal trade in rice, sugar and butter which was carried to Coromondel and
around Cape Comorin to Karachi. Kerala also received opium. Bengal also exported
sugar to Gujarat and wheat to southern India. In return for rice and silk, Patna was
supplied with wheat, sugar and opium.
Agra: Agra was perhaps the most important market for the export and import of
various commodities in the 17th century. It imported, as already mentioned, large
quantities of raw silk and sugar from Bengal and Patna. Besides, it got rice, wheat and
butter from the eastern provinces. But Agra was famous in India and even abroad for
the best quality of indigo.Wheat was cultivated in its neighbourhood at Hinduan,
Byana, Panchoona, Bisaur and Khanwa. It was carried to all parts of India and also
exported to foreign countries.
Lahore and Multan: Lahore and Multan were other important centres of trade. In fact
all the over-land trade with Kabul, Kandahar, and Persia passed through these cities.
Lahore was famous for its carpets while the important products of Multan were sugar,
opium, cotton goods and sulphur. Camels of the best quality were available only in
Multan.
Gujarat, Malwa, Ajmer and Kerala: Gujarat had been a great commercial centre from
ancient times. Its natural resources and industries made it one of the most prosperous
and rich provinces in India. It has always been an important textile centre and was
famedfor its clothes which were exported through Combay, its main port, to various
countries of South East Asia and also to other parts of India, particularly Agra. In
exchange for its famous indigo, saltpetre and textiles, foreign merchants brought
western luxury goods which Gujarat exported to the courts of Delhi, Agra, Rajasthan
and Malwa. Kerala imported opium in exchange for its pepper. Gujarat imported
wheat from Malwa and Ajmer and rice from the Deccan and Malabar. It exported
cotton to Agra, cotton and cotton yarn to Kerala and tobacco to Thatta.The printed cloth
of Pulicat was of superior quality which was even exported to Gujarat and the Malabar
Coast. Bidar, capital of the Bahmani Kingdom for about a century, was a great market
of internal trade, particularly for a kind of damascene known as “bidri ware” – a
composition of copper, lead and tin on which gold and ornaments were inlaid.
Sind: Sind in pre-Mughal days exported wheat, barley, cotton cloth and horses to
different parts of India and got in return rice, sugar, sugarcane, timber and some spices.
Kashmir: Kashmir imported salt from Gujarat and Rawalpindi and sometimes from
Ladakh, fine rice from Burhanpur and broad cloth, wheat, medicines, sugar, mangoes,
iron, copper, brass utensils, glassware, gold and silver and luxury goods from various
parts of India. It exported shawls, wool and sulphur to Agra and other places.

74
Malabar, Vijayanagar etc: There was a brisk trade between Gujarat and Malabar.The
latter imported coconuts, cardamoms, and other spices, emery, wax and iron, palm
sugar from Malabar, and exported cotton, cotton cloth, wheat and other grains.The
coastal trade of Coromandel as well as of Vijayanagar was carried on by the merchants
of Malabar.The imports consisted of arecanut, coconut, pepper, palm sugar, Cambay
clothes and horses, and the exports comprised rice and cloth. A great trde existed in the
early years of the 15th century between the southern port of Bhatkal and an inland town
in the neighbourhood of Vijayanagar.There was a great demand for precious stones in
Vijayanagar which imported diamonds from the Deccan Kingdoms, pearls from Ormuz
and Kayal and other rare stones from Pegu and Ceylon. Its other imports included
pepper from Malabar, coloured cloth, coral, metals, quick silver, vermilion, saffron, rose
water, opium, sandalwood, camphor and musk.From Pulicat, the Vijayanagar
merchants brought Burmese rubies and musk. It is not possible to give a comprehensive
account of the internal trade of India as there was a brisk exchange of commodities
between almost all towns, particularly the provincial capitals. Nor are we in a position
to form any account or even tentative estimate of the volume of internal trade of India
during medieval times.
MEDIEVAL TOWNS AND THEIR FEATURES
Towns have at all times been the chief centres of culture and civilization, because
men and women must always live closely together in fairly considerable number before
they can erect imposing building, carry on trade with foreign countries, found schools
and universities, and feel the need for museums and art galleries and whatever else
contributes to the development of the human mind. One of the most striking
characteristics of the 5 or 6 centuries following the downfall of the Roman Empire was
the absence of large towns in Western Europe, and this fact in itself is sufficient to
explain why there was so little progress during the period.The barbarian invasions
resulted in the disappearance of many towns, and those which survived were
apparently of slight importance. The gradual revival of town life from the 10 th century
onwards in symbolical of the gradual emergence of society from the confusion of the
Dark Ages to a more orderly and settled condition of affairs.
Many of the medieval towns grew up around the castle of a feudal lord or around a
monastery; others originated as market centres because they were easy of access, or
were situated at cross roads or on the banks of navigable streams, or at a place where it
happened to be easy to ford an important river; still others grew upon the sites of old
Roman cities which had been allowed to fall into ruins.They were all surrounded by
walls to protect them against the attacks of enemies, and were generally very crowded
and compact, not to be compared with their Roman predecessors.They had no
amphitheatres or public baths and the streets were extremely dark and narrow, with the
jutting stories of house on opposite sides of the road almost meeting.During the
eleventh and twelfth centuries most towns outside Italy, with some notable exceptions
such as Cologne, Mainz, Troyes, Reims, London, Bristol, and Norwich, were very small;
in size they were no bigger than a modern village. They had little intercourse with the
outside world.They produced most things which their inhabitants needed, and they
were usually under the absolute control of the lord upon whose estate their lands were
situated.Thus the townspeople were not much better off than serfs, with many irksome
payments to make to the lord, such as passage, a payment on goods passing through a

75
manor; stallage, a payment for the privilege of setting up a stall in the market-place; and
pontage, a payment for taking goods across a bridge. But as trade grew wealth grew,
and the towns had opportunities of buying their freedom. Kings, lords, and prelates
needed money to build castles, to carry on private wars, and above all to go on
Crusades, and they frequently obtained that money by selling their rights over
towns.When freedom had been thus obtained, the townspeople were very anxious to
prevent outsiders from sharing the privileges for which they had had to pay; they were
equally anxious to prevent any encroachments upon their rights by any one
whatsoever, and so they formed protective unions which are known as gilds. Before
the end of the 11th century merchant gilds had become a feature of town life.These
guilds controlled all the buying and selling within the town, except the trade in food,
which was left free of tolls and charges; they prevented illegal transactions, such as
buying up all the goods in a market in order to sell them again at a higher price, or
holding goods back in the expectation of a rise in prices; and they did not forget social
duties. Important meetings were preceded or followed by feasting and drinking, and
members who were ill or who had suffered serious loss through fire or some other
mischance received grants from the guild chest in order to tide them over their
difficulties.In course of time the guilds became so important that their chief officers
were almost invariably the chief officers of the town as well, and the Gild Hall, where
the business of the guild was transacted, became the Town Hall from which the
government of the municipality was carried on. In some towns the merchant gilds
were not of long duration. As trade grew, each of the greater crafts, such as the
weavers, the bakers, the butchers, the fishmongers, the armourers, and the fullers
formed a gild of its own. For a time there appears to have been no distinct dividing line
between the merchant gilds and the craft gilds.A member of one might be a member of
the other. Craftsmen were freely admitted to the merchant gild, for the craftsmen were
also traders or merchants who bought the raw material of their particular industry and
sold the finished product in their shops.It has been suggested that the origin of the craft
gilds is to be found in the exclusion of craftsmen from the merchant guilds by the more
prosperous merchants, but although this happened in some cases, it was probably quite
exceptional.There was no reason why there should be rivalry between the two types of
guild.The merchant guild looked after the general trade of the town, the craft guild
protected the interests of workers in a particular industry. In many cases the craft
guilds came into existence as branches of the merchant guild, but eventually they
replaced the merchant guild by a general guild in which all the craft unions were
represented. The life of a town centred in its craftguilds, and the earliest way to obtain
the borough franchise was by becoming a member of one of them.In the guilds were
masters, journeymen, and apprentices. No one took up a trade without log and careful
training in it.An apprentice lived in the house of a master workman, but received no
pay.The years of apprenticeship varied, three in the case of the simpler crafts, as many
as ten in the gold-smith’s craft.When they were over, the apprentice became a
journeyman wage earner, and if he proved successful at this he ultimately became a
master.Sometimes he had to go through a kind of examination and submit a sample of
his work called a ‘masterpiece’. Everything in the life of a craftsman seems to have been
regulated by the rules of his guild. They fixed his hours of labour, the quality of the
commodity which he would be expected to produce, and the price which he was to ask
for it.Cheats ad profiteers received exemplary punishments. Thus a baker who gave

76
short weight would be draw through the streets on a hurdle with his loaves tied round
his neck, while the seller of bad ale or wine might be compelled to drink part of it, and
the remainder was then poured over him. But the craft guilds did confine their activities
to craftsmanship and craft products. Like the merchants gilds, they also performed
certain social and benevolent functions.They gave money to the sick and the old, they
provided pensions for windows and funeral expenses for poor members, they did
much to cultivate the spirit of good fellowship.Thus, if a man fell ill in the middle of a
task, he could be certain that his fellow gildsmen would finish his work so that he
would not lose his profit from what he had done.Some guilds maintained schools, and
they also provided the play acting of the Middle Ages, so that they made a definite
contribution to the development of the drama, which, since the days of the great Greek
dramatists, had fallen upon very lean times.
The 12th and 13th centuries witnessed a tremendous development of trade
throughout Western Europe.Consequently there was a corresponding increase in the
prosperity of the towns.So long as the manor system prevailed, and men were content
merely to produce what was needed by those who lived on the particular estate where
they worked, there was nothing to send abroad and nothing to exchange for luxuries,
but when merchants began to bring tempting articles into the towns, and particularly
when the products of the East began to arrive, the townsfolk were encouraged to
produce more than was sufficient for their own requirements, so that they could
exchange their surplus products for others which they desired, such as Indian spices or
Chinese silks.The Muslim invasions and the Crusades both had stimulating effects
upon trade and commerce. Barcelona and the towns of Southern France entered into
commercial relations with the Muslims of North Africa; the Italian cities established
trading stations in the East itself and carried on a direct traffic with the caravans which
brought to Syria and Palestine the products of Arabia, Persia, India, and the
Spice Islands. The two great centres of the Eastern trade in Europe were Venice and
Genoa.At one time Genoa had practically the monopoly of the Black Sea Trade. By the
15th century, however, Venice had become the chief centre of the Eastern trade. The
riches of the East-cottons silks, precious metals, precious stones, pearls, gold,
frankincense, and myrrh, ivory, cloves, pepper, ginger, and aromatic spices-came to
Venice from Beyrout or Jaffa, Alexandria or Constantinople, and from Venice much of it
would be sent by land through the Brenner Pass to Central Europe or through the
Valley of the Po to the cities of Italy, or it would be carries by sea, for Venice had a great
fleet of more than three hundred vessels, the property of the state, but hired out to the
merchant princes and capable of conversion into warships at need. One a year a large
fleer was sent on a trading voyage, carrying the products of the East and the wines and
currants of the Greek Island to the ports of Spain, Portugal, France England, and
Belgium, and bringing back some of the products of those countries. In the South of
Germany towns like Augsburg and Nuremberg Nuremberg became important and
prosperous because they were situated on the trade route between Venice and the
North, and could, therefore operate as distributing centres or markers for the wares of
the East. Cologne on the Rhine was, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the centre of
English trade with Germany.The towns of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck also carries
on an active trade with England and with the countries on the Baltic Sea, while the

77
Flemish towns of Bruges and Ghent were important as centres of the trade in woollen
cloths for which Flanders was famous.
The briskness of trade during the later middle Ages is all the more remarkable
when the harassing restrictions and annoyances which merchants had to endure are
taken into consideration. Money was scarce and the coins often debased by needy
monarchs or clipped by people who could not resist the temptation to take advantage
of their rough ad irregular edges; usury was forbidden by the laws of the Church, so
that money-lending, which is necessary to all commercial and industrial ventures of
any magnitude, was left to the Jews from whom Christian conduct was not expected;
the system of tolls impeded the prompt dispatch of goods both by land and by river;
and the dangers of sea traffic were enhanced by prates, who were numerous in the
North Sea and the Mediterranean, so that towns were obliged to form associations for
mutual defence.The most famous of these unions was that of the cities of North
Germany, known as the Hanseatic League (German hansa = a union), which at the
height of its influence included more than eighty cities, of which the chief were Lubeck,
Cologne, Brunswick, Wisby, and Danzig. In its most vigorous period (1350-1450) all the
important cast and inland cities of North Germany were members of the league, and it
had factories in Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and England.Novgorod in Russia was the
eastern and London the western limit of its influence. It practically monopolized the
trade of the Baltic and the North Sea; it made successful war on piracy and did much to
lessen the dangers of commerce; it had great fleets like Venice, and on one occasion
(1370) it went to war with the kingdom of Denmark, which was threatening its
interests, and extorted a promise that in future it was to accept no ruler without the
previous sanction of the league.
The increasing wealth of the merchants could not fail to bring about social and
political changes, even in places which were not as directly controlled by them as
Venice and the towns of the Hanseatic League.The clergy began to lose their old
monopoly of learning, since the merchants were keen upon giving their sons good
educations, and even in countries like England and France, where the towns were not
yet so important a factor of the national life as they were in Germany and Italy, the
kings summoned representatives of the cities and boroughs to their councils.The
gradual rise of the trading and commercial classes to a position not inferior in dignity
and influence to that of the older orders of clergy and nobility is one of the most
remarkable features of history from the 13th century onwards, ad it is no exaggeration to
say that the more civilized the country the more rapid was the process.It cannot be too
often insisted that the towns with their skilful craftsmen, their democratic spirit, their
civic love of law, were the centres of culture during the Middle Ages.A comparison of
the cities of Germany with the states and principalities of that country affords astriking
illustration of this.The Emperor was frequently unable to exercise any real control over
the turbulent princes and bishops, and they in turn could not preserve order within
their own dominions and put an end to the desolating private warfare which was
draining the resources of the country.In the towns, on the other hand, although
disorderly scenes were by no means unknown, their influence was not strong enough to
prevent progress or impede seriously the acquisition of wealth. An examination of the
buildings of the period reveals originality of mind as well as material prosperity.Few
modern buildings can compare in beauty and grandeur with the cathedrals and town

78
halls which were constructed in the cities of England, France, Italy, Spain, and Germany
during the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries.Up to the 12th century churches were built in
what is called the Romanesque or Roman-like style of architecture because they
resembled the old Roman basilicas.These churches usually had stone ceilings supported
by very thick and solid walls. In the centre of the building was a main aisle called the
nave, and on each side a narrower aisle separated from the nave by massive stone
pillars which also helped to hold up the ceiling, and which were connected to one
another by round arches of stone.In the 12th century French architects invented a new
style of architecture which is known as the Gothic.Its main features are the use of
buttresses instead of thick walls to support the ceiling, the replacement of the round by
the pointed arch, the construction of large windows, most of them filled with stained
glass of the most exquisite beauty, and the profusion of carving in stone. In the 14th and
15th centuries many Gothic buildings other than churches were built.The town halls of
Louvain and Malines in Belgium and the belfry of Ghent are as good examples of this
style of architecture as the cathedrals of Rheims or Salisbury. In the German cities the
influence of Gothic was very pronounced. What is best in the town halls and churches
of Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Strasburg dates from this period? The main part of
Cologne cathedral was built between 1248 and 1322.The nave of Strasburg, which is
pure Gothic, dates from 1275, and in 1377 the building of Ulm cathedral was
begun.Market-places were adorned with beautifully sculptured fountains, and the
inside of churches with magnificent paintings.In the 15th century John Gutenberg, of the
city of Mainz, discovered or learned the art of printing by the use of movable types, and
the arts of engraving and wood-cutting were widely practised in most of the German
cities, whose wealth and prosperity so impressed the writer Aeneas Silvius (afterwards
Pope Pius II) that he wrote; ‘No people in Europe has cleaner cities.Their appearance is
as new as if they had been built yesterday.They pile up riches.At meals the citizens
drink out of silver beakers, and there is no burgher’s wife without her jewelry’.
Still more remarkable were the wealth and culture of the cities of Italy during the
14th and 15th centuries.These cities were of two kinds—some, like Rome, Pisa, and
Milan, had been famous in classical times; others, like Venice, Florence, and Genoa, first
became really important during the period of the Crusades.Venice and Genoa were
maritime republics, both competitors for the Eastern trade, and therefore bitter rivals
until Venice won the final victory. Venice, during the later middle Ages, occupied a
position of power and influence. Originally built on some sandy islets in the Adriatic
Sea, a place of refuge for fishermen and others whom the stress of the barbarian
invasions had driven from the mainland, its development had been so marked that by
the 15th century its inhabitants numbered over two hundred thousand, and its fleet was
the most powerful on the seas.Nominally its government was democratic, but actually
it was an oligarchy, controlled by the famous Council of Ten, a sort of committee of
public safety chosen by the senate and acting as a bulwark for the Venetian aristocracy
against any disposition that there might be among the poorer classes to rebel against
their authority.The nominal head of the republic was called the Doge.His power varied
considerably.Some of the doges had much; others very little. It was not until the 15 th
century that Venice began to take any real interest in Italian affairs. Then, the growth of
the power of Milan and the necessity of securing some control over the Alpine passes
through which their goods went to the towns of Northern and Central Europe forced

79
the Venetians to transfer part of the attention which they had hitherto concentrated on
the Eastern trade to matters nearer home.The connexion with the East was apparent in
many ways besides the commercial activities of Venice.It even affected the appearance
of the city.Many of its buildings were distinctly Oriental in character.The domes, the
coloured marble columns, and the rich mosaics of the celebrated church of St. Mark
suggest Constantinople rather than Italy.In some ways Venice was hardly an Italian city
at all, and when the spread of Turkish power and the great geographical discoveries of
the 15th and 16th centuries ruined her Eastern trade her greatness was at an end.
The history of medieval Florence in many ways recalls that of Athens during the
Age of Pericles.There was the same restless energy both physical and mental, the same
democratic fervour, the same frequent outbursts of factiousness, but despite it all a
remarkable development of the human mind resulting in the works of some of the
greatest of the world’s creative artists, such as the poets Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio,
the architect Brunellesci, the painter Fra Filippo Lippi, and the sculptor Donatello.The
parallel does not end here.Florence, like Athens, experienced a period when the city
was ruled by tyrants or despots—the great Medici family—who, despite the fact that
they were not distinguished by any title, were as obviously the rulers of Florence from
1434 to 1494 as if they called themselves dukes or counts.The most famous members of
the family were Cosimo, who died in 1464, and his grandson Lorenzo, who died 28
years later, after a rule which lasted for 23 years, during which the city reached the
height of its prosperity.The Medicis owed their power to the great wealth which they
amassed as bankers.They based it entirely upon popular support; they had no military
force behind them, or any of the ordinary securities upon which despotism generally
depends for its continuance.The Florentines supported them because they conciliated
the interests of most of the citizens, and because they maintained the credit and
influence of the state in Italy and Europe.When Piero de Medici, the son and successor
of Lorenzo, by conduct which was at once arrogant and impolitic, gave the citizens the
impression that he was attacking their interests, they expelled him and restored
republican independence for a few troubled years.Cosimo and Lorenzo were great
patrons of art and literature, particularly Lorenzo, who richly deserves his title of ‘The
Magnificent’. Among those whom he employed to add lustre and beauty to Florence
were Leonardo Daoist Vinci, Michelangelo, Verrocchio, and Botticelli, four of the
greatest artists of all time.He was also a great builder and a patron of music and poetry,
and he succeeded in inspiring others by his example, so that the powerful families of
the city, the magistrates, and the trade gilds vied with one another in showing their zeal
for culture by such buildings as the Pitti Palace, the Palazzo Vecchio, and the
Baptistery.Another Italian city where the influence of tyrants was productive of some
good results was Milan, which from 1312 to 1450 was dominated by the Visconti
family.The Visconti were more cruel and domineering than the Medici, they were less
regardful of popular rights, but they showed similar partiality for artists and learned
men, they strove to make their city beautiful, and the greatest of them, Gian Galeazzo
Visconti, might, if he had not been carried off prematurely by plague in 1402, have
extended his rule over the greater part of Italy and so achieved Italian Unity four and a
half centuries before it was effected by the teachings of Mazzini, the diplomacy of
Cavour, and the arms of Garibaldi.

80
 The city of Rome, when the popes returned after their 70 years’ residence in
Avignon, was half in ruins from desertion and neglect, but a number of energetic rulers
like Nicholas V, Pius II, and Julius II so improved it that some of its former glory was
revived.The ancient basilica of St. Peter’s was taken down and the magnificent church
of the same name erected in its stead. Its building was begun about 1450, but it was not
ready for consecration until 1626, and several great architects were employed in the
work, the most famous being Bramante, Raphael, and Michelangelo.The old palace of
the Lateran, which had been the seat of papal authority for more than a thousand years,
was deserted, and the imposing new palace of the Vatican build in its place.Nicholas V
founded the Vatican Library, which has the most valuable collection of manuscripts in
the world. Even worldly and debauched popes like Leo X, the son of Lorenzo de
Medici, and Alexander VILLAGE (1498-1503), were patrons of art and literature. So too
was the infamous Cesare Borgia, the illegitimate son of Alexander, who was employed
by his father to establish a papal despotism over the States of the Church.Cesare was
one of the patrons of the great Leonardo Daoist Vinci, who is regarded by many as the
greatest of the world’s painters, but his patronage of Leonardo is not as well
remembered as the fact that it was the example and successes of Cesare which inspired
the Florentine historian Machiavelli to write The Prince, a practical and cold-blooded
manual for the despots of the time. The author discusses the way in which usurpers
may best retain their authority over a town which they have captured, he tells them
how many of its inhabitants they may advantageously kill, he considers the extent to
which it is expedient for princes to keep their promises, and he concludes that those
who have not observed their engagements very scrupulously and who have not
hesitated to remove political rivals have fared better than those who have been
influenced by moral or ethical considerations.It is a devastating doctrine which has
been followed by many rulers and diplomats since the days of Machiavelli, generally
with disastrous results for the peace and well-being of humanity.
The great defect of the Italian cities of the Renascence, as the period from the 14 th
to the 16th century which witnessed such a remarkable rebirth of literature and art is
called, was their mutual antagonism.Like the cities of ancient Greece, they were
continually fighting among themselves.There was no such thing as national
consciousness.They often employed hired troops or condottieri to carry on these wars,
and it sometimes happened that the leader of these condottieri turned against his
employers and seized authority for himself.This happened in Milan in 1450, when
Francesco Sforza, after helping the Milanese to defeat the Venetians, forced the people
to acknowledge him as duke.The Sforzas, like the Visconti, were patrons of art, and one
of them, Ludovico, the son of Francesco, was the patron of Leonardo Daoist Vinci for
many years, during which time the great artist painted ‘The Last Supper’, one of the
most famous of the world’s pictures, on the wall of the refectory of the convent of Santa
Maria della Grazie, and executed his almost equally famous equestrian statue of
Francesco Sforza, which was shortly afterwards destroyed by the French when the
disunion of the cities and actual invitations from some of their inhabitants resulted in
their invasion of Northern Italy and the temporary occupation of Florence and Milan.
The political weakness which made this possible was to last for nearly four hundred
years more. In the meantime Italy was to act as a battleground for the rival ambitions of
Spaniards, Germans, and French, and the idea of an Italian nation was to get little

81
beyond the speculations of philosophers.Town life undoubtedly impeded the growth of
nationality, but it is doubtful whether the glorious Italian genius of the 14 th, 15th, and
16th centuries would have come to bloom in any atmosphere other than that of the
cities.
The Islamic empire was noted for its magnificent cities alike Bagdhad, Cairo,
Damascus, Jerusalem, Mecca, Madina, Tyre, Sidon, Antioch, Tarsus, Homs, etc. All
were noted for their splendours and civic amenities. In India by the early medieval
period some of the town that flourished, during the period of the Mahajanapadas
declined.But some of them like Pataliputra continued to flourish.Among the cities of
this period were Ujjain, Taneswar, Indraprastha, Rajagiri, Peshwar, Brigughaccha,
etc.During the period of the Delhi Sulthante and Mughal empire there flourished a
large number of town important among these were Delhi, Agra, Ahmedabhad and
Surat.
Among the medieval Indian towns some where famous as commercial centers
and port towns.Somewhere famous s religious centres and some as head quarters of
political power.Guilds or srenies was a common feature of medieval north Indian and
south Indians towns. An important feature of the medieval cities of South India was the
developed of nagaram, a separately designated area occupied by trading and artisanal
communities and ruled by these groups. Most of the towns were fortified. Important
among them were Paithan, Tanjore, Kudammuk-Palliyara, Madurai, Calicut, Kollam,
Devagiri etc.

BANKING
MONEY – CHANGERS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The commercial expansion revolutionized finance also.Therefore was under

feudalism the great lords of Europe had the right of mintage.This caused variety the
coinage with all its allied defects later the kings ordered such gently to be
dismembered.After the Barbarian invasion gold became scarce. But in the Byzantine
Empire gold was coined throughout the Middle Ages.The Byzantine gold coins called
bezants circulated throughout the Europe has been the most honoured money in the
Christendom.After the model of this the first gold coins of medieval Western Europe
was minted.It was in Italy.This coins were the Augustales.Both Genova and Florence
issued gold coins.By 1284 all the major nation of Europe except England had a trust
worthy gold coinage.The silver coinage had developed much earlier.
Indigenous banking has existed inone form or onother for a long time. There
was hardly a village without its money-lender called saraf. In bigger cities there were a
number of merchants of this class belonging to the mercantile castes.Their primary
function in medieval times was, however, to test and change money.The Mughal
coinage and, for that matter, that of the Sultans, was made of pure metal of the highest
quality.The relative value of the various coins – gold, silver or copper – was determined
according to their bullion price. So much so that it was open to any person to go to the
mint and get his bullion converted into specie at a small charge.In fact some goldsmiths
in the south had been authorized to manufacture coins of standard size and weight.The
East India Company had engaged a number of sarafs to test the purity of the metal.The
value of these coins also depreciated with the loss in weight through wear. For

82
convenience, however, the discount had been fixed according to ‘convention’ and was
calculated accordingly.Todar Mal, Akbar’s Revenue Minister, issued orders in 1583 that
all rupees, irrespective of age, should be accepted at particular and this seems to have
met with some success.
The services of the sarafs were requisitioned by business houses such as the East
India Company when payments were made or received, bullion was minted or the
coins reminted.They would judge the purity of the coins and would also be held
responsible for any loss sustained by their clients due to their negligence.The members
of this class having spread all over India in almost all the big towns and cities and even
villages, they were able to control the rate of exchange between the various currencies
prevailing in different parts of the country.As money-changers they would also
introduce the newly coined money into circulation. During 1665-66, when there was an
acute shortage of copper and dams were out of circulation, they introduced small coin
pieces instead.

HUNDIS OR BILLS OF EXCHANGE.

The other important function of the sarafs was to issue hundis or letters of authority
or ‘bills of exchange’ inmod terminology.It enabled a person to transmit large sums of
money from one place to another without any risk. He would deposit the amount,
sometimes running into lakhs, with a saraf who would issue a hundi or letter of
authority in the name of his agent which would enable the depositor to get his money
within a specified time at a place of his choice after paying some charges.The English
factors freely used this medium for sending money from one place to another.There is
also a reference to the issue of hundis in the 11th century.Stein, in his translation of
Rajatrangini, refers to the payment of 10,000 dinars at Jayavana, modern Zevan, within
a period of one year.The charges were not fixed and differedfrom place to place. From
Delhi to Agra one per cent (1651), from Burhanpur to Ahmedabad 2½ per cent (1616),
from Thatta (Sind) to Ahmedabad one per cent (1635), etc. Even government officers
utilized this medium to transfer their money. Muqarrab Khan, governor of Bihar, was
transferred to Agra. He handed over Rupees three lakhs to the saraf at Patna to bepaid
back to him at Agra.

SYSTEM OF BORROWING.

Sometimes merchants would make use of this medium to raise short term credit
which was payable at another city within a specified time. Of course, a higher rate of
interest, ranging from 5 to 11%, was charged.The interest was high as it included
insurance charges for goods against which the hundi was drawn.We also find reference
to the taking of loan and issuing of receipt thereof in the contemporary works of the 11 th
and 12th centuries. Sometimes a farmer would borrow on the security of cultivated
land.The interest charged was quite high and sometimes amouted to 1/80 th of the
principal loan as interest per month.This means that the principal was doubled in about
seven years.This was justified on the ground that one might even lose the principal as
the debtors might perish by ship-wreck or from the attacks of robbers and wild beasts.

83
 SAFE DEPOSITS
Sarafs were also etrusted with large sums of money for safe keeping and even on
interest.Sujan Rai, author of Khulasat ut Tawarikh, informs us that ‘even when a
stranger and unfamiliar person deposits hundreds of thousands in cash, for safe
keeping with the sarafs in the absence of any witnesses these righteous ones repay it on
demand without any evasion of delay’.

INSURANCE

Reference may also be made to the system of bima or insurance. It wasmostly

resorted to cover the risk of goods in transit either inland or by ships.There were two
types of insurance.The insurer undertook to convey the goods safely to the place of
destination or covered only the risk in case the goods were lost or destroyed during
transit.Thus we see that earlysteps towards a modern banking system had already been
taken during medieval times.The sarafs served three purposes.Firstly, they made it
possible for merchants to raise short term credits.Mahajans performed the same
functions in the villages. Secondly, they facilitated remittance of money from one place
to another; and finally they also helped to develop the insurance system which is so
wide-spread in modern times.
COINS
The most ancient coinage of India have been the Punch marked coins its unit was a
Gunjaberry weighing approximately 0.118 gems.The standard gold coin was the
Suvarna was eight ratis or Gunjaberries.The silver Dharana ad copper Karshapana were
also in circulation.The Indian system of coinage was influenced by the foreigners who
established their rule in India.For example the Greeco-Bactrian coins and the Roman
coins profoundly influenced those of the Sakas, Parthians and Kushanas.Artha Sastra
speaks of the royal mint and coins in detail.During the Gupta period coins were issued
after the names of the kings.The Roman Dinars were current in India during the
medieval period also.The Egyptain Dinara has been a standard currency throughout the
medieval world.In India during the period of Delhi sulthanate Copper, silver and gold
coins were issued after the names of the ruling sovereigns.The gold coins of Mughals
have been a symptom of the economic prosperity attained by them.Akbar issued a gold
coin called Mohur. Medieval south India power also had their own mints and
important coins were Kasu, Achu, Panam, Haga, Gadhyana etc.Generally medieval
currencies suffered from fluctutions of value and unsteady ratio of silver to gold.This
has all the been more so with regard to medieval western Europe.
Quite a large number of coins were introduced by the Sultans and the Mughals
during the six centuries of their rule in India.However, the most important of them all,
which remained in use throughout the Sultanate period, was the jital which may be
taken as equivalent to a pice of later times.The credit for the introduction of the silver
coin called tanka goes to Sultan Iltutmish (1211 – 1236). It weighed one tola (175 grains)
and was equal to a rupee of later times. It was infact a continuation of the bull and
horseman type of coins called Delhiwals which were in circulation when the Muslims
came. They were composed of a mixture of silver and copper and weighed 58 grains.
64 jitals would make one tanks.Then there were therefore small coins such as hasht
kani, equivalent to 1/8th of a rupee or 2 annas.Bahlol Lodhi (1451 – 1489) introduced

84
bahloli which was like the dam of Sher Shah and was 1/40 th of a tanka.Later, Sikandar
Lodhi was responsible for the introduction of a tanka of copper, 20 of which wdgo to
make one silver tanka. There were also gold mohurs, but they were seldom issued.
The starting point of the modern Indian montary system, the silver rupee, was
firstcoined by Sher Shah during his short rule over the Delhi Empire (1540-45).It
weighed one tola and was equal to the earlier tanka of Iltutmish. Sher Shah also
introduced a copper coin called ‘dam’ which weighed 330 grains.40 about 26 dams or
2/3 of its face value. There were further divisions of the dam also, namely:

Adhelah = ½ dam
Paola = 1/
4 dam
Damri = 1/
8 dam
Jital = 1/
25 dam

40 minted coins would weigh 40 x 306.22grains, i.e., 122848.8 grains. The face
value of the copper coin was one rupee or one silver tola or 179.66 grains of minted
silver.The word ‘dam’ occurs very frequently in the Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl’s
monumental work.Even the revenue of the country and provinces are given in dams
and inrupees.In Gujarat, a coarse coin called mahmudi was used, especially during the
Sultanate period.Its value in the beginning of the 17th century was about 2/5 of a rupee.
The pice of British times was infact the quarter dam of Akbar’s time. It weighed
78 grains making a total of 312grains for a dam, had it existed then. As only 64 copper
coins went to make rupee, their total weight would be only the weight of 16 of the old
copper dams.The metal value will be 2.5 of the value of the rupee. It is, however,
remarkable that this system of coinage continued almost undisturbed for the next 3 or 4
centuries.It may be mentioned that a Sikandar tanka was equal to 64/20 or 3.2 jitals and
the dam of Sher Shah or Akbar or the bahloli would come to 1.6 jitals. As mentioned
earlier, during Mughal times everybody was free totake bullion to the mint and get it
coined into rupees for a fee which amounted to 5.6% during the 17 th century.Therefore,
there was no debasement at any time and the value of the rupee or the copper coin
depended on the price of silver or copper in the market.
To understand the prices of various commodities, etc., it should be noted that
uless otherwise mentioned a maund is 40 seers, a seer is 80 tolas, while a seer contains 4
paos or quarters.Moreland writes that the price of the Mughal rupee was two shillings
and 3 pence (i.e.. about 1.75 rupees). Tavernier, who visited India several times during
the 17th, informs us that a rupee was worth between 46 and 56 pice depending on the
greater or smaller distance from the copper mint.The use of kauris was also widespread
in Bengal and Orissa.2,500to 3,200 kauris went to make one rupee while 40 almonds
were reckoned as equal to ½ dam.
It will be useful to have an idea about the currency of other countries which
circulated in India during Mughal times.D. Pant, in his Commercial Policy of Moghuls,
calculated it as follows:

85
 Dutch Gyilder or florin = 5/6rupees
Spanish Rial = 2 rupees
Pagoda old = 4 to 5 rupees
Pagoda new = 3 to 3½ rupees
Fanam = Variable; 3dams or more
Pound Sterling = 10 rupees

TRADING COMMUNITIES OR FOREIGN AND INDIAN TRADERS

The important trading communities at the international levels were the Jews,
Arabs and Christians.With the development of the Islamic empire the Muslim traders
began to dominate the east west trade.In India the traditional trading communities
were Vyshyas.The ‘Moors’ from Arabia and Turkish traders played an important role in
India’s sea-borne trade.The Khurasani traders were very active in our overland trade
with China, Persia, Arabia and the Mediterranean countries. But it would be incorrect
to say that Indian merchnts had completely left the field to them. Multanis from north
India, Gujarati Banias, Banjaras or the Caravanis of Rajputana, Central India and
Gujarat, and the Chettis of Coromandel were some of the merchant classes who took to
commerce with foreign countries.Some of them owned big ships and Nicolo Conti, an
Italian traveller (1419-1444), informs us that one of them was so rich that he possessed a
fleet of 40 shipsfor shipment of his own goods.The most notable of these merchant-
princes were Virji Vora of Surat (seventeenth century), Shanti Das Jawahri of
Ahmedabad, and Haji Sayyid Beg, Manohar Das and Malay Chetty of Malabar.Their
trade was mostly confined to east Africa, the Red Sea ports, the Persia Gulf area and
parts of South East Asia, particularly Sumatra.
It must, however, be mentioned that both the Sultans and their successors, the
Mughals, were rather indifferent to foreign trade and did not protect the interests of
Indian traders.In fact, Akbar had placed the ships plyig from Gujrat to the Red Sea
under Portuguese licence.Similarly, the sea-borne trade of Vijayanagar was also put in
Portuguese hands by the treaty of 1547 while the Deccan Kingdoms were unable to
drive them out.The Zamorin even protected the pirates from whom he received
hadsome tribute.Thus these merchants had no protection and were left to manage their
own affairs. It may, however, be mentioned that foreign merchants were mainly
responsible for the increase in our trade.
Almost for a century (1500-1600) the Portuguese monopolized Indian trade after
Vasco Da Gama discovered theroute round the Cape of Good Hope in1498. Their
principle factories were at Pulicat, Qasimbazar, Patna, Balasore, Najapattam and
Cochin.The Arabs who had earlier played such a leading role in this trade were
practically eliminated from the field.The Dutch also entered the field in 1603.They

86
maily interested themselves in securing Indian textiles asa medium of exchange for the
purchase of spices, and this intensified India’s multilateral trade connections with
different parts of Asia. The English made their first voyage in 1601 with five ships
containing cargoes of cloth, tin, lead, cutlery, quick silver and hides.Their factories were
established at Masulipatam in A.D. 1610 and at Surt in1612-15.The French established
their factories at Surat in 1668, Pondicherry 1673, Chanderanagore 1690-92 and at
Masulipatam.These factories, however, did not meet the demand.Agents were therefore
appointed at the chief commercial centres who approached the workers manufacturing
articles on a small scale.Only a small portion of the articles were manufactured at the
factories of the companies.

87
 CHAPTER – V
MEDIEVAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Dark Ages is a term referring to the perceived period of cultural decline or
societal collapse that took place in Western Europe between the fall of Rome and the
eventual recovery of learning. As originally applied, the term designated the bulk of the
Middle Ages, conceived of as a period of intellectual darkness between the collapse of
Rome and the “Renaissance” or rebirth in the 13th through the 15th centuries. Increased
understanding of the accomplishments of the middle Ages in the 19th century
challenged the characterization of the entire period as one of darkness.Thus the termis
often restricted to periods within the middle Ages, namely the Early Middle Ages,
though this usage is also disputed by most modern scholars, who tend to avoid using
the phrase.
The concept of a Dark Age originated with the Italian scholar Petrarch
(Francesco Petrarca) in the 1330s, and was originally intended as a sweeping criticism of
the character of Late Latin literature.Petrarch regarded the centuries since the fall of
Rome as”dark” compared to the light of classical antiquity.Later historians expanded
the term torefer to the transitional period between Roman times and the High Middle
Ages, including not only the lack of Latin literature, but also a lack of contemporary
written history, general demographic decline, limited building activity and material
cultural achievements in general.Popular culture has further expanded on the term as a
vehicle todepict the Middle Ages as a time of backwardness, extending its pejorative
use and expanding its scope.

DARK AGES OF LATIN EUROPE

The term “Dark Ages” was originally intended to denote the entire period
between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance; the term “Middle Ages” has a similar
motivation, implying an “intermediate” period between Classical Antiquity and the
Modern era. In the 19th century scholars began to recognize the accomplishments made
during the period, thereby challengig the image of the Middle Ages as a time of
darkness and decay.The term is now never used by scholars to refer to the entire
medieval period; when used, it generally restricted to the Early Middle Ages.
The rise of archaeology and other specialities in the 20 th century has shed
much light on the period and offered a more nuanced understanding of its positive
developments. Other terms of periodization have come to the fore: Late Antiquity, the
Early Middle Ages, and the Great Migrations, depending on which aspects of culture
are being emphasized. When modern scholarly study of the Middle Ages arose in the
19th century, the term “Dark Ages” was at first kept, with all its critical overtones.On
the rare occasions when the term “Dark Ages” is used by historians today, it is intended
to be neutral, namely to express the idea that the events of the period ofte seem “dark”
to us only because of the scarcity of artistic and cultural output, including historical
records, when compared with both earlier and later times.

88
 PETRARCH

The idea of a Dark Age originated with Petrarch in the 1330s.Writing of those
who had come before him, he said: “Amidst the errors there shone forth men of genius;
no less keen were their eyes, although they were surrounded by darkness and dense
gloom”.Christian writers, including Petrarch himself, had long used traditional
metaphors of “light versus darkness” to describe “good versus evil”.Petrarch was the
first to co-opt the metaphor and give it secular meaning by reversing its
application.Classical Antiquity, so long considered the “dark” age for its lack of
Christianity, was now seen by Petrarc as the age of “light” because of its cultural
achievements, while Petrarch’s time, allegedly lacking such cultural achievements, was
seen as the age of darkness.
As an Italian, Petrarch saw the Roman Empire and the classical period as
expressions of Italian greatness.He spent much of his time travelling through Europe
rediscovering and republishing classic Latin and Greek texts.He wanted to restore the
classical Latin language to its former purity. Humanists saw the preceding 900 – year
period as a time of stagnation.They saw history unfolding, not along the religious
outline of Saint Augustine’s Six Ages of the World, but in cultural (or secular) terms
through the progressive developments of classical ideals, literature, and art.
Petrarch wrote that history had had two periods: the classic period of the Greeks
and Romans, followed by a time of darkness, in which he saw himself as still living.In
around 1343, in the conclusion to his epic Africa, he wrote: “My fate is to live among
varied and confusing storms. But for yu perhaps, if as I hope and wish you will live
long after me, there will follow a better age.This sleep of forgetfulness will not last for
ever. When the darkness has been dispersed, our descendants can come again in the
former pure radiance”. By the late 14th and early 15th centuries, humanistssuch as
Leonardo Bruni believed they had attained this “better age”, and that a third, Modern
Age begun. The age before their own, which Petrarch had labelled dark, thus became a
“middle” age between the classic and the modern.The first use of the term “Middle
Age” appeared with Flavio Biondo around 1439.

REFORMATION

During the Protestant Reformtion of the 16th and 17th centuries, Protestants wrote of
the middle Ages as a period of Catholic corruption. Just as Petrarch’s writing was not
an attack on Christianity per se – in addition to his humanism, he was deeply occupied
with the search for God- neither was this an attack on Christianity: it was a drive to
restore what Protestants saw as biblical Christianity. The Magdeburg Centuries was a
celebrated work of ecclesiastical history compiled by Lutheran scholars and published
between 1559 and 1574. Devoting a volume to each century, it covered the first thirteen
centuries of Christianity up to 1298. The work was virulently anti-Catholic.Identifying
the Pope as the Antichrist, it painted a “dark” picture of church history after the fifth
century, characterizing it as “increments of errors and their corrupting influences”.

89
 BARONIUS

In response to the Protestants, Roman Catholics developed a counter-image,

depicting the High Middle Ages in particular as a period of social andreli harmony, and
not “dark” at all.The most important Catholic reply to the Magdeburg Centuries was
the Annales Ecclesiastici by Cardinal Caesar Baronius (Cesare Baronio).Baronius was a
trained historian who kept theology in the background and produced a work distinctly
more balanced thanthe Magdeburg Centuries.John Dalberg – Acton called it “the
greatest history of the Church ever written”.The Annales, covering the first twelve
centuries of Christianity up to 1198, was published in twelve volumes between 1588
and 1607.It was in Volume X that Baronius coined the term “Dark Age” for the period
between the end of the Carolingian Empire in 888 and the first inklings of the Gregorian
Reform under Pope Clement II in 1046:The new age (saeculum) which was beginning,
for its harshness and barrenness of good could well be called iron (ferreum), for its
baseness and exudingevil leaden(plumbeum), and moreover for its lack of writers
(inopia scriptorum) dark (obscurum).
Significantly, Baronius termed the age”dark” because of the paucity of
written records capable of throwing light on it for the historian. For those other salient
features of the age, the widespread violence, evil-doing and civil disorder, he used quite
other epithets:”iron” and “leaden”.What Baronius meant when he spoke of a “lack of
writers” may be illustrated by comparing the number of volumes inMigne’s Patrologia
Latina containing the work of Latin writers from the 10th century (the heart of the age
he called “dark”) with the number of volumes containing the work of writers from the
preceding and succeeding centuries.(Of course, only a minority of these writers were
historians.)

7th 80-88 8

8th 89-96 7

9th 97-130 33

10th 131-138 7

11th 139-151 12

12th 162-191 39

13th 192-217 25

There is a sharp drop from 33 volumes in the 9th century to just 7 in the 10th. The
11th century, with 12 volumes, evidences a certainrecovery, and the 12th century, with
39, actually surpasses the 9th, something the 13th, with just 25 volumes, fails to do. There
was indeed a “dark age”, inBronius’s sense of a “lack of writers”, between the
Carolingian Renaissance in the 9th century and the beginnings, some time in the 11th, of

90
what has been called the Renaissance of the 12th century. Furthermore, besides the “drk
age” named by Baronius, there was an earlier one, for in regard to “lack of writers” the
7th and 8th centuries are pretty much on a particular with the 10th. In short, in Western
Europe during the 1st millennium, two “dark ages” can be identified; separatedby the
brilliant but all too brief Carolingian Renaissance.
Baronius’s “dark age” seems to have struck a chord with historians, for it was in
the 17th century that the terms “dark age” and “dark ages” started to proliferate in the
various European languages, with his original Latin term “saeculum obscurum” being
reserved for the period he had applied it to. But while some historians, following
Bronius’s lead, used “dark age” neutrally to refer to a death of records, others, in the
manner of the early humanists and Protestants (and later the Enlightenment writers
and their successors right up to the present day) used it pejoratively, lapsing into that
lack of neutrality ad objectivity that has quite spoilt the term for many modern
historians.
The first British historian to use the term was most likely Gilbert Burnet, in the
form “darker ages”, which appears several times in his work in the last quarter of the
17th century. His earliest use of it seems to have been in 1679 in the “Epistle Dedicatory”
to Volume 1 of The History of the Reformation of the Church of England, where
hewrites: “The design of the reformation was to restore Christianity to what it was at
first, and to purge it of those corruptions, with which it was overrun in the later and
darker ages”.He uses it again in 1682 in Volume II of the History, where he dismisses
the story of “St. George’s fighting with the dragon” as “a legend formed in the darker
ages to support the humer of chivalry”.Burnet had a Protestant axe to grind and his use
of the term is invariably pejorative.

ENLIGHTENMENT

During the 17th and 18th centuries, in the Age of Enlightenment, many critical
thinkers saw religion as antithetical to reason.For them the Middle Ages, or “Age of
Faith”, was therefore the polar opposite of the Age of Reason.Kant and Voltaire, among
others, were vocal in attacking the religiously dominated Middle Ages as a period of
social regress, while Gibbon in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire expressed contempt for the “rubbish of the Dark Ages”.Yet just as Petrarch,
seeing himself on the threshold of a “new age”, was criticizing the centuries up until his
own time, so too were the Enlightenment writers criticizing the centuries up until their
own.These extended well after Petrarch’s time, since religious domination and conflict
were still common into the 17th century and beyond, albeit diminished in
scope.Consequently, an evolution had occurred in at least three ways.
Petrarch’soriginal metaphor of light versus dark had been expanded intime, implicitly
at least.Even if the early humanists after him no longer saw themselves living in a dark
age, their times were still not light enough for 18th century writers who saw themselves
as living in the real Age of Enlightenment, while the period covered by their own
condemnation had been stretched to include what we now call Early Modern
times.Additionally, Petrarch’s metaphor of darkness, which he used mainly to deplore
what he saw as a lack of secular achievements, was sharpened to take on a more
explicitly anti-religious and anti-clerical meaning.

91
 In spite of this, the term “Middle Ages”, used by Biondo and other early
humanists after Petrrch, was the name in general uses before the 18th century to denote
the period up until the Renaissance.The earliest recorded use of the English word
“medieval” was in 1827. The concept of the Dark Ages was also in use, but by the 18th
century, it tended to be confined to the earlier part of this medieval period.The earliest
entry for a capitalised “Dark Ages” in the Oxford English Dictionary is a reference in
Henry Thomas Buckle’s History of Civilization in England in1857.Starting and ending
dates varied: the Dark Ages were considered by some to start in 410, by others in 476
when there was no longer an Emperor in Rome, and to end about 800, at the time of the
Carolingian Renaissanceunder Charlemagne, or to extend through the rest of the 1st
millennium.

ROMANTICISM

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Romantics reversed the negative
assessment of Enlightenment critics and launched a vogue for medievalism.The word
“Gothic” had been a term of opprobrium akin to “Vandal” until a few self-confident
mid 18th century English “Goths” like Horace Walpole initiated the Gothic Revival in
the arts.This sparked off an interest in the Middle Ages, which for the following
Romantic generation began to take on an idyllic image of the “Age of Faith”.This image,
in reaction to a world dominated by Enlightenment rationalism in which reason
trumped emotion, expressed a romantic view of a Golden Age of chivalry.The Middle
Ages were seen with romantic nostalgia as a period of social and environmental
harmony and spiritual inspiration, in contrst to the excesses of the French Revolution
and, most of all, to the environmental and social upheavals and sterile utilitarianism of
the emerging industrial revolution.The Romantics’ view of these earlier centuries can
still be seen in modern-day fairs and festivals celebrating the period with costumes and
events.
Just as Petrarch had turned the meaning of light versus darkness, so had the
Romantics turned the judgment of Enlightenment critics.However, the period idealized
by the Romantics focused largely on wht is now known as the High Middle Ages,
extending into Early Modern times.In one respect, this was a reversal of the religious
aspect of Petrarch’s judgment, since these later centuries were those when the universal
power and prestige of the Church was at its height.To many users of the term, the scope
of the Dark Ages was becoming divorced from this period, denoting mainly the earlier
centuries after the fall of Rome.

MODERN ACADEMIC USE

When modern scholarly study of the Middle Ages arose in the 19 th century, the
term “Dark Ages” was at first kept, with all its critical overtones. Although it was never
the more formal term (universities named their departments “Medieval history” not
“Dark Age history”), it was widely used by historians. As John Barber recently noted, it
was Burckhardt in The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy in 1860 who “formulated
the classic contrast between the medieval period as the ‘dark ages’ and the
achievements of the Renaissance as a period of revived antiquity that included
literature, elegance and erudition”.However, the early 20 th century saw a radical re-

92
evaluation of the Middle Ages, and with it a calling into question of the terminology of
darkness. Historiographer Denys Hay exemplified this when he spoke ironically of
“the lively centuries which we call dark”.It became clear that serious scholars would
either have to redefine the term of abandon it.
When the term “Dark Ages” is used by historians today, it is intended to be
neutral, namely, to express the idea that the events of the period often seem “dark” to
us because of the paucity of historical records compared with both earlier and later
times. The term is used in this sense (often in the singular) to reference the Bronze Age
collapse and the subsequent Greek Dark Ages, the Dark ages of Cambdia (ca. 1450-
1863), and also of a hypothetical Digital Dark Age which would ensue if the electronic
documentsproducedinthe current period were to become unreadable at some point in
the future.Some Byzantinists have used the term “Byzantine Dark Ages” to refer to the
period from the earliest Muslim conquests to about 800 AD, because there are no extant
historical texts in Greek from this period, and thus the history of the Byzantine Empire
and formerly Byzantine territories that were conquered by Muslims is poorly
understood and must be reconstructed from other types of contemporaneous sources,
such as religious texts. It is also known that very few Greek manuscripts were copied
in this period, indicating that the seventh and eighth centuries, which were a period of
crisis for the Byzantines because of the Muslim conquests, were also less intellectually
active than other periods.
Since the Late Middle Ages significantly overlap with the Renaissance, the term
“Dark Ages” has become restricted to distinct times and places inmed Europe.Late 5 th
and 6th century Britain, for instance, at the height of the Saxon invasions, might well be
numbered among “the darkest of the Dark Ages”, with the equivalent of a near-total
news blackout in terms of historical records, compared with either the Roman era
before or the centuries that followed. Further south ad east, the same was true in the
formerly Roman province of Dacia, where history after the Roman withdrawal went
unrecorded for centuries, as Slaves, Avars, Bulgars, and others struggled for supremacy
in the Danube basin, and events there are still disputed. However, at this time the Arab
Empire is often considered to have experienced the Golden Ages rather than Dark
Ages; consequently, this usage of the term must also differentiate geographically.While
Petrarch’s concept of a Dark Age corresponded to a mostly Christian period following
pre-Christian Rome, the neutral use of the term today applies mainly to those cultures
in Europe least Christianized andthus mostsparsely covered by the Catholic Church’s
historians.
However, from the mid-20th century onwards, other scholars became critical of
even this nonjudgmental use of the termfor two main reasons. First, it is questionable
whether it is possible to use the term “Dark Ages” effectively in a neutral way; scholars
may intend this, but it does not mean that ordinary readers will so understand
it.Second, the explosion of new knowledge and insight into they and culture of the
Early Middle Ages, which 20th century scholarship has achieved, means that these
centuries are no longer dark even in the sense of “unknown to us” (although in some
places, they remain undoubtedly the victims of societal collapse).In order toavoid the
value judgment implied by the expression, many historians avoid it altogether.

93
 Other writers, however, while acknowledging these concerns, continue to use
the term. A recently published history of German literature describes “the dark ages” as
“a popular if ignornt manner of speking” about “the medieval period”, but then
immediately (in the next sentence) goes onto use the term “dark age” in a carefully
neutral sense for “the 14th and early 15th centuries” with specific reference to German
literature.This suggests that the term, when used neutrally and with precision, can still
hve a place in good historical writing, not lest because there does not appear to be any
alterntive term withits particular technical meaning.

MODERN POPULAR USE

Films and novels often use the term “Dark Age” with its implied meaning of a time
of backwardness.For instance, the popular movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail
humorously portrays knights ad chivalry, following in a travellers begun with Don
Quixote.The 2007 television show The Dark Ages from The History Channel called the
Dark Ages “600 years of degenerate, godless, inhuman behavior”.
The public idea of the middle Ages as a supposed “Dark Age” is also reflected
inmisconceptions regarding the study of nature during this period. The contemporary
historians of science David C.Lindberg and Ronald Numbers discuss the widespread
popular belief that the Middle Ages was a “time of ignorance and superstition”, the
blame for which is to be laid on the Christian Church for allegedly “placing the word of
religious authorities over personal experiences and rational activity”, and emphasize
tht this view is essentially a caricature. For instance, a claim that was first propagated
in the 19th century and is still very common in popular culture is the supposition that all
people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat.According to Lindberg and
Numbers, this claim was mistaken:“There was scarcely a Christian scholar of the
Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [Earth’s] sphericity ad even know its
approximate circumstances”.Ronald Numbers states that misconceptions such as “the
Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages”, “the rise of
Christianity killed off ancient science”, and “the medieval Christian church suppressed
the growth of natural philosophy” are examples of widely popular myths tht still pass
as historical truth, although they are not supported by current historical research.
Quotations
 “What else, then, is all history, but the praise of Rome? “ – Petrarch
 “Each famous author of antiquity whom I recover places a new offence and
another cause of dishonour to the charge of earlier generations, who, not
satisfiedwiththeir owndisgraceful barrenness, permittedthefruit of other minds,
and thewritings that their ancestors had produced by toil and application, to
perish through insufferable neglect. Although they had nothing of their own to
hand down to those who were tocome after, they robbed posterity of its ancestral
heritage”, - Petrarch
 “Between the far away past history of the world, and that which lies near to us;
in the time whenthe wisdom of the ancient times wasdeadand had passed away,
and our own days of light had not yet come, there lay a great black gulf in
human history, a gulf of ignorance, of superstition, of cruelty, and of wickedness.

94
 That time we call the dark or Middle Ages. Fewrecords remain to us of that
dreadful period in our world’s history, and we only know of it through broken
and disjointed fragments that have been handed down to us through the
generations”. – Howard Pyle
 “Those who suggest that the ‘dark ages’ were a time of violence ad superstition
would do well to remember the appalling cruelties of our own time, truly
without parallel in past ages, as well as the fact that the witch-hunts were not
strictly speaking a medieval phenomenon but belong rather to the so-called
Renaissance”, - Jcques Le Goff
 “The Middle Ages is an unfortunate term. It was not invented until the age was
long past. The dwellers in the middle Ages would not have recognized it. They
did not know that they were living in the middle; they thought, quite rightly,
that they were time’s latest achievement”. – Morris Bishop
 “If it was dark, it was the darkness of the womb”. – Lynn White

Medieval period has been called a ‘dark age’ for science and technology.This is
only in comparison with the age that preceded it and succeeded it.The Middle Ages
cannot claim the progress in science and technology during the ancient period ad the
great achievements in these fields during the modern period. But it was not altogether
dark.Again, the characterization of medieval period as a dark age in a Europo centric
one.In Europe there were controls over free thinking, which hampered the progress of
science.But in other parts of the world science and technology flourished.Temple
concept of ‘dark age’ does not suit to the medieval Islamic civilization which made
spectacular progress in science and technology.Medieval China and India also had
made great strides in the development in these fields.
The contributions of the ancient Greeks and Romans were not destroyed during
the medieval period.They were just set aside and forgotten for the time being.But the
legacy of Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galan were preserved for the posterity.It was
through the universities and monasteries that preserved the manuscripts of the treatises
on science in the ancient world.But they were not taught as they were.Rational ideas
were nipped from them and adjusted so as not go against the existing system of
faith.This is all the more so with regard to ancient scholars like Aristotle.Medieval
student was taught little in the rationalism of Aristotle.In fact Aristotle was made ‘sage’
for the middle ages.So also was about Galen and other physicians of the Ancient Rome.
Ptolemy was popular among the astronomers of medieval West Asia and correction
and supplementations to the theories of Ptolemy have been fundamental to the
mathematician – astronomers of the Islamic empire.

SCIENCE IN MEDIEVAL CHINA

In the realism of medicine, geography, mathematics and astronomy remarkable

progress was made in medieval China.There have been a fashion for various notes on
scientific, technical, literary and artistic character.One of the most important notes for
the history of science and technology is temple one by Shew Kua.A brilliant treatise on
forensic medicine and a universal geographical encyclopaedia were among the works

95
on science and technology Chinese cartography of the Sung epoch achieved a precesion
and accuracy never attained before. A vehicle for measuring distance traveled by road
was developed in 1027.The period from 11th to 13th century has been one of the greatest
periods in the history of mathematics in China, a period noteworthy for the
development of algebra.Among the greatest names in Chinese Mathematics are Shao
Yung, to whom we owe a calculation of tropical year accurate to four seconds, Li Yeh
ad Chin Chin-Shao, author of an important mathematical work, the Shu-Shu Chiu
Chang.Chin Chiu Shao is the first Chinese mathematician to use the nought, at the very
time when it appeared in Italy.One of the most important enterprises in the history of
astronomy and mathematics of the age has been the construction of an astronomical
machine.There was a similar machine in China as early as the 8 th centre AD.Scientific
archaeology of war also begun in China in the beginning of the 12 th century.
Remarkable progress were made in the field of numismatics and epigraphy as in shown
by the publication of Ancient Coins, the first look in numismatics in China and the
Catalogue of the Interruption as Stane and Brange.The Chinese had attained great
progress in metallurgy and copper work.The water mill, and devices for harnessing
horses, etc. along with the printing press, mariner’s compass and like are examples for
the development of sciences and technology in medieval China.

SCIENCE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

The development of sciences such as medicine, mathematics, astronomy,

chemistry, metallurgy, etc., was rather slow.There was a lack of the spirit of enquiry
and almost no contact with the outside world. Knowledge in these fields remained
almost static.The only redeeming feature was the patronage of the Kings and nobles
who encouraged research in some branches of science such as medicine and astronomy.

MATHEMATICS

No civilized life is possible with out Mathematics.The town planning and the civic
amenities of the cities of Harappan civilization point to a high level of development in
practical mathematics.From the time of the Vedas we have literary evidences for the
development of mathematics in India.The twin sciences of mathematics and astronomy
made remarkable progress in India during the medieval period.The period from AD
400 to1200 has been called the golden days of Indian mathematics.Indian mathematics
was enriched by the contribution of Aryabhatta Varahamihira, Bhaskara, Brahmagupta
and the like scholars.Many a mathematician of India was far ahead of his times.
Among the most important contributions of id mathematicians were the zero, the
decimal system and the so called Arabic numerals (number system based on the ten
digits).Most of the discoveries of the western world would have been impossible if they
were using the unwieldy Roman numerals.The Arabs called mathematics the indian Art
and it appears that the decimal notation with other mathematical lore was learnt by the
Muslim world. Brahmagupta (7th century), Mahavira (9th century), and Bhaskara (12th
century) formulated several theories which in Europe were not known until the
renaissance.They evolved sound systems of extracting square root and cube root ad
could solve quadratic and certain type of indeterminate equations.The Kerala School of
mathematicians flourished after Bhaskara from the 15th century.We see an unbroken
guru-sishya links in Kerala mathematics Sangama Grama Madhava, Vadassery

96
Parameswara, Achyutha Pisharadi, Nilakanda Somayaji, Jyeshta Deva, and the like
were outstanding mathematicians of Kerala.The calendar prepared by these
mathematicians are among their contributions.Madhava calculated the value of π
correct to twelve places.Madhava was a master in spherical mathematics.Parameswara
is known after his dragganitha.These mathematicians formulated certain theories that
are ascribed to Lebinitz and Gregory who lived one and half a century after them. It is
believed that it was the Mathematical lore of the great scientists of Kerala that made the
reform the Gregorian calendar feasible.Now researchers are going on with regard to the
possible transmission of Kerala mathematical theorems into Europe in the 17 th Century.
Mathematics was closely related to astronomy.It was one of the compulsory
subjects of study in madrsas.Hindus were particularly proficient in this subject and
foreign travellers, therefore, called them a ‘counting nation’. European visitors were
struck by the skill and ingenuity of the Hidus who could solve, orally, difficult sums
with the same accuracy and facility as the ‘readiest mathematician can with his
pen’.Two well known scholars of the period were Sridhara (born A.D. 991), author of
Ganita Sara, and Bhaskara (twelfth century), the reputed author of Lilavati, Bija Ganita
andSidhanta Siromani. Lilavati was later translated into Persian by Faizi. Ataullah was
responsible for the translation of Bija Ganita in Shah Jahan’s reign.One of the most
populr works on mathematics was Khulastul-Hisab by Bahamud din Amuli.Two
important Sanskrit works onmathematics were Ganita Pali Kaumidi by Pandit
Narayana and Ukarathya Grantha by Nayana Sakha. In the field of geometry, there
were at least two well-known treatises by the same name, Sharh-i-Uqlidas, writte by
two different authors – Mir Mohd. Hashim and Moulvi Muhammad Barkat.

ASTRONOMY

Astronomy made remarkable progress in India during the medieval period. The
study of astronomy was encouraged as it helped in the calculation of time and in the
preparation of horoscopes and the determination of auspicious hours for important
occasions.The greatest of Hindu astronomers and mathematicians discussed subjects
like quadratic equations, sines, and the value of π. They explained ellipses, solstices
and equinoxes announced the sphericity of the earth and its revolution on its axis.
Bhaskara’s great successor Brahmagupta systematized the astronomic knowledge of
India.But he rejected Aryabhata’s theory of the revolution of the earth.The Indian
Astronomers calculated with remarkable accuracy the diameter of the moon, ellipses of
the moon and sun, position of the poles, motion of major stars, etc.They expounded the
theory of gravity when they wrote that “the earth, owing to the force of gravity draws
all things to itself”.Their flourished great astronomers in Kerala in the 15 th and 16th
century.Madhava, Parameswara and Nilakantha Somayaji were outstanding among
them.Explanation of and correction and supplementation to the system of Aryabhata
have been fundamental to Kerala Astronomy.Parameswara observed and explained the
exlipses he witnessed in Kerala during a period of 55 years.
Ancient Sanskrit works on astronomy and astrology were translated into Persian
and named Dalail-i-Firuz.Firuz Tughluq tok keen interest in this science and even set
up a few observatories at Delhi.Akbar had even issued a farman commanding its
study.Brahmans were known for their skill in astronomy and astrology ad could

97
accurately calculate, to the minute, the hour of the eclipses of the sun and the
moon.Mulla Farid Manajam was one of the greatest astronomrs of Shah Jahan’s age.He
prepared an astral chart and named it Zich-i-Shahjahani.Raja Sawai Jai Singh, however,
deserves praise for erecting a chain of observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Mathura Ujjain
and Varanasi. He also wrote a highly valuable treatise onastronomy which was known
as Zij-i-Jadid-i-Muhammad Shahi.

MEDICINE

With regard to medicine the theories and practices of Susrutha, Chraka and
Dhanwandhari continued in medieval India.Susrutha described many of surgical
operations.He laid down elaborate rules for an operation.He recommended diagnosis
by inspection, Palpation and ouscultation.The Hindu physicians were especially skilled
in concocting anti-dots for poisons. Vaccination was known in India since 550AD.The
Ayurvedic system of medicine and treatment is the greatest legacy of Indian medical
science. The Ayurveda was not only for man but also for animals and even trees.
Barani has given a long list of physicians and astronomers in his Tarikh-i-
Firuz Shahi.Maulana Hamid-ud-din Mutriz was known as the Buqrat ad Jalinus of the
time.Maulana Badrud-din, Sadr-ud-din and Aziz-ud-din were some of the well known
physicians of medieval times.Mahchandra was a renowned physician while Joga was
an eminent surgeon.A number of scholarly works were written on medicine.Tib-i-Firuz
Shahi was a compendium of information.An earlier work on the subject was Majmua-i-
Ziai based on Indian and Arabic sources.It was compiled during the reign of
Muhammad Tughluq in 1329.The Sultan took an equally great interest in the diseases of
animals and compiled a book, Shikar Nama-i-Firuz Shahi.Shaikh Bima was a skilful
surgeon of Akbar’s time as far as the treatment of elephants was concerned.The ancient
works Gay Shastra ad Salhotra were freely used.To Miyan Bhow, Prime Minister of
Sikandar Lodhi, we owe the voluminous work on medicine Tib-i-Sikandari.Tuhfat-ul
Muminin by Muhammad Mumin Husaini was the standard work on medicine used
during the 17th century.There is conclusive evidence to show that there were skilful
jarrahs or surgeons who not only performed operations, but could also provide artificial
limbs.As pointed out by Elphinstone, ‘their surgery is as remarkable as their medicine,
especially when we recollect their ignorance of anatomy.They cut for the stone, couched
for the cataract and extracted the foctus from the womb and in their early work
enumerate no less than 127 sorts of surgical works’.
Physics and Chemistry : Physics and chemistry were studied, but were regarded as a
part of the science of mathematics.Scholars knew the use of various metals and other
chemical compounds.Belief in alchemy was universal. Akbar was said to have learnt
this so-called science from a yogi. Besides the Sanskrit works Rasaratnasamuccaya and
Rasarja Lakshmi, reference may be made to a Persian treatise Hikmat-ul-Baligha
compiled in the 17th century.
Meteorology : Hindus were said to have had a complete mastery over the science of
meteorology.They could accurately foretell the onset of cyclones, winds and stormy
weather.

98
 MEDIEVAL INDIAN TECHNOLOGY

Indian technology was not static by any means. In fact, throughut ancient as welf
as medieval times there were changes introduced both by internal innovation and by
diffusion from outside.It also seems that the rhythm of change was not even, and that in
some centuries, like the 13th to the 15th, the changes were indeed quite numerous and
wide-ranging.If one was able to study the level of technology in the Old World at about
1500, one would have probably found no particular reason to hold that India was
lagging behind other parts of Eurasia.Generally speaking, foreign (Chinese, North
African and European) visitors of that time or earlier do not seem to have considered
Indian techniques primitive or very different from what they were familiar with in their
own countries.But within the next century, and especially during the 17th, this no longer
remained the case; and Western Europe’s advances in crafts and technology won wide
recognition even in India, where allusions to the superiority of European workmanship
begin frequently to occur.This immensely important change in the economic and
cultural balance in the world compels us to consider whether there were elements in
Indian technological practice and social organization that retarded development,
including even such development as might be induced by imitation.Let us begin with a
consideration of the limitations that might have beset Indian technology.
In this search for weaknesses, we may first note the fact that while many
important mechanical principles had been adopted, their applications remained simple
and separate, and that combinations of them which alone could produce machines are
extremely rare.Moreover, each principle is present usually in one or two devices, but is
not found in other crafts where it could have been applied; in other cases still, there are
inexplicable geographical limits to diffusion of a particular device.Thus the internal
machanics of technological change, while they did operate, were still extremely slow-
movng. Nor did India show any effective response to modern European technology in
the 16th and 17th centuries.Key European tools ad pre-industrial machines were not
copied in India; the absence of the true riveting screw and the spiral spring are
symptomatic of the indifference to these critical advances in the West.
Explanations are needed for both the sluggishness of internal innovationand the
imperviousness to importation.One major explananation may well lie in the fact that
medieval India had developed and exceptional degree of manual skill, which seemed to
compensate for the crudeness of implements. ‘Numerous are the instances’, says
Bernier (1663), ‘of handsome pieces of workmanship made by persons distitute of
tools…..some times they imitate so perfectly articles of European manufacturetht the
difference between the original and copy can hardly be discerned’.Fryer (1674),
speaking of a Surat coral worker, ‘wondered (at) the tols he worked with, more tha his
Art, because we see it surpssed in Europe, but with far more invention of
instruments.Here hands and feet being all the Vice, and the other tools misshapen bits
of Iron’. Elsewhere, again, he says:And by this small Taste of their unweariedness in
Painstaking, their Cheapness of everthing and their farig hard, all their other Craftsmen
may be valued, which workd for nothing comparatively with our Europeans though in
many things they exceed them for curiosity, as instaining of Calicuts (Calicoes), and
fine work either in gold or silver.

99
 The situation that we can visualize, then, is an abundance of skilled labour,
which, owing to low subsistence costs, inhibited improvement in tools. A finer product
could be attained more cheaply by a larger application of labour and manual skill than
by adopting a mechanical refinement.This would doubtless not apply where, as in
liquor distillation (with the Italo-Arab still received in India by the thirteenth century),
the product could not simply be attained by any greater input of labour or skill.Also in
cases where there was a visible immediate reduction of costs with no large investment,
mechanical improvement did take place.The most outstanding example is calico-
printing. The original ‘chintz’ (Hindi chhint, Sanskrit chitrapata) was painted cloth. In
the 17th century the Machilipatnam artists painted chintz for the world market. But this
was a luxury product; there had been a steady substitution of printed chintz for the
painted.The printing block enabled the printer, with less skill and labour, to produce a
far larger quantity of decorated cloth than the painter. It is possible that cloth-printing
in India is no older than the 14th century, but India is almost certainly the country of its
origin, though inspiration may have come from paper printing or inked seals, both of
which diffused from China during the great conquests of the Mongols.Yet paper-
printing would not be adopted in India because apparently the scribes would still work
cheaply and with much art.
But a notable example of the rejection of a labour-saving device because of
simple ‘skill compensation’ can be offered from the textile industry itself. The draw-
loom was a device log used in Iran for weaving patterns.But this was seldom adopted
in India.To produce their famous flowered muslin in 1800, the Dacca weavers, working
in pairs, laboriously counted the appropriate warp thread and lifted them through the
insertion of a bamboo stick at each throw of the shuttle.Thus one important inhibiting
factor was the presence of a relative studyof skilled labour, which Indian civilization
had managed to create by centuries of commodity (market-oriented) production. ‘A
good thing in Hindustan’, Babur (1526-30) had said, ‘is that it has unnumbered and
endless workmenof every kind’.The large population of skilled labour had its corollary
in low wages, and in petty production, where the artisan owned his own tools.The
pressure of competition compelled him to sharpen his skill rather thn improve his tools,
on which he could not afford more expense.
The development of skill meant extreme specialization; and India therefore saw a
multiplicity of professions which occasioned much surprise among European
merchants.Pelsaert (1626) said that there were in Agra; ‘Goldsmiths, (calico) painters,
embroiders, carpet-makers, cotton or silk weavers, blacksmiths, coppersmiths, tailors,
masons, builders, stone cutters, a hundred crafts in all, for a job which one (workman)
would do in Holland, passes(here) through four men’s hands before it is finished’.The
picture is corroborated by Abu’language Fazl’s description of the different occupations
within the mint; coin changers, weighmen, ore smelters, gold-plate makers, refined-
metal smelters, ingot casters, engravers, silver refiners, hammersmiths for refined
silver, assayers, gold separators and silver separators.Such specialization was to a large
extent brought about by a socially set division of labour, the caste system. While it
helped to preserve skill, improvements in technology could be inhibited by the barriers
posed by ignorance of other crafts inherent in the mutual isolation of hereditary castes.
‘There is a fixed caste for every sort of work and for everything’, observed Babur,
‘which has done that work or that thing from father to son’.Max Weber’s well-known

100
argument is that since the caste created ‘segregation of skills’ and prevented any urge
for technological improvement.It may be recalled that in Indian technology inter-
sectoral diffusion of particular devices is very rare; and this very closely fits in with the
Weberian thesis.
Another argument by Weber draws on the submergence of all individual
ambitions under caste rigidities.Bernier (1663) would have agreed, for he observed: ‘No
one (aspires) after any improvement in the condition of life wherein he happens to be
born.The embroiderer brings up his son as an embroiderer, the son of a goldsmith
becomes a golsmith, and the physician of the educates his son for a physician’.Morris D.
Morris has, in an important article, challenged the entire Weberian thesis. There is no
doubt that, over the long run, castes altered their professions and there were fresh
entrants into particular professions through the rise of new castes or even assimilation
by old castes.Fukazawa, for example, tells us of the caste of tailors of Maharashtra,
which, during the earlier part of the 18th century, took to dyeing, while another section
of the caste separated exclusively to undertake indigo-dyeing.Yet, after all, Weber’s
argument only stands qualified; it does not totally fall.The caste system has survived
because of its capacity to accommodate and adjust to economic change. But since it so
closely suited the pressure for skill specialization in the medieval ecy, the hereditary
division of labour and the socially set segregation of skills’ it involved could not but be
important negative factors in the development of technology.
If, then, there were only limited inducements for innovation within craft
technology, the question may be asked whether it could not be externally induced by
the hingher, non-producing classes.The question may be supplemented by an
illustration.The Mughal aristocracy had a taste for fruits, especially Central Asian
fruits.Thus in their orchards they laid out waterworks (with ‘Persian wheels’), imported
gardeners and seeds, and encouraged the practice of grafting.The quality of the oranges
was greatly improved in the 17th century; and in the 18th century, varieties of grafted
mangoes (initially introduced by the Portuguese with the ‘Afonso’ in the 17th century)
appeared in northern India under similar impulses.Could not improvements in
mechanical technology have been similarly made where the control over production
processes lay with the aristocracy, as in the karkhanas (or workshops within the
imperial and aristocratic establishments)? The merchants could have played a similar
role when they directly organized production in their karkhanas, or in mining and ship-
building, where large numbers of workers were employed at single sites.This raises the
issue whether even when directly controlling production, the noble or merchant
supplied the tools as well.Marx has given particular importance to the artisan’s
ownership of his tools in pre-capitalist petty production. And it is remarkable how,
whatever the form of org of production that we find in medieval India, the tools are
always those of the artisan; only the raw material and the place of work could belong to
the employer.Thus Abu’language Fazl, in his detailed accounts of the imperial
workshops, lists minute expenses and costs of the pettiest articles, but there are no
expenses show for tools or implements.
The same appears to have been the case with merchant-controlled production.In
the Deccan diamond mines, where thousands of miners were employed (and each
employer had 50 to 100 under him), 17th century descriptions show the lease-holders
making practically no investments on any apparatus, so that even water was carried up

101
by buckets transferred from hand to hand.In the textile industry, where the ‘putting-
out’ system (both in material and money) was in vogue, the looms belonged to the
weavers, and neither the Indian merchants nor the English East India Company dealing
with the weavers are known to have concerned themselves with improvements of the
looms.The only instance where the quality of loom became of concern to the English
factors was when a particular width could not be made with the existing looms, and the
weavers asked for advances to have broader looms made.
Still more striking was the case with the Indian ship-building industry.From
about the middle of the 17th century, Indian ship-builders began, at Surat, to copy
closely the Dutch and English designs of ships, and the results were eminently
successful.Nevertheless, not a single European machine or apparatus is known to have
been used in that industry.Apparently, the carpenters and others went on working with
their own existing tools.We therefore see, again, the copying of the product, but not f
the technology.In other words, since tools were not yet separated from the artisan, and
capitalist relations had not yet developed, craft technology remained outside the scope
of extermally induced change.However, the very formulation of the problem in this
manner makes an opposite question inevitable.Why did not classes which controlled a
share in the social surplus enter the productive process by providing the tools and so be
able to improve technology, as happened partly in Western Europe from the sixteenth
century onwards? This raises the problem of ideological orientation.How far were such
classes in India at all interested in technology and its improvement?
Cipolla has argued that modern industrial progress ‘accelerated dramatically
whe the resources of craftsmanship were strengthened by the systematic application of
scientific principles developed by more or less professional scientists’.He could have
added that this stage was preceded by a much longer one when the ‘scientists’, or, in
fact, the educated gentry, turned to the observation of craft production, scrutinized the
various mechanical principles discovered therefore, and then mentally (or on paper)
combined and refined them and sought to discover new sectors of production where
these could be applied.Agricola, in the 16th century, is justly supposed to represent the
model combination of observation, analysis and generalization, in his work on mining
and geological technology. It is true that the applicationsof ‘scientific’ findings to craft
techniques were not direct or simple matters of transmission from paper to wood and
metal.Inventions, to becomeeconomically viable, had to wait for favourable
circumstances.But there is no doubt that actual production technology in Western
Europe began to receive scientific influences from the 16th century onwards, and the
two-way relationship between crafttecy and theoretical science continued to get
increasingly closer, until the Industrial Revolution at last created the conditions for their
merger into a practically single system.
In ancient India, production technology was apparentlynot brought into any
recognizable relationship with theoretical science.Bhoja’s fanciful devices, often difficult
to interpret, seem totally divorced from any association with practical technology, let
alone the productive process.A different attitude prevailed in another early source of
world culture, the Hellenistic Mediterranean, which produced Archimedes and, in its
Roman incarnation, Vitruvius.Islam, in the first two centuries of its existence (7th and 8th
centuries), inherited a large part of the treasures of Hellenistic sciences, and interest in
technology in the Islamic world seems to have reached its peak with al-Jazari (1204-

102
06).The Hellenistic influence onal-Jazari is manifest, but the numerous devices in which
he uses right-angled (pindrum) gearing seem to derive from his own observation of the
saqiya (our ‘Persian wheel’), and the water-mill led him to water-driven clock work.But
even al-Jazari had no successors, only copyists and plagiarists.This was not surprising
since around that time science received a setback throughout the Islamic world, its last
great representatives being Bu ‘Ali Sina, Alberuni and Ibn Rushed.There was a heavy
onslaught on reason and philosophy, in which Ghazzali played an important part.
In much of India Islam was received in the 13th century when the scientific
tradition in it was already in the process of decay. Abu’language Fazl, at the end of the
16th Century mourned ‘the blowing of the heavy wind of taqlid (tradition) and the
dimming of the lamp of wisdom. Of, old’, he added, ‘the door of “how” and “why” has
been closed; and questioning and enquiry have been deemed fruitless and tantamount
to paganism’.Abu’language Fazl, who was Akbr’s minister and theoretician, was at
least himself an exception to this traditionalism.He emphasized his respect for the
Hellenistic sciences and cited the classical Islamic rational philosophers.He was the first
to describe scientifically the method of liquor distillation in India, if not in the Islamic
world. He also exalted the contrivances ascribed to Akbar, the importance of which
especially lay in that they were designed nt simply to entertain, but to do down-to-earth
work, such as smoothening gun-barrels, grinding corn or lifting water.Anu’language
Fazl insists that there were innovations too in the manufacture of guns and muskets,
and describes a device employed by Akbar, the ship’s ‘camel’, which was invented in
Europe only nearly a century later.In chemistry there was the invention of water-
cooling through the use of saltpetre, which seems to be independent of any discovery
made in Europe.
These achievements are impressive not only because of their substance, but also
because of the spirit that they point to. Yet, the spirit was confined to the court, and
there too it soon died.Ideologically, perhaps, it was clothed in far too mystical a
framework, in that the toerance of science stemmed not so much from an unqualified
belief in reason as from a deep belief in Pantheism, which taught one to respect
diversity. Ever since the time the doctrines of Ibn a;-‘Arabi had reached India,
Pantheism had begun to exercise a powerful influence on the Muslim mind, and Akbar
appealed to it expressly to justify his religious policy and claims to be the vicegerent of
God on this earth. The apparent revival of science at Akbar’s court was thus not backed
or reinforced by any strong appeal to rationality, untrammelled by mystical assertions
and speculations.Moreover, the aristocracy retained a scornful attitude towards the
ordinary people.A horror of the common man’s obtaining education was shared by
everyone, fromAkbar to his bitter critic Badauni.The Emperor approvingly recalled the
action of Shah Tahmasp in punishing an attendant who supplied a portion of a verse
the Shah had forgotten.This attitude made any interest in the technology used by the
common man still more remote. The Mughal empire produced not a single worthwhile
text on crafts or agriculture, however many volumes of poetry or histories it might have
to its credit.It will be one-sided, however, to forget the extenuting circumstances.It was
not only India but the entire non-European world, including a great culture like that of
the Chinese with such a long productive addiction to technology that failed to match
the developments in Europe.The literati inChina took little interest in the extensive
presentation by the Jesuits (under the Qing court’s patronage) of European

103
mathematics, astronomy and physics, from the early years of the 17th century, though
the Chinese had printing too, by which the knowledge could have been widely, spread.
Next door to Central Europe, the Ottomans’ failure to share in the European ‘miracle’ is
still harder to understand.
It can be argued legitimately that since the Indian failure to match Europe’s
progress in technology was so widely, indeed universally, shared, one should primarily
look for the factors behind the European advance, and nt just only seek causes for the
general failure of the rest of the world. Lynn White Jr. pointed to the Christian urge to
lighten labour as an exceptional factor behind Europe’s search for labour-saving
devices.But when any mode of labour-saving produces an immediate economic
advantage, it seems to be acceptable in all civilization; and the cases are few in Europe,
where uneconomical inventions were adopted simply because they were labour-
saving.On the other hand, one may legitimately cite the virtual genocide of Amerindian
peoples by Spain in the Americas, and the trans-Atlantic slave trade crried on so
relentlessly by practically all the West European nations, where even a rudimentary
sense of Christian compassion was forgotten in the drive for economic gain.Clearly, the
main roots of European advance could not, therefore, lie in any pursuit of religious
virtue. Rather, one needs to seek them in the growth of rationalism, the ‘scientific’
revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the expanding volume of capital available
for technological experimentation.The capital required was fed by the growth of
commerce internally, and by colonial plunder overseas.The assemblage of all these
factors must be considered in any attempt to explain how European technology, by the
end of the 18th century, was able to leave the rest of the world, in its entirety, so far
behind.Yet, no special circumstances can detract from the achievement of the European
craftsman, whose romance with technology helped ultimately to reshape the whole
world.

MEDIEVAL TECHNOLOGY IN THE WORLD OUT EUROPE

The history of medieval and early modern technology in Europe is usually

conveniently available in textbooks, but readers are likely to be less familiar with
technological developments in pre-modern China and the Islamic world (West Asia and
North Africa). Yet some knowledge of the technological history of China and Islam is
relevant to any understanding of India’s own technological history. It would be hard to
dispute the claim that until the 15th century China had kept a clear lead over other
cultures in the realm of technology.Remains of paper from hemp-fibre have been found
dating from the 1st century BC inChina, and its widespread use there seems to have
begun already by the 7th century.The magnetic compass was in use by the 11th
century.Before the 10th century the Chinese had established the combustability of a
mixture of saltpetre and sulphur, and in the 12th century, if not the 10th, there appeared
the ‘fire-lance’, the world’s first gunpowder-driven rocket.Cannon followed in the 14th
century.More important for peaceful pursuits was the invention of block-printing well
before the 8th century.The first extant printed book in Chinese is dated AD 868. In 1041-
48 the movable type was invented, and by about the same time China had a printed
currency, the first in the world.Less well known is the diffusion from China of the
spinning wheel and the treadle for shed-control in the loom, which, reaching the
various corners of the Old World by the fifteenth century, everywhere revolutionized

104
the textile industry. The use of coke by the eleventh century and of forge-produced
cast-iron since much earlier times placed the Chinese ahead of every other people in the
areas of fuel and metllurgy.In agriculture, China contributed the winnowing fan, an
early Dutch import, for Europe’s new husbandry.
Even more remarkable were China’s achievements in the field of machine
design.Wang Zhen, in 1313, described a water-powered spinning machine for hemp
with multiple spindles.Song Yinxing, in the Tian Gong Kai Wu (1637), described and
illustrated a blast furnace with double-acting piston bellows; a silk-reeling machine
with a flyer worked by eccentric and driving belt from a main shaft powered by a
treadle crank; a deep drilling tool worked by capstn and pulleys; and a draw-loom, all
showing amazing sophistication.As Needham reminds us, already around 1300, four
centuries before Europe, the Chinese were applying water power to textile machinery.
If one tured to the Islamic world at around 1500, one would also have found
considerable use of water power in the water-mills of Iran and Afghanistan, and of
wind power in the windmills of Seistan.Water flow was also used to turn water-lifting
devices (both norias and saqiyas) in Syria and Iraq.Pindrum-gearing was quite common
in Islamic technology, especially in water-lift mechanisms. Moreover, the Islamic
civilization had taken an important role in the diffusion of techniques.From China it
took over and transmitted the manufacture of paper, draw-loom and treadles to
Europe.Eastward, it diffused the geared saqiya (water-wheel with pot-garland and
gears) and the capstan received from Hellenistic Mediterranean.Wulff and al-Hassan
and Hill give us excellent introductions to the level of technological advance ttained in
Iran, West Asia and North Africa before the beginning of modern times.
India too, as we have seen in our own survey, had developed some important
technological processes.The milling rollers, used for cotton-ginning and sugarcane-
crushing, spread from India westward.By the 17th century, Indian methods of textile-
printing had been adopted in Iran; and Indian cloth-printing became the source of
inspiration for textile-printing in England in the eighteenth century.There were notable
inventions too at the court of Emperor Akbar (reigned 1556-1605).It is noteworthy that,
among these, water-cooling by saltpetre and the use of ship’s camel had precedence in
time over similar inventions in Europe.

SCIENCE IN WEST ASIA

Science has been an extensive cultural undertaking that occupied the minds and
energies of many of the leading intellectuals in medieval Muslim societies in West
Asia.The Arabs adapted scientific love and together with their own contributions
taught the same to others. Astronomy was among the most esteemed of the sciences
among the Arabs.There were a large number of Arab scientists working in practical and
theoretical astronomy.Thousands of works were written on astronomy.Al-Fasari and
YaQub-Ihn-Tarik were outstanding among the early astronomers of West Asia.After the
model of the Almajist of Ptolemy around 830AD Al Khwavarizmi wrote Zig-Al Sind-
Hind which contained tables for the movements of sun, moon and the planes. Under
the Abasid Khalif Al Mamun a programme of astronomical observation was organized
at Bhagdad and Damascus.The Arabic astronomers corrected and supplemented the
Ptolemaic astronomy.Thabit wrote about forty treatises on astronomy.Thabit provided

105
systematic mathematical proof with the aid of theorems of Euclid to many an
astronomical phenomena.Astronomers like Al Khujandi were known for the
instruments used in observatory.Al beruni was outstanding astronomer also. Al bitruji
formulated an alternative to Ptolemiac astronomy with regard to planetary
theory.Many a West Asian astronomer was occupied with the problems of practical
astronomy.The problem of crescent visibility has been one of the main topic addressed
in various astronomical treatises.The official Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar.
Another practical use of astronomy for the Muslims was for determining the direction
of the Qibla.The Muslim Astronomers compiled comprehensive works on sun dial
theory.Among the Arab astronomers there were scientists those who were proficient in
making astrolabes, quadrants and cartographic grids.
The Arabs learnt the socalled Arabic numerals from India and spread the same
in the European world.Ummar Khayyam was a mathematician also. He was proficient
in Geometry and Algebra.Thabit-Qurra provided systematic Geometrical
interpretations of Algebraic procedures.The Arab scientists enriched the Mathematical
discipline of trigonometry.The Muslims of West Asia were excellent in optical
knowledge.The Kitab ul-manasir is the master piece of Arabic optics.
Medieval sources provide a wealth of information on the theory and practice of
Arabic medicine.The Kitab-ul-Havai, in 20 Volumes written by the celebrated physician
Muhmmed Al Rasi has been the important text book on medical science in Europe for
centuries.Another basic text of medicine in Europe up to the 7th century was the
Qunnum of Avisenna.The Muslim physicians had diagnosed the features plague,
tuberculosis, ulcer, etc.The Muslim Physicians were noted for their efficiency in
surgery. The great cities Islamic empire had large hospitals.
Botany and Pharmacology also registered spectacular progress in West-Asia
under the Islamic rulers.The Botomical lexicon; Kitab-ul-nabat (the book of plants)
marks the high stage of development of Botany in the Arab world. In the 12 th century
several Pharmacological encyclopaedic works were compiled in the Islamic empire.The
masterpiece of the Arabic pharmacology is the work of Ibn-Al-Baytas on simple
medicines and food.This is the most complete treatise of applied botany in the middle
ages.The descriptions of all the known simple medicines are seen in this work.Science
in the Muslim world was more or less a secular enterprise.Islamic religion was not an
enemy of science.The development of science in the Islamic world shows sincere
attempts at the synthesis of knowledge derived from various sources.
Medieval science had its own limitations.Often in Europe independent scientific
enquiry was obstructed by the religious authorities. But this was not the case with India
or the Islamic world. Most often it was scientific theory that was formulated by
medieval scientists.The laws regarding the same came only later. Superstitions also
stood in the way scientific development.

THE LIMITATION OF MEDIEVAL MEDICINE

The practice of medicine in the medieval period was limited by factors; some of these
were religious beliefs, a lack of scientific knowledge, the absence of formalized training
and the influences of traditional practice. A medieval manuscript exists which contains
96 illustrations of patients displaying their disorders to a doctor; these disorders appear

106
to include bowel, thigh, groin, knee, feet and leg. The pictures have no captions and
need to be explained by reference to the text. This ancient book gives an indication of
the limitations of medical knowledge and practice in the medieval period.
Religious beliefs and attitudes limited, to some extent, the study of medicine in
the medieval period.The study of anatomy was frowned upon by the church, especially
the practice of conducting autopsies and performing dissections. Since the bible taught
that man was made in the image of God, the act of dissecting a human body was
considered to be tantamount to dissecting God. This belief severely limited the amount
of knowledge western doctors were able to acquire about the workings of the human
body.Another stumbling block in the way of scientific investigations was the belief held
at this time by many medieval christains (and still held today by some sects) that injury
and illness were punishment for sin, God punished the wicked by plaguing them with
disease or illness.This belief and others such as the touch of a royal person restoring the
afflicted to health meant that medicine did not have a practical base in the lay person”s
thinking.This attitude, although appearing somewhat superstitious to most people in
the “Scientific” late 20th century, should not be a point of criticism because the majority
of the medieval population had a very strong belief in the existence of God and in His
intimate involvement in their daily lives.Their attitudes and practices are a logical
outcome of these.
Medieval medicine appears to lack a degree of scientific knowledge. Many of the
roots of medieval medical knolwledge were based on the classical learning of the
ancient Greeks and what they believed the human body was like, with ideas such as the
heart being the control centre for the body”s activities not the brain.Some of the written
information we have about medieval medicine is contained in the fifteen books that the
Faculty of Medicine in Paris acquired in the 13th and 14th centuries. Portions of the
fifteen books appear to be direct translations from classical writings by scholars such as
Hippocrates.
What we would now consider as basic scientific principles, were not available to
medieval researchers.The medieval practitioner had no idea that, for example, germs
existed or that a healthy diet was important. Poor diet and lack of nutrition coupled
with low hygiene standards played a significant role in the susceptibility of the public
to illness and the high infant mortality rate. Because medieval doctors had no real idea
about the existence of bacteria and the like, disease and illness spread quickly through
contagion, both patient and doctor being unwitting carriers.
Considering the lack of in-depth knowledge and the absence of pain killers and
anaesthetics, the medieval surgeon performed remarkable procedures. It has been
suggested that operations such as caesarian sections, bone re-breaking and setting, eye
operations, cleaning and stitching of battle wounds and removal of internal cysts were
being performed by medieval surgeons. Cleanliness does not appear to have been a
very important part of everyday medieval life.When we consider that operations may
well have been carried out by people who did not wash their hands, in homes where
humans and animals shared the same small living space it is surprising that any patient
managed to survive not only the ailment, but the cure as well.
The reservations shown by the church towards a scientific approach to medicine
meant that much of the study of the human body undertaken during the medieval

107
period was conducted in the eastern, Islamic cultures. However, the school of Salerno
was an exception to this. Salerno had been established as early as the 10th century A.D,
making it at least two centuries older than the Faculty of Medicine in Paris, and
commanded much respect from both the eastern and western approaches to medical
science.Salerno appears to have had quite a modern, empirical approach to medicine as
a science.The School of Salerno housed not only works regarding classical Roman and
Greek knowledge, but its library also included works in Arabic.
Western Europe was able to benefit from the research being undertaken in other
parts of the world by the flourising of trade in the middle ages. Foreign lands were far
more accessible because of the development of international trade routes.This made
travel and the exchange of knowledge much easier to obtain. (Notes supplied in class)
The interaction of east and west during the Crusades may also have contributed the
exchange of medical knowledge.
Doctors and surgeons who were not trained professionally at institutessuch as
the Faculty of Medicine in Paris or The School of Salerno, appear to have picked up
information as they went along, a type of apprenticeship with on-the-job training.Some
doctors are even believed to have consulted the stars before making a diagnosis.
Barbers often became quasi-surgeons, roamikng the countriside performing operations
where requested on both animals and humans.The lack of medical training severely
limited the effectiveness of a doctor of surgeon in the face of sickness and injury.
Medicine, particularly in Europe, was heavily influenced by traditional beliefs in
folklore and magic.The use of spells and home made remedies appears to hve been a
common practice. A source from the medieval period, Bald’s Leechbook (leechbook
means medical book), carried information regarding such issues as fertility, baldness
and nagging women.It would appear that people during this period of history were
somewhat wary of doctors and medicine, they seem to have been of the opinion that
medicine had little scientific merit.
Thus it can be seen that there were severe limitations in the knolwledge and
practice medicine in medieval times. Little was known about the structure and function
of the human body: nothing was known about bacteria and viruses nor about the
transmission of disease; the need for good nutrition and cleanliness were not yet
acknowledged. Influences of the church, religious beliefs and traditional folk medicine
all combined to limit the amount of medical knowledge available in the medieval
period.

108
 CHAPTER –VI
RELIGION AND IDEOLOGY

The medieval period has been characterized as an age of faith. It is mainly

because of the hold of religions on men and society.The development of the
monotheistic religions of Christianity and Islam has been an important feature of
culture and civilization in the medieval world.Both these religions were against
polytheism.Even though Christianity believed in monotheism it believed in the worship
of the three divine beings, the father, son and holy spirit.But in Islam there is only one
single god and that is ‘Allah’. Muhammad, is but the prophet of the religion and not a
god.The monotheistic religion of Judaism came to have certain aspects of polytheistic
believes.Christianity believed in the worship of saints.But Islam was against it.The
worship of any other power other than ‘Allah’ was considered to be shirk, a great sin.
In Indian Hinduism continued to flourish with all its polytheistic practices. But
certain branches of Hindu philosophy especially the Advaita recognized only one
cosmic power in the entire universe.During the medieval period Buddhism and Jainism
declined and they were divided into various sects.The founder of Jainism did not
believe in God.But during the medieval period Jainism came to have deities, idol
worship, etc.The Mahayana form of Buddhism was closer to Hinduism than
Buddhism.Originally Buddhism was an agnotheism.Certain sects of Buddhism was
following eve tantric cults.The worship of Bodhistavas in Buddhism and Thirthankaras
in Jainism endowed them with polytheistic practices.
Pilgrimage to religious centres have been part of the religious practices and it
has been strong both in the monotheistic and polytheistic religions. Jerusalem has been
a pilgrime centre of the Jewish, Christians and Muslims. One of the motives of the
Christians of Europe in the crusades was the recovery of Jerusalem from the
Turks.Pilgrimage to Mecca is one of the principles or pillars of Islam. It is the Haj. Long
before Muhammd the Arabs used to go to the holy place of Kaaba in Mecca. Later the
Kaaba purified of idols became a pilgrim centre for all Muslims.The pilgrims to Mecca
would halt at Madina to view the tombs of Muhammad.Abubaker and Ommer.The
famous pilgrimage to Mecca served many purposes like that of the Jews to Jerusalem
and of the Christians to Jerusalem or Rome.It intensified the worshipper’s faith.And
bound by a collective emotional experience to his creed and his fellow believers in India
the pilgrimage to Banarase has been important to the Hindus.The holy places connected
with Buddhism especially Sanchi, Saranth, Bodhgaya, etc. have been pilgrim centres for
Buddhists. The early Chinese travelers who came to India were Buddhist pilgrims to
the places connected with Lord Buddha.During the medieval period pilgrimage to
French off places was hazardous and so pilgrim would manage to fulfill his earthly
duties before going to pilgrimage.
Worship of saints has been part of Catholic religion.The twelve apostles of Jesus
Christ were worshipped as a saints.Later those who dedicated their life for Christianity
and Christian principles and showed miracles came to be declared as saints by the
Catholic church.Examples are St. Francis Xavier, St. Joan of Archaeological and so
on.The latest saint of the Catholic church is St. Alphonsamma from Kerala.Actually the

109
worships of saints is against the monotheistic practices.The practice of worshipping the
idols of the saints has been criticized by the reformers of the church. Worship of Sufi
Saints is popular in Islam, even though it is unIslamic.The worship of the devotees of
deities has been a practice of medieval Bhakthi movement in India. This has all been
more so with regard to the Vaishnava and Saivite saints.
Judaism, Christianity and Islam were revealed religions.The belief in prophets
has been fundamental to Judaism. Islam recognizes all the prophets’ upto Muhammad
the Prophet.Muhammad is the seal of the prophet.But occasionally their religious man
claiming the role of prophet in this monotheistic religions.The orthodox sects used to
surpass them. The Mahadi tradition in Islam is developed from such leaders claimed
to be prophets.The term Mahadi refer to a millenarian figure expected to lead the
Muslim community in righteous preparation for the last judgment.The Shias believed in
the Immams and a section of the Shias believed that the line of the visible Imams had
ended in 874, when the twelfth Inam who was only an infant had gone into hiding in
Samarra and that he would return in the fullness of time as a Mahadi.Mahadi is a quasi
prophetic figure. It was believed that he will come after Jesus ad usher in a period of
peace and justice that will last until the day of judgment.Mahadi does not appear in the
Quran and but is a later addition. It first appears in the Hadith of Sahih Muslim.The
coming of the Mahadi is frequently identified with the Shias.But there were Sunni
Mahdhist movements also.In 1880s there was a Mahdhi movement in Sudan under
Muhammad Ahammad Mahdhi who was originally a Sufi.He opposed the oppressive
Egyptian rule and conquered Khartoom.The Mahdhi movement has been a revivalist
one.
The belief in sin and redemption has been a feature of the monotheistic
religions.According to Christianity man is a sinner by birth and good works are
recommended for redemption from sins.According to Christianity repentance is a
solution to sins.It believes in confession also. Catholicism recommends confession to
god through the mediation of a priest as part of the redemption of sins.Evil acts, words;
deeds etc. are also sins in the eyes of religion. According to Islam deviation from the
path of god is sin.Blasphemy against the Prophet is also sin.The monotheistic religions
believe that the sinners would be sentenced to hell. According to Islam the worship of
any other god than ‘Allah’ is shirk, the greatest sin. Pope was believed to be capable of
redeeming sins. For example those who went for fighting the crusades where redeemed
of their sins by the Pope. Before Reformation the Pope used to issue certificates called
the declaration of indulgence and sold them to the faithful.It was believed that those
who bought such certificates would get their sins redeemed.
Those who wet against the established beliefs and order of the religion were
considered to be heretics in Christianity and Islam. After overcoming its initial
difficulties the Christian church ceased to preach toleration.She did not tolerate any
doctrines contrary to her creed.Herasy was not purely theological.In many cases it has
been the ideological flag of rebellions in locality seeking liberation from imperial
power.This is best evident from the cases of Christian heretic groups like the
Monophysites and the Donatists. The Monophysites wished to free Syria and Egypt
from Constntinople.The Donatists hoped to free Africa from Rome.The Christian
church stood for centralization and unity.But the heretics’ strove far local independence
and liberty.Another heretic sect of Christianity was Arianism. It was popular among the

110
barbarian tribes.Other heretic groups were Eunomians, Anomians, Appolinarians, etc.
Manichesim was a Persian heretic group.The Donatist heresy in Africa denied the
efficacy of sacraments administered by priests in a state of sin.
The Nestorians were doubtful of the divinity of mother of god.The founder of
this sect was Nestorius.According to him Mary was the mother not of god but only of
the human nature in Jesus. Nestorius raised himself to the episcopa at Constantinople
in AD 428.Nestorians was banished to Libian desert.The Nestorians with stood
persecutions and the Nestorian communities were established in distant regions like
India and China. Another heretic group, the followers of Eutyches believed that there
was no two natures - human and divine in Christ but only the divine.This Monophysite
heresy was condemned by the patriarch of Constantinople.The monks of Syria and
Egypt supported the monophysites.This religion has been the national religion of
Christian Egypt and Abyssenia.In medieval period heresy was cruelly punished.
Whoever went against the facts in Bible were considered as heretics.The Catholic
Church had set up a religious court called the inquisition to deal with heresy.The
heretics were punished severely.The inquisition would try the heretics and condemned
them to punishment.Heretics were burnt alive. Certain scientists of medieval Europe
were punished by the church denouncing their ideas s heresy.Galeeleo was subject to
the wrath of the church authorities. Wycliff and John Huss were condemned to death
because of their criticism of the Catholic church.The other punishment given to heretics
were excommunication, banishment etc.
Black magic, witch craft, sorcery, etc. have been part of religions from the very
birth of religions.Witchcraft ad the punishment to it figure prominently in the history of
the religions in medieval period, especially Christianity.The church denounced Black
magic and witch craft.Still the belief in some magical means of turning the power
supernatural beings to a desired end was popular. It was part the medieval
mentalities.Even the church men were not free from such belief.The majority of the
Christians considered sign of the cross, the lords prayer and the Ave Maria as magic
incantations and used holy water d sacraments as magic rites bringing miraculous
effects.The Ponitetial Book of the Bishop of Exeter condemned women who by Scorcery
and enchantments tried to achieve their goals as witches or demons in women’s shape.
Simple witchery consisted in making a wax model of an intended victim, piercing it
with needles and pronouncing formulas of cursing.Some women were believed to
injure or kill by a look of their evil eye.Witches were cruelly punished.Women
convicted for witchcraft were condemned to have their heads shaved and receive two
hundred stripes.The inquisition tried to suppress witch craft by burning women at the
stake.St. Joan of Arc was mistaken to be a witch and she was burnt alive.

MONASTICISM IN EUROPE

It does not appear that Christ specifically charged his followers to lead what we
might understand to be the monastic life style. Rather, monasticism appears to be the
response of some believers, who lived, and continue to live out, the Christian
experience through an ascetic, simple lifestyle, often removed from worldy
influence.Through monasticism, some have interpreted the Gospel of Christ as a call to
denouce, or even punish, the flesh, while others seek to better train the flesh for Christ-

111
like service through the same discipline.During the early stages of church development,
monasticism offered a way to “live out the total commitment” in a world where the
Church was being more closely linked to government, and its trappings of power and
prestige. Still others joined this movement to escape the distracting noise and business
of life so that greater time and energy could be devoted to a conteplative lifestyle.
Initially, the exodus to the deserts and other remote places was made by
individuals, who, wishing to retreat from society, lived out private, solitary lives.
Taking for themselves the name “monk” which derives from the Greed word
“monachos”, meaning “solitary”, these women and men, however, did not always live
alone.The growing numbers of anchorites migrating to remote places began seeking out
learned teachers, hoping to be enlightened by those already familiar with the
discipline.Therefore, solitary monasticism eventually “gave way to a communal form of
communal living gave rise to a new understanding of the discipline, known as
“cenobitic” monasticism. One of the earliest leaders of cenobitic monasticism was
Pachomius, born around 286 A.D. He established a basic rule for the communal living
that he led: absolute obedience to superiors.Throughout the first centuries of early
Christianity, both solitary and cenobitic monasticism flourished. Both contributed to
this young, growing faith by creating opportunities for people to express their faith in
Christ.
During Medieval times, cenobitic monasticism was greatly influenced by an
Italian monk named Benedict. Born around 480 A.D., Benedict left society at around age
twenty to live as a hermit in a cave. Due in part to his”extreme asceticism,” Benedict’s
fame grew, and he gained a group of disciples. Moving his assembly to a remote,
mountainous area in Monte Cassino, Italy, southeast of Rome, Benedict established an
innovative governing system for his community.Known as the Rule, Benedict created
for himself and the cenobitic monks who gathered with him, a set of guidelines that
shaped monastic life for centuries.Benedict’s Rule was similar to the guiding principles
of other monastic commuities in that it stressed strict discipline for the monk.
However, unlike Pachomius’ monastic rule, Benedict did not require extreme ascetic
devotion, or undue harshness. While some monks living in the desert ate only the
barest essentials to exist. Benedict’s Rule allowed for two cooked meals daily, and fruits
and vegetables as available, with a moderate amount of daily wine. As well, monks
were allowed a bed to sleep on, with a pillow and a blanket.
But the Rule extended far beyond the guidelines for physical care. It ordered that
these anchorites must permanently remain part of the monastery, unless ordered to go
to another.This rule enabled the community to remain stable during difficult times. The
Rule also dictated that strict obedience to the ruling monk, or abbot, and the Rule itself,
mark the life of the devotee. Also, a series of steps was established to receive a
disobedient monk back into fellowship.This series began with secret admonishment
and, if unheeded, would continue through public reprimand, excommunication from
the fellowship, whipping, and finally banishment from the monastery if necessary. Yet,
if the erring monk repented, he would be received back into the fellowship for as many
as three times.This idea of reconcilliation is consistent with Jesu’s command found in
Matthew 18:15-17, and likely contributed greatly to its success.

112
 The life of the Benedictine monk was marked chiefly by prayful meditation. The
monks gathered deight times each day for prayer.Prayer time included the recitation of
the Psalms, and other portions of scripture.As a result of the constant use of scripture, a
need arose for additional copies of the sacred text. The Benedictine monks met this
challenge, and became skilled at coipying the Bible and, as a result, contributed to the
preserving of it for future generations. Their monasteries became teaching centers,
hospsitals, and hostels for the traveler.Not looking down upon physical labor as
undesirable.Benedictine monks worked the land, and contributed greatly to the
agricultural and economic strength of Europe.Even though the monastery of Monte
Cassino was looted and burned in 589 A.D, the Rule was carried off to Romewhere
many in the city began to follow it. Gregory, who would later become pope, was
exposed to Benedict’s Rule when it came to Rome, and caused its spread throughout the
Western Church.Augustine, missionary to England, took the Rule to the British Isles.
Thus, many monasteries separated by distance and bishop affiliation, became united by
the “common practice and ideals” of Benedict’s Rule.
With the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire and its protecting and
unifying arm, there arose a new function in the office of the papacy. Used once to
denote an important, or respected, bishop, the word “pope” took on a wider meaning
as the political climate in Western Europe changed.Leo, Bishop of Rome in 452A.D.
marched out to meet Attila the Hun, who was threatening Rome, and in 455
A.D.negotiated for the preservation of the city with Vandals, who had plundered
it.These maneuvers of Leo created recognition for his authority in Rome.This locally
recognized authority, coupled with Leo’s own reasoning regarding the succession of
ecclesiastical authority from Peter in Rome, helped pave the way for our modern
understanding of papal leadership in the Roman Catholic Church.
The papacy throughout the middle Ages reflected the waxing and waning of
civil authority.Popes rose to the military defense of Rome when civil government was
weak, or was sometimes deposed by emperors who disagreed with them, all the while
the office continued to gain prominence. Violence married the papacy, as it became a
prize over which to fight or kill. Many who saw the need for reform left the organized
Church, and migrated to the remote living places of the monasteries.As a result, the
monasteries became pools of energized people seeking a change for the papacy, and for
the Church in general.But the monasteries were in dire need of reform, too. Since there
was always a strong connection between the bishops and the monasteries in the
Western Church, some monasteries became puppets of corrupt bishops, who used them
for personal gain. Abbots, who presided over the various monasteries, sometimes
secured their positions, not by virtuous living, but by purchasing their seats, or even
through homicide.
A flicker of hope for the reformation of monasticism, the papacy, and the Church
as a whole, was felt in the ripple effects of a devout monk named Berno.In 909 A.D., a
monastery in Cluny, of east-central France, was established, and its leadership turned
over to this earnest monk.Berno, a disciple of the Benedictine Rule, revived its use
within the monastery. Abbots following Berno continued to lead with the same
discipline and, soon, a sweeping change in monasticism spread as the “Cluniacs”
created a monastic awakening.Eventually, the Cluniacs set their sights on the
reformation of the Church, and of the papacy. However, the movement began to lose its

113
power as it accumulated unprecedented wealth through gifts and holdings.The
simplicity of the Benedictine lifestyle became lost, as the power of abbots increased,
causing their attention to be diverted to political plots.Their criticism of the Church’s
wealth became null in light of their own prosperity.These internal factors soon
overwhelmed the kindled flame that once held promise for true and pervasive
reformation, and the light of the Cluniacs’ candle began to dim.
But the pendulum of monasticism would not linger long on the era of financial
prosperity that seemed to clog the flow of change sought by the reformation-seeking
Cluniacs.A glimpse of what was tocome was seen briefly in the life of Peter Waldo, “a
merchant from Lyons”, in the second half of the twelfth century Waldo, influenced by
the story of a monk, sought a monastic life, marked by preaching and poverty.He and
his disciples, the “Waldensians”, were persecuted for thir beliefs, and eventually fled to
the remote hills of the Alps. Waldo’s understanding of the Gospel, in light of the
changing economic situation, and the disparity between the rich ad the poor, seemed to
create a new philosophy toward monastic living, soon to become known as
“mendicant” monasticism.
Mendicant monasticism encouraged poverty, and begging for charity, as a
means of existence.This understanding clearly marked the life of an Italian mystic,
Giovanni Bernardone, known today as St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226).The son of a
wealthy merchant father, St.Francis “led a worldly, carefree life in his youth. However,
after a profound religious experience, St. Francis renounced his former ways, and took
for himself a life of poverty. He did not remove himself from society, but remained
within its bustle, preaching the Gospel, and helping the poor.He saw poverty not only
as a means to remain disciplined, but he recognized its effectiveness in identifying with
the poor.He gathered disciples, and his movement gained momentum.Pope Innocent III
eventually granted St. Francis authorization to begin a new order, and his “order of
lesser brothers” was born.St. Francis feared that as the movement grew, its constituents
might lose their humility.So, he ordered in his will that the followers were not allowed
to own anything, or make an appeal to the pope for later leniency in terms of the order.
Another significant mendicant order was founded by St. Dominic (1170-1221),
who, like St. Francis of Assisi, withdrew to a monastic life, while remaining in
connection with the world around him.St. Dominic was concerned by the dualistic
heresy of the Albigenses, but felt that there was a better way toconvert them than
through force, as attempted by Pope Innocent III. Since the Albigenses were devoted to
extreme asceticism, and the orthodox priests were, by contrast, living comfortably.St.
Dominic decided to combat the heresy through a combination of a disciplined monastic
lifestyle, marked by poverty ad mendicancy, and rigorous study.As a result, the
Dominicans gave the church reputable schools of great learning, producing eminent
theologians who would later challenge the Church with a whole new approach to
understanding God and faith.
The impact of the Franciscans and Dominicans during the Middle Ages caused
mendicant monasticism to be widely received and practiced throughout Europe.It also
brought about reform within the walls of monasticism by discouraging the prosperity
that tempted its leadership and caused it to appear hypocritical in its

114
teachings.However, despite the best efforts to keep it pure, and centered in holy ways,
medieval monasticism reflected how humanity can mar the best institutions.
Yet, monasticism, from its conception, and on through Medieval times, showed a
wonderful ability to change.These changes were responses, or reactions, to conditions
occurring in the secular communities, the orthodox church, or even within its own
body.The changes often brought about needed reform, and helped to serve the church
as a whole.

SUFISM

If the impact of Islamism on Hinduism gave rise to Bhakti Movement, the impact
of Hinduism on Islamism led to Sufi Movement.Sufism is another name for the Islamic
mysticism.The term Sufi according to Edward Sell, is most probably derived from the
Arabic word Suf, “Wool” of which Material, the garments worn by Eastern ascetics
used to be generally made. Though the Sufi movement in India gained momentum in
the 14th century, its traces go back to the period before the foundation of the Turkish
rule.Boradly speaking, the Sufi movement can be divided into two parts.The first, from
the earliest time to the beginning of the 9th century and the second from 9th century
onwards.During the first period Sufism possessed no system and during second it
developed its own organization and monastic orders.
Meaning of Sufism : Sufism has been defined by Dr. Tara Chand as “a complex
phenomenon; it is like a stream which gathers volume by the joining of tributaries from
many lands.Its original source is the Qoran and the life of Muhammad.Christianity and
neo-Platonism swelled it by a large contribution. Hinduism and Buddhism supplied a
number of ideas, and the religions of ancient Persia Zoroastrianism, Manism, etc.,
brought to it their share”.F. Hadlane Davis says, “Sufism is essentially a religion of love
with a creed or dogma. No merciless hells leap up in the Sufi’s beliefs.He had no one
way theory for the beyond! The ways of God are as the number of souls of men”.Prof.
K.D. Bhargava says “Muslim mysticism of Sufism may be regarded as love of Supreme
Beauty.The thought of the East and the West converges in the fundamentals of love.In
the administration for the Supreme Beauty, minor differences in the East and the West
converges in the fundamentals of love. In the admiration for the Supreme Beauty,
minor differences in the East and West are annihilated, and mystics all over world,
whether in India, China or Europe, sing the same prayer for Union with the Beloved.
There are bound to be differences in detail, but all of them tend, in the main, in the
same direction”.
History of Sufism: The Sufis drew their inspiration mainly from Quran and the life of
Muhammad, even though Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Manism
and Neoplatonism also made valuable contribution to its growth.Amongst the Muslim
devotees there were certain persons who attached great importance to principles of
Tauba (repentence) and Tawakkul (trust in God), and took to asceticism and
abstinence.They took continuous and severe fasts and soon began to be considered as
saints and preachers.
One of the earliest Sufis was a woman saint by the name Rabia of Basra. She was
more ethical rather than metaphysical. She said “Love of God hath so absorbed me that
neither love nor hate of any other thing remains in my heart”.She also initiated the

115
practice of using symbolical language of human love to describe the relations between
the mystic and his Divine Beloved.
The Sufi movement was given theosophical basis by Abba-aids of Baghdad. But
the most celebrated role in the evolution of Sufism was played by the Persian saint
Bayazid Bustami, who introduced the element of ecstasy ad mystic doctrine of the
immanence of God.The term ‘Fana’ or annihilation of the self, which became the basis
of the Sufi philosophy was for the first time used by him.
When the Muslims came into contact with the Christians they adopted certain
other principles like mediation and repetition of Gods name and prayer (dhikr),
complete detachment from the affairs of personal interest, utter dependence upon God,
rejection of material goods (fuqr), indifference towards suffering, praise or blame
etc.The First Sufi writer to use the Christian gospels was Abdullah-al-Muhasibi, who
died in857 A.D.
Hinduism also exercised profound influence on Sufism. Certain elements of
Hindu philosophy had been assimilated by Plato, the great Greek philosopher, after the
preliminary contact between the cultures of the Greeks and the Hindus was established.
Subsequently when the Greek works were translated into Arabic, the Neoplatonic ideas
(containing the Hindu elements) found their way into Islam. The idea which thus
gained entry into Islam included contempt of the world, leaning towards divine life etc.
Certain Buddhist ideas, of Vedant also found their way into Islam in the like
manner.There is controversy amongst scholars regarding the origin of Sufism.While
Dr.Yusuf Husain holds that Sufism was born in the bosom of Islam and the foreign
ideas and practices exercised no influence on it. Prof. A.L. Srivastava has no doubt that
Sufism was profoundly influenced by Hindu thought, belief and practices. He says the
very conception of a loving God and the relations between God and soul as one of the
beloved and the lover re peculiar to Hinduism and were adopted by the Sufis in
India.The pacifism and non-violence which were imbibed by the Indian Muslim Sufis
were also peculiar to Christianity ad the Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.Some of the
ascetic practices involving starvation and torturing of the body like Chilah-i-makus
(which means the tying of a rope to one’s feet ad getting one’s body lowered into a well
and offering prayer in that posture for forty nights) seem to have been borrowed from
the Hindu and Buddhist practices.Prof. Nizami also holds the view that the Chishtis
adopted many Hindu customs ad ceremonials in the initial stages of the development
of their Silsilah in India.The practice of bowing before the Shaikh (head of a khanqah),
presenting water to visitors, circulating zanbil (a bow made of dried and hollow gourd),
shaving the head of new entrants to the mystic circle, audition parties (sama) and the
Chillah-Ma’kus had close resemblance to Hindu and Buddhist practices…..”
Going back to the history of Sufism again we find that the name Sufi was first of
all applied to Abu Kashim of Kufa. But the most significant contribution to the
development of Sufism was made by Hussain Ibn Hansur Al-Hallaj in the tenth
century.Hallaj conceived the relation of God with man as the infusion of the divine into
the human soul. He provided the basis for the development of the doctrine of Insan-i-
Kamil’ (the perfect man) which was worked up by subsequent Sufi writers. F. Hadland
Davis has brought out the contributions of Hallaj thus: “With his fanaticism, his absurd

116
indiscretion and love of conjuring, he left much behind of permanent value to the
Sufis”.
Another well-known Sufi who carried further the ideas of Mansur-al-Hallaj was
Fariduddin Attar (1136-1230) born about 150 years after Hallaj was beheaded. Attar is
said to have written 114 books on Sufism.He also compiled biographies and sayings of
Muslim saints in Todhkiral-al-auliya, which is considered to be a source book for the
study of early Sufism. Attar lived long and his head was cut-off by a soldier of
Changez Khan.
Jalaluddin Rumi established an order of Darveshes. He believed that love is the
greatest virtue which purifies the spiritual sentiments giving us the vision of the
Supreme. His beloved is not confined with the tem, mosque and church but resides in
the pure heart.Rumi believed that man must go through a number of intermediate
stages and forms until he attains perfection necessary for the soul ad he continues
developing it, until he has attained maximum development of his faculties”. Rumi left a
vast store of spiritual knowledge in his Masnavi, which is considered as the text for the
study of Sufism. In the words of R. Hadland Davis, “The Masnavi has all the
pantheistic beauty of the Psalms, the music of the hills, the colour and scent of the roses,
the swaying of forests; but it has considerably more than that. These things of scent and
form and colour are the Mirror of the Beloved; these earthly loves the journey down the
valley into the Rose-Garden, where the roses never fade, and where love is”.Reuben
Levy also holds that, “The Masnavi is an immense work which contains in its six books
all the doctrines, traditions and legends of Sufism, presented in a series of parables,
allegories and pseudohistorical narratives”.
The philosopher and theologian who provided religion metaphysical basis to
Sufism was Ghazali.He also tried to reconcile it with orthodox Islam. Dr.Tara Chand
says; “Like the Hindu philosophers, he argued that through ordinary means of
knowledge man can know only the relative, and as God is absolute, he cannot gain
necessary positive knowledge of his qualities or nature.He must, therefore, depend
upon revelation – prophetic or personal – to obtain that knowledge. He further taught
that it was possible to know God, because God’s nature was not different in essence
from that of man and that the human soul partook of the divine and would after death
return to its divine source”.
Prof.K.D. Bhargava says: “Ghazali rescued Islam from barren and stereotyped
phrased and dogmas, and brought them into living contact with the Quran and the
Traditions.Ghazali destroyed temple dead wood of Muslim scholasticism and
emphasized the element of fear in his doctrines. In his magnum opus ‘Ihya u’l ‘ulum’ he
laid stress on immediate experience, ecstasy and inward transformation without which
no salvation was possible.
The doctrines of Sufism were also promoted by Shaikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi
and Ibn-al-Arabi.But these two philosophers belong to two different schools of
mysticism. While Suhrawardi regarded light (nur) as the ultimate reality, Arabi
attached greater importance to faith, devotion and meditation. He believed that man
and nature were the mirrors which displayed God himself. God manifests himself in
every atom of creation; He is revealed in every intelligible object and concealed from
every intelligence except the intelligence of those who say that the universe is His form

117
and ipseity (Surahwahuwayah) in as much as He stands in the same relation to
phenomenal objects s the spirit to the body”.
Another important authority of Sufism was Abdul Karim al jili who wrote
treatise Insan-al-Kamil.He also wrote commentary on Futuhal-al-Makhiyah. Jili
believed that man attains spiritual perfection passing through four stages….complete
surrender to the Will of God, destruction of the individual, acquisition of miraculous
power and divine attributes, ad lastly entrance into Essence becoming perfect (Insan-i-
Kamil) Godman. He held that all faiths were thoughts about one reality.The differences
were due to variety of nmesand attributes and altogether contribution to the perfection
of the whole. This clearly shows that Jili was profoundly influenced by the Hindu
Vedant or monistic philosophy.
It may be noted that the orthodox Muslim leaders – both Shia and Sunni – were
opposed to Sufism because of its electric doctrines. It was only due to the powerful
personality and intellectual brilliance of Ghazali that they accepted Sufism within its
fold.

SUFISM IN INDIA

The period from1200 to 1500 A.D. is considered as the period of permeation of

Sufi thought in India.During this period a number of new sects and movements were
started which formed a mid-way between Hinduism and Islam.“The Sufis were divout
Muslims, who moved within the limits of shara (Law of Islam) and believed it as the
true way to salvation.They however, attached an esoteric significance to the teachings
of Quaran and regarded inward light or intuitive experience as of far more importance
than dogmatic formalism of the orthodox type”. In the words of Yusuf Hussain, “The
orthodox Muslims depend upon external conduct, while the Sufis seek inner purity.The
orthodox believe in blind obedience to, or observance to, or observance of religious
rituals, while the Sufis think love to be the only means of reaching God”.
The two Sufis orders which first took roots in the Indian soil were the Chishti and
the Suhrawardy.Soon certain other orders like Qadri, Naqshbandi, Shuttari and the
Madari also started working in northern India.The Suhrawardia Silsilah or order was
confined to Sindh, Multan and Punjab, although some of the Suhrawardia saints had
also settled down in Delhi and Awadh.The Chisti Silsilah established itself at Ajmer and
other places of Rajasthan as well as in certain parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Bengal, Orissa and Deccan.The chief reason for the comparative popularity of the
Chishti Silsilah was that the Chishti saints adopted themselves according to the usages
and customs of the people.

1. CHISHTI ORDER

Khawaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti: The Chishtis order was founded by Khawaja Abdul
Chishti and was introduced in India by Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chishti, popularly
known as Khawaja. Khawaja was born in Sijistan (Persia)in1141A.D. He lost his father
at an early age. Due to unsettled conditions in the country he even lost his property
and became a recluse.He visited various sets of Islamic learning like Samarkand,
Bokhara etc.During the course of his journey he met Khawaja Usam at Naishapur and

118
became his disciple. In the prime of his life he came to India and settled down at
Lahore, wherefrom he moved onto Ajmer. Prof. Yusuf Husain says, “One cannot think
without admiration of this man, almost alone, living among the people who considered
the least contact with a Muslim as defilement.Sometime he was refused water to drink.
In the torried climate of Rajputana this was the hardest punishment one can imagine”.
Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chishti worked amongst the low caste people and spent
his life in the service of the helpless and the downtrodden.Khawaja advocated the
philosophy of non-Duality. He said: “When we transcended the external and looked
around, we found the lover, the beloved and the love (itself) to be one, i.e. in the sphere
of Oneness all is one…..” He held that the greatest form of devotion to God consisted
in service to humanity. His attitude towards God and people won him great
popularity.Khawaja died at a ripe age in 1236 A.D. and he was buried at Ajmer.His
mausoleum has become a centre of pilgrimage for people of all classes.
The Chishti mystics believed in the spiritual value of music and patronized
professional singers without any distinction of caste, religion etc. Qutabuddin Bakhtiar
Kaki, the chief successor of Khawaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti is said to have died in a State
of ecstasy at the monastery of Shaikh Ali Sijistni.A mausoleum of temple Khawaja was
built near Qutab Minar at Delhi.Kaki Sahib was greatly respected by Iltutmish, who
offered him the high office of Shaikh-ul-Islam. However, Kaki Sahib declined the offer.
Farid-ud-Din Masud or Baba Farid: Kaki Sahib was succeeded by Farid-ud-Din
Masud, popularly know as Baba Farid Shakar Ganj. He is called Shakar Ganj because
according to legend.Baba Farid asked a certain merchant, who was carrying bales of
sugar on the back of camels, for some quantity of sugar. The merchant told the Baba
that the bales contained the salt and not the sugar.When the merchant reached home, to
his great surprise, he found that the bales contained salt in place of sugar. He
immediately came back to Baba Farid and asked for forgiveness.It is said that the bales
again turned into sugar.Ever since that incidence, people started calling him by the
name of Farid Shakar Ganj.
Farid hailed from a royal family of Afghanistan.His grandfather settled down in
Multan ad ever since the family was in India.Farid came under the influence of Sufis
and gave up his estates and took to traveling. He became a disciple of Khawaja
Qutabddin Chishti.He finally settled down at Ajoddan now known as Pakpattan where
he stayed till his death in 1265 A.D.Baba Farid disliked popularity ad preferred
solitude.He believed that one should keep away from kings and nobles because a
Darvesh who makes friends with kings ad nobles will end badly.He laid emphasis on
concentration of heart and absentation from prohibited means of livelihood. Balban had
great devotion for Baba Farid but the later never took any advantage of this.
Sheikh Nizam-ud-Din Aulia: The chief disciple of Baba Farid was Sheikh
Nizam-ud-Din Aulia, who was born in Baduan in 1336 A.D. Aulia lost his father at the
age of five and was brought up by his mother who was a pious lady. At the age of 20
he became a disciple of Baba Farid who was greatly impressed by his intelligence. In
1258 A.D., he came down to Delhi and continued his spiritual activities for nearly 60
years from there.Subsequently, he moved away from din of the city to a village near
Delhi – Ghiaspur.Though Sheikh Nizam-ud-Din Aulia saw the reigns of seven Sultans,
he never visited the Darbar of any of them.In fact, he considered it below the dignity of

119
a Sufi to pay visit to a Sultan. It is said that once Sultan Ala-ud-Din wanted to seek an
interview with the Sheikh but he declined the same. He informed him that “there are
two doors in my house, if the Sultan comes by one door, I will quit by another”.It is
difficult to understand why Nizam-ud-Din differentiated between the poor and the
rich. By permitting the Sultans to have a contact with him, he could have made them
less autocratic. Probably, the Sufis avoided the company of the Sultans with a view to
avoid any clash or conflict with orthodox Ulemas, at the courts of the Sultans.
Nizam-ud-Din Aulia was a man of literary outlook ad took great interest in
music.This was completely disliked by the orthodox Ulemas and they even tried to
condemn him Nizam-ud-Din however, did not bother about this and continued to care
more about the common people.Love of humanity was one of his principles.He said, “O
Muslims; I swear by God, that He holds dear those who love Him for the sake of
God.This is only way to love and adore God”. Dr. R.C. Majumdar writes, “He laid
stress on the element of love as a means of the realization of God. The love of God
implied, in his view, the love of humanity, and this ethical idea was strongly inculcated
by him on the hearts of his disciples”.
According to Prof. Yusuf Husain, “Sheikh Nizam-ud-Din Aulia, generally
known as Mahbuh-i-Illabi (the beloved of God), represents a great spiritual force in the
history of Muslim India.His disciples spread all over the country. His personality and
the breadth of his religious outlook assured the popularity of the Chishti order in
India.For nearly 60 years he was a source of blessing to hundreds and thousands who
came from far and near to seek his guidance. He inspired men with the love of God
and helped them to get rid of their attachment to worldly affairs.He regulated the life of
his disciples, in accordance with the Shari’at, to reach a higher state of spiritual
development”. Nizam-ud-Din Aulia acquired great fame during his life time and was
popularly known as Mahbuba-i-Illahi.To a large extent the popularity of the Chishti
Order in India was due to his love of humanity and saintly virtues.
Sheikh Nasir-ud-Din or Chiragh of Delhi: Sheikh Nasir-ud-Din also known as
Chiragh of Delhi was the last great Sufi of the Chishti Order. He was born at Ayodhya
where his grandfather had migrated from Lahore.He lost his father at the age of 9 and
his mother looked after his education.At the age of 25, he decided to become a
mystic.He spent practically whole of his days in reading, praying and meditation in a
mausoleum near his hometown and slept very little.At the age of 45, he paid visit to
Sheikh Nizam-ud-Din Aulia at Delhi and became his disciple.Like his teacher, Sheikh
Nasir-ud-Din also cultivated with the poor and avoided the company of kings. After
the death of Nizam-ud-Din Aulia, Nasir-ud-Din became the Khalifa ad continued his
tradition.The Sheikh had much trouble with Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak as well as
Muhammad bin Tughlaq because he refused to mix up with them.It is said that he was
forced to pay a visit to Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, but he refused to accept the bag of
tank as and woolen clothes which were presented to him by the Sultan. Sheikh was
also compelled by the Sultan to accompany him on his Thatha expedition.
Sheikh Nasir-ud-Din also played a major role in raising Firoz Tughlaq to the
throne but soon he became disappointed with his way of life.During the later years of
his life, the Sheikh was in a melancholy mood probably due to the miseries of the
people alround.Another probable reason for this unhappiness was that there was so

120
much of people’s crowd all round him that he found very little time for his personal
study and prayer. He died in1336 A.D.
Sheikh Salim: Another notable Chishti Sufi of the 16th century was Sheikh Salim
of Fatehpur Sikri.Though he could not rise to the stature of Nizam-ud-Din Aulia or
Nasir-ud-Din; he had quite a good gathering. It is said that Akbar the great, called on
him in his cage and sought his blessings for a son. Prince Jahangir was born as a result
of this blessings.Akbar used to call him by the name of Sheikh Baba.Like other Sufi
saints Sheikh Salim Chishti led a married life.His children rose to high position under
Akbar and his successors. On his death, he was buried in the famous Jami Mosque of
Fatehpur Sikri and a beautiful mausleum was built over his grave by the great emperor.
Life of Chishti Sufis: All these Chishti saints had faith in simple living.They
used the minimum of clothes and lived a very simple and pure life.They were opposed
to the idea of private property ad considered it as a big hurdle in the development of
their personality.Although all the Chishti Sufis, with exception of Sheikh Nizam-ud-Din
Aulia led a married life ad had children but they did not own property.They also did
not accept charity from the State and usually lived on the charity willingly given by the
prosperous persons.These Chishti Sufis have recorded that they had to go without food
many a times but they never borrowed or sought assistance.These Sufis were so much
absorbed in their mystic contemplation that they did not pay sufficient attention to the
upbringing of their children. As a result, their sons failed to attain the standard of their
fathers.As Prof. K.A. Nazami has said, “No son of an early Chishti saint of India was
mentally or spiritually in a position to keep the torch of his father burning.If the only
son of Sheikh Qutb-ud-Din Bakhtiyar was ‘unworthy of his father’, a grandson of
Sheikh Najib-ud-Din was a vagabond.They possessed worldly wisdom, but were
devoid of all spiritual integrity”.

2. SUHRAWARDI ORDER

Suhrawardi is one of the oldest Sufi orders which was founded by Sheikh
Shihab-ud-Din Suharawardi.He (Sheikh Shihab-ud-Din Suhrawardi) sent disciples to
India and they settled down in North-western India. The prominent Suhrawardi saints
of India were, Sheikh Hamid-ud-Din Nagauri and Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Zakariya of
Multan. Sheikh Hami-ud-Din Nagauri was the author of two books, Tawaliush Shams
and Lawaih. He was fond of music parties.
Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Zakariya Suhrawardi: Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Zakariya
Suhrawardi was born near Multan in1182A.D. Early in his life, he visited Khurasan,
Bukhara, Medina and Palestine to gain knowledge in Islamic studies.At Baghdad, he
met Sheikh Shihab-ud-Din Suhrawardi.On his direction, he set up a khanqah at Multan,
where he worked for almost half a century.His philosophy differed from that of the
Chishti Sufis.He did not believe in poverty and torturing of the body and led a balanced
and comfortable life.He also did not believe in fasting and mortification and faithfully
followed rules of Islam. He wanted the external affairs of Islam to be faithfully followed
and rejected the Hindu practice of bowing before the Sheikh, a practice adopted by the
Chishti. He also took active interest in the political affairs and freely mixed with rulers
and administrators. As a result, a large number of well-to-do men became his followers.

121
He accepted land and gifts from kings and nobles and was probably the richest saint of
the medieval India.
Split in Suhrawardi Order: After the death of Sheikh Baha-ud-Din inZakariya
Suhrawardi, the Suhrawardi orders split up into two branches- the Multan and Uchch
branch. His son, Badr-ud-Din Arif became the head of the Multan branch while his
disciple Sayyid Jalaluddin Surkh Bukhari headed the Uchch branch.
Badr-ud-Din-Arif: Arif looked after the Multan branch for ab23 years. He
fundamentally differed from his father in matter of religion and politics. Unlike his
father, he looked upon accumulation of wealth as hurdles in the development of
spiritual personality. It is said that he gave away in charity 7 lakhs tankas he inherited
from his father. He also insisted on simple living. In other respects he did not make any
fundamental changes in the Suhrawardi Order.
Sayyid Jalaluddin Surkh Bukhari: Jalaluddin Surkh Bukhari also rendered great
service to the spread of Suhrawardi Orders in Uchch. He converted a number of
Hindus to Islam. He had 3 sons and one of the grandsons of Sayyid Jalal-ud-Din
Makhdum-bin-Jahanian, emerged as one of the most celebrated Suhrawardi saints of
his times.He exercised tremendous influence in the political and religious life of
saints.He was appointed Sheikh-ul-Islam by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq greatly
honoured him.
The Suhrawardi Sufis differed from the characteristic in many respects, both
with regard to organization and policies.They freely mixed with Sultans ad other rich
people. While Chishti Saints did not keep the money received as charity with them and
distributed it amongst the people, the Suhrawardi saints like Baha-ud-Din Zakariya
accepted the charity liberally and tried to accumulate them.As regards the organization,
the Chishti Jamait Khana accommodated all the inmates and visitors in their hall.The
Khanqahs of the Suhrawardi were so designed as to provide separate accommodation
to all inmates and visitors.The Suhrawardi under Baha-ud-DinZakariya regarded only
rich people and neglected the general public.They had also fixed up certain hours for
meeting the visitors.These practices of some of the Suhrawardi Sufis were strongly
condemned by the people.

3. FIRDAUSIA ORDER

The Firdausia Order was a branch of the Suhrawardi Order. Its activities were mainly
confined to Bihar and its headquarter was Rajgir. This Order was popularized by
Sheikh Sharf-ud-Din Yajya Manairi, a disciple of Khwaja Nizam-ud-Din
Firdausi.Sheikh Sharf-ud-Din Yahya Manairi was not only a practical guide but also an
excellent exponent of theoretical mysticism. He tried to bring about moderation in
Islamic law and tried to reconcile the ‘Unity of Being’ with the principles of Islam. It
may be noted that this principle was introduced by Ibnu’I Arabi and was popularized
in India by Minairi. In his Maktubat, Minairi discussed the mystic implications of
Islamic Tauhid and expounded that the slave remains a slave and God remains God.
His interpretation of the passing way of the self (fana) is that the devotee in this state of
consciousness experiences a vision in which he feels one with God who manifests
Himself in the form of Light or Illumination (tajalli). The union with God is not like the
union of a body, or of a substance with a substance, or of an accident with an accident;

122
on the contrary, it is an intuitive contact and a detachment from the world and all that
is other than God”.
Sheikh Sharfuddin Yahya Manari was not only a practical guide and speculative
thinker but also a prolific writer.Apart from its maktubat and malfuzat, he compiled
several books for the guidance of his devotees.The prominent amongst them includes
Fawaidu’l Muridin, the Irshadat Talibin and the Rahatu’t Qulab.Sheikh Sarfuddin
Yahya Maniri laid great stress on the service of humanity as a part of his mystic
discipline. In one of his letters addressed to Malik Khizir, he wrote, “In this dark world
it is incumbent to serve the needy by the pen, tongue, wealth ad position.Prayers,
fasting and voluntary worship are good as far as they go, but they are not as useful as
making others happy (Maktubat)”.
In another letter he wrote, “The nearest way to reach God for kings and nobles
and men of means and wealth is to succour the needy and to offer a helping hand to the
downtrodden.A saint has said that there are many paths leading to the Lord, but the
shortest is to console the afflicted and to give comfort to the hearts of men. Someone
mentioned to the saint the goodness of a ruler who kept awake the whole night to offer
prayers and fasted during the day.Having heard this saint said: ‘He is neglecting his
own work, while he is doing the work of others’. When the saint was asked what he
meant by his remark, he added: “The real function of a ruler is to feed his people well,
to clothe the naked to rehabilitate the desolate hearts of men and to succour the
needy.As far prayers and fasting and voluntary worship, the Darveshes can very well
do this (Maktubat)”.

QADIRI ORDER

The Qadiri order was founded by the celebrated Sheikh Abdul Qadri Jilani of
Baghdad and was instrumental in the spread of Islam in Central Asia and Western
Africa.This order reached India in15th century and the credit for popularizing it in
India goes to Shah Nilamatullah ad Makhdum Muhammad Jilani.The followers of this
order opposed to music and singing as well as recital of the blessings of the
prophet.They wear green turbans and one of their garments must be ochre-
coloured.Dara Shikoh son of Emperor Shahjahan was a follower of his order. Some of
the prominent Qadiri saints included Sheikh Hamid Ganj Baksh, Abdul Qadir and
Sheikh Musa.During the early years the order was confined to Uch in Sind but later on
it spread to Agra and other places.

NAQSHBANDI ORDER

Naqshbandi order was founded in India by the followers of Khwaja Pir

Muhammad.It was introduced in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah, a descendent from
Khawaja Bahauddin Naqshband.This order laid great emphasis on the observations of
law of Shariat and denounced all the innovations which had spoiled the purity of the
Islamic doctrine. They challenged the idea of Unity of Being.The Naqshbandi saints
were opposed to music although they started meditation.
Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi: Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi was a disciple of Khwaja Baqi Billah
and is popularly known as Mujaddid.He was a man of dynamic personality.He

123
attacked mystic philosophy of apparantism.He also rejected the principle of immanence
and asserted that the relationship between man and God is that of slave and master and
not that of lover and beloved as the other Sufis held.In short, he tried to harmonize the
doctrine of mysticism with the teachings of orthodox Islam.Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi
wrote a number of letters to his disciples and his followers which have been collected
and printed in three volumes under the title Maktubat-i-Rahbani.After his death, he
was buried at Sarhind and his tomb is a place of pilgrimage.
Sheikh Walli-Ullah: Another Sufi saint of the Naqshbandi order was Sheikh Walli-
Ullh. He tried to reconcile the doctrines of Wuhdat-ul-Wujud and Wahdat-ush-
Shuhud.He held that there was no contradiction between the two doctrines and said
that, “God is the only self subsisting eternal and necessary being and all else is created
and has a contingent existence. In different respects God united through their different
functions in God’s total being, in which all reality is included and all distinctions are
annulled”.Sheikh Walli-Ullah was a scholar of great repute and produced a number of
books on mysticism.He justified this reconciliation of the two doctrines in his Madina
letter and said, “Wahdatu’l Wujud” and “Wahdtush Shuhud” are relative terms used
on two different occasions as agreements about the existence of the Divine Being and
His relation with man and the world. It is only a difference of approach to the same
reality. Both are based on direct mystic experience and they do not contradict each
other. The difference of interpretation is due to the metaphorical language which has
been employed by the two parties. And yet on another occasion he has observed that in
the mystic path the stage of “Apparetism” is higher than that of the “Unity of Being”
(Tafhimate Ilahia).
Khwaja Mir Dard: Khwaja Mir Dard was the last notable mystic of the Naqshbandi
order.He was also opposed to the doctrine of Wahdat-ul-Wujud. But he accepted that
in the last analysis both the doctrines aimed at detachment of one’s heart from
affiliations to the phenomenal world. Though like Sheikh Ahmad Sarhindi he also had
leaning towards Muslim orthodoxy, yet he expounded its own theory of ‘Ilme-Ilahi
Muhammadi’ (Knowledge of God in the teachings of Muhammad). Apart from writing
a number of books on mysticism Khwaja Mir Dard was also a notable poet of Pers and
Urdu. Some of his prominent works include ‘Ilmu’I Kitab’ (work on mysticism),
Wardate Dard, Nalae Dard, Ahe Dard, Shami-i-Mahfil and Dard-Dil.
In addition to the above mystic orders certain other mystic orders also existed in
India.These include Madariya or Tabaqatiya, Gurzmar, Jalaliya Musa Sohagiya and
Wahabis. However, these orders could not make much impact and do not deserve our
attention.
Impact of Sufism: There is controversy amongst scholars regarding the impact of
Sufism on Indian culture. On the one hand, Prof. A.L. Srivastava holds the opinion that,
“Though the sufi movement might have, in the long run exerted some influence on the
contemporary Hindu religious practice, the Hindus in general had kept themselves
aloof from the Muslim Sufis for a pretty long time.Some Hindus of the lower classes
might have come into contact with the Sufis, but the bulk of them did not associate
themselves with them”. Further Srivastava admits that, “It was from the time of Akbar,
however, that the Hindus began coming into close contact with Muslim Sufis. During
the 17th and 18th centuries quite a good number of Hindu intellectuals not only

124
associated themselves with Muslim Sufis, but they also adopted sufistic thought,
behaviour and practices. These Hindus belonged to the upper strata of society and
were highly educated ad cultured”.
Prof. R.C.Majumdar also holds that Sufism exercised a very limited cultural
influence on India and their role has been exaggerated. He says, “The role of both
Medieval Mysticism and Sufism in the history of Indian culture is often exaggerated
beyond all proportions.Whatever might have been the value of either as a distinctive
phase of Hinduism and Islam, from moral, spiritual and philosophical points of view,
their historical importance is considerably limited by the fact that number of Indians
directly affected by them, even at their hey dynamic which was short-lived, could not
be very large. The number dwindled very appreciably in course of time, and the two
orthodox religions showed no visible sign of being seriously affected by this sudden
intrusion of radical elements. They pursued their even tenor, resembling the two banks
of a river, separated by the stream that flows between them.Attempts were made to
build a bridge connecting the two, but ended in failure. Even if there were any
temporary bridge it collapsed in no time.
Prof. J.N.Sarkar also holds that Sufism gained popularity only in the 17 th ad 18th
centuries.Explaining the reasons for the popularity of Sufism during this period in
India, he says that it was mainly due to two factors- (1) The political and economic
anarchy that came in the wake of downfall of Mughal Empire, (2) and an urge on the
part of the two communities to come nearer, because in this alone lay their salvation
and that of their country. He says that the Bhakti Movement and Sufi philosophy
intended to brig the ruling sect and dominated people closer together”.Prof. Sarkar
says,”It was essentially a faith – often an intellectual emotional enjoyment served for
the philosophers, authors and mystics from bigotry.The eastern variety of Sufism is
mainly an off-shoot of the Vedanta of the Hindus and it rapidly spread and developed
in India from the time of Akbar”.
Prof. Yusuf Husain has appreciated the role of the Sufis in these words, “The
Sufis in India, as elsewhere, attached an esoteric significance to the teachings of the
Quran.To them it had a deeper and more inward sense, but they did not claim any
exclusive knowledge of the mysteries of existence. They, however, propounded a
scheme of life within the limits set by the law of Islam (Shari’at) which they considered
formed the true path (Tariqat) to the ultimate goal of attaining nearness to God.They
preached inward light as against the dogmatic formalism of the ecclesiastics ad the
legists, and their exalted idealism brought spiritual solace and comfort to many a heart
tossed on the sea of uncertainty ad doubt”.

BHAKTI TRADITIONS

With the emergence of Islam in India, Hinduism received a rude shock.The Muslim
rulers not only destroyed a number of religious movements and temples of the Hindus,
but also tried to convert more and more people to Islam by extending them certain
concessions.This not only resulted in the decline of Hinduism but also contributed to
the decline of the Brahman supremacy.The principles of universal brotherhood and
human equality, preached by Islam greatly attracted the lower stratas of Hindu
society.The Hindu rulers of Rjasthan and Vijayanagar saw a serious threat to the

125
existence of Hinduism and turned champions of Dharma.Rajput and Hindu Rajas like
Rana Hamir, Kumbha, Sangram, Krishnadeva Raya and Rama Raya attached great
importance to religion in their policy.
Islam posed a serious threat to Hindu religion by throwing out the message of
universal brotherhood and equality ad by rejecting caste system and
untouchability.With a view to save Hinduism and modify it according to the changed
circumstances, the Hindu saints and philosophers took upon themselves the task of
reforming the Hinduism. These saints and reformers tried to purge Hinduism of all evil
practices; particularly those relating to rigours of caste and image worship, and thereby
started a movement which is popularly known as Bhakti Movement.It is wrong to
assume that the Bhakti Movement was the direct outcome of the emergence of Islam in
India. In fact the history of this movement can be traced back to the times of the great
reformer Shankaracharya, who provided a solid philosophical background to
Hinduism.He, established a logical monistic system and laid emphasis on attaining
salvation through knowledge.But as Shankaracharya’s system was too philosophical
the common people could not follow it.The saints of the medieval times made
Hinduism a living force by attracting the popular mind towards it.This movement
received great encourgement because the people, who were completely cut off from the
political and cultural activities, found a solace in pursuing things pertaining to the other
world.
According to Yusuf Hussain, ‘The movement of Bhakti may easily be divided
into two distinct periods.The first was from the time of the Bhagavadgita to the 13th
century, the time when Islam penetrated into the interior of the country.The second
period extends from 13th to the 16th century, an epoch of profound intellectual
fermentation, the natural result of the contact of Islam and Hinduism’.During the first
period of Bhakti movement which ended with the coming of the Islam the religion of
the Hindus remained a blending of the two different tendencies, the pantheism of the
intellectuals and the deistic polytheism of the masses.As a result of contact with Islam
the deistic tendencies of Hinduism ended in monotheism because of Islam’s belief in
the unity of God.
Causes for the rise of the Bhakti Movement: A number of causes contributed to the
development of the Bhakti movement during the medieval times. The prominent ones
can be enumerated as follows:
1. People were fed up with the highly philosophical exposition of Hinduism as given
by Shankaracharya and they were looking for a system which could be easily
comprehended by all.
2. The Medieval India society was highly caste-ridden and the members of the
higher-castes committed all sorts of atrocities on the members of the lower
castes.Bhakti movement, which did not believe in caste and other distinctions,
was a logical development.
3. To escape the wrath of rigid caste system a large number of low-caste Hindus
were adopting Islam.The saints and reformers through Bhakti movement reduced
the rigours of caste-system and that paved the way for their retention in the fold
of Hinduism.

126
4. A large number of temples and idols of the Hindus had been destroyed by the
Muslims and the people had to resort to Bhakti movement.
5. According to Prof.K.M. Panikar, another factor which greatly contributed to the
rise of the Bhakti movement was that the Hindus were greatly fed up with the
atrocities of the Muslims and sought a solace in Bhakti.
6. According to certain well-known scholars like Dr.Tara Chand, Ahmed Nizami and
Dr. Quareshi, the Bhakti movement was largely an outcome of the Muslim impact
on Indian society.This opinion is not fully correct and the most contains a partial
truth.No doubt some of the principles advocated by the saints leading the Bhakti
movement such as faith in universal brotherhood and human equality; opposition
to idol worship, disbelief in caste distinctions; unity of God etc. were the cardinal
principles of Islam, but it would be too much to say that these saints borrowed
them from Islam. In fact, the Hindus have known these principles from the
earliest times.The Ekantika Dharma, the religion addressing itself to a single God,
finds a reference in Bhagavadgita.For a long time idol-worship was also not
practiced in ancient India.During the Vedic period the Indian religion was very
simple and people did not believe in caste distinctions.Therefore, R.G.Bhandarkar
has concluded that the Bhakti movement drew its inspirations from the teachings
of Bhagavadgita. However, it cannot be denied that Islam also exercised
tremendous influence on the promotion of Bhakti movement.

CHIEF SAINTS OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

As revolutionary changes were brought about in the religious and social structure of
society by the teachings of a number of saints-cum-reformers, it is desirable to have
some idea about their teachings and contributions.
1. Ramanuja: The earliest exponent of the Bhakti movement was Ramanuja, who was
born at Sri Perumbudur in Southern India in the year 1017 A.D. He received his
education at Canjeevaram and Shrirangam.On account of his scholarship he was
appointed as the successor of his teacher Yamunamuni, the well-known Vaishnava
saint.Thus Ramanuja acquired a position of authority.Ramanuja gave a philosophic
basis to the teachings of Vaishnavism. He wrote a commentary on the Brahmasutras,
refuted Shankara and offered his own it based on the theistic ideas.His commentaries
on Brahmasutrs are popularly known as Sri Bhasya.According to Prof.K.A.Nilakanta
Sastri, Ramanuja “refuted Mayavada of Sankara, demonstrated that the Upanishads did
not teach a strict monism, and built up the philosophy of Visishtadvaita which
reconciled devotion to a personal God, with the philosophy of the Vedanta by affirming
that the soul, though of the same substance as God and embitted from Him rather than
created, can obtain bliss not in absorption but in existence near him”.
Ramanuja believed Brahma as Supreme and individual souls as modes or
attributes of Brahma.God is attainable by soul through Bhakti.He believed in Saguna
Ishwara or god endowed with many auspicious qualities and virtues. According to
him Brahma has two attributes – purusha and prakriti. Brahma is container while,
purusha and prakriti are the contained.The kernel of Ramanuja’s teachings has been
summed by Prof. R.C. Zachner thus “to realize the nature of one’s immortal soul as
being conditioned by time and space and to see all things in the soul and the soul in all

127
things, is inherent in all men naturally, and it is a godlike state. But this is not to know
God, to know God is to love him, and without a passionate and all coming love there
can be neither communion nor union with the beloved.Any mystical state which is one
of the undifferentiated oneness is the experience that one individual soul enjoys of its
own individual self; it has nothing to do with God.Thus, in any form of mystical
experience from which love is absent there can be no question of God.He is absent
too.To interpret the experience as being identical with the One or All is absurd;
beguiled by the beauty and apparent infinity of its own deep nature, the liberated soul
so Ramanuja holds mistakes the mustard seed for Mount Mera the drop for the sea”.
In simple words Ramanuja laid emphasis on Bhakti as the principle means of
attaining the Supreme Realty (God) or final bliss.He held that even the Sudras and
outcastes could also attain salvation by completely surrendering to the will of the
guru.No doubt, the Sudras and other out-castes were permitted to visit the temples
only on certain fixed dynasties in a year, but it marked the beginning of the movement
for their upliftment.
2. Nimbarka: Nimbarka was a younger contemporary of Ramanuja, who also rendered
great service to the spread of Bhakti movement.He, wrote Vedanta-Parijatasaurabha, a
commentary on the Brahma Sutra, in simple language. Nimbarka also wrote Dasa
Sloki, which deals with three realities (tributary-tattava) – Brahma (Krishna), soul (Chit)
and matter (Achit). Nimbarka declared that the individual soul is a part of Brahma,
both in the state of ignorance and in that of knowledge or emancipation Nimbarka
attached great importance to attainment of knowledge and devotion.
Though Nimbarka belonged to the South, he spent most of his life at Braja near
Mathura in the north.To him Gopala Krishna, along with Radha and Gopies, is God. He
propounded the Radha Krishna cult, one of the most popular and influential cults of
India.The doctrine propounded by Nimbarka have much to commend itself from the
point of view of philosophy, religion and ethics. “Its most distinctive feature” according
to RomaChaudhuri is “that it strikes a happy balance between the rigid intellectualism
of Advaitism and the effusive emotionalismoflater dualistic schools”. Prof. Chaudhuri
further points out that “Nimbarka does the greatest service to mankind by pointing to a
path which satisfied intellect and feeling, head and heart, without over-emphasizing the
one at the expense of the other”.
3. Madhava: Madhava was another devotee of Vishnu from the South. He took to
monastic life when he was 25 years old.He wrote four bhasyas on Brahma Sutra; on the
opening passages of the Rig Veda; on the ten philosophical Upanishads; and on the
Bhagavada Gita.He also wrote expositions of Mahabharata and Bhagavata.It is said that
Madhava in all wrote thirty seven works. In these works he revealed his scholarly
ability ad logical penetration.Madhava did not believe in the qualified monism of
Ramanuja and emphasised the doctrine of duality, based mainly upon the Bhagavta
Purana. He held that the greatest obstacle in the path of salvation was the belief in the
identity of Brahma and Jiva.
Madhava divides the universe into two parts – Swatantra (independent being)
and Aswatantra (de endent being). God is the only independent being which possesses
the qualities of omnipotence, omniscient and omnipresence. Matter and souls are
dependent.God controls souls and matter, though He does not create or destroy

128
them.Though absolutely dependent on Brahma, individual souis are essentially active
agents and have responsibilities of their own.Madhava classified the should also into
three categories – those which were fit for attaining final bliss; those continually
traversing the round of birth and death; and sinners of the worst sort, with demons of
all kinds, fit only for eternal hell.
In addition to these prominent Vishnavites, certain other teachers also spread
Bhakti among the people in the South.One such saint was Vishnusvamin, a great
scholar and prodigy of learning.He wrote commentaries on the Brahma Sutra of
Badarayana and Bhagavad Gita.
4. Vallabhacharya: Vallabhacharya was another prominent Vaishnava saint from the
South.He hailed from a Telugu Brahman family, and gained great popularity for his
talents, scholarship and deep knowledge of philosophy. He had intense love for the
divine incarnation of God – Shri Krishna. He wrote commentaries on the Brahma Sutra,
the Jaimini Sutra and Brahma Sutra and Anubhshya and Tattvarthadipa.In addition he
wrote numerous other small works.Vallabhacharya advocated a system of pure non-
dualism devoid of the concept of Maya.Vallabha glorified the intense life of Radha and
Krishna. He advocated a universal religion which did not believe in distinctions of sex,
caste, creed or nationality.Vallabha believed in self surrender.He admitted the efficacy
of the path of knowledge, selfless work and devotion if one could attain spiritual
growth.In his Siddhanta Rahasya (Secret of Truth) he said that every sin, whether of
body or soul, is put away by union with the creator. “In other words Vallabha insisted
on complete identity of both soul and world with the Supreme Spirit”.
According to Govindlal Hargovind Bhatt “the doctrine of grace, the ideal of self-
dedication, and the sublimation of human life are some of the peculiar features of the
teachings of the Acharya.And what is still more remarkable is the attitude of the
Acharya towards the Vedas ad the allied literature.He has accepted the Vedas as the
highest authority and followed them most faithfully, with the result that logic can never
get the better of faith. It is because of this attitude that Vallabhacharya differs from
Shankaracharya”.Vallabha exercised tremendous influence on saints like Mira Bai and
Narsi Metha.
5. Ramananda: The credit for the spread of Vaishnava religion in northern India goes to
Ramananda.He was born at Prayag (Allahabad) of Kanya-kubja parents.He got his
schooling at Prayag and Banaras and visited the various religious places in northern
India, where he preached Vaishnavism. He preached the worship of Ram and Sita in
place of Vishnu.He believed in Vishistadvaita philosophy of Ramanuja and carried his
teachings much further.He strongly opposed sectarianism and rites and insisted on
adoption of Hindi in place of Sanskrit.He simplified the worship and emancipated the
people from the traditional caste rules.He imparted devotional knowledge to all
without distinctions of religion or caste, but he was not prepared to make a complete
departure from the past traditions.In his Anand Bhashya he did not recognize the right
of a Sudra to read the Vedas. He could not even cast off the sense of superiority of a
Hindu over the Mohammedan.Similarly he accepted the superiority of the other saints
of the South, did not believe in social equality.He enjoined strict segregation and perfect
privacy in the matter of food.

129
 Though Ramannda did not believe in the equality of the four varnas and
numerous castes, but he made disciples from almost all castes.His disciples included
members of the higher castes as well as lower castes like Jat (Dhana), barber (Sena),
cobbler (Ravi Das) and Muslims (Kabir). Even women became his disciples (Padmavati
and Sursari).Thus he treated disciples from all the castes on footing of equality.In short,
he opened the doors of Vaishnavism to all without distinctions of caste, creed or
sex.Talking of the contributions of Ramananda to the Bhakti movement of north, Prof.
Radhakamal Mukerjee has said “From the South he imbibed the mystical devotion of
the Tamil saints and the Visistadvaita doctrine of absolute self-surrender (prapatti) and
reliance upon God’s redemptive love and goodness, but he protested against Southern
caste orthodoxy, which would not admit the Sudras to religious education, let alone to
religious equality and brotherhood for in the discipline of Ramanuja these ideals were
not translated into practice. He also repudiated the barren ceremonialism of the
Mimamsa School and the Vedic way of life, which he found to be an anachronism; in
the fourteenth century”. Prof. Mukerjee further says that from him sprang the three
great mystical schools; the major branch was Ramite, another was Krishnaite, and the
third under the leadership of Kabir and other Nirguna Saints, preferred a combination
of the Vedantic conception, Advaita of Visistadvaita, with the yoga and mediation on
the charkas; of the Natha and Sahaja traditions, a combination that held greater appeal
for Muslim devotees and Hindu outcastes.
But probably the greatest contribution of Ramananda to the Bhakti movement
was that he made use of Hindi in place of Sanskrit and his message could be easily
followed by the general public.It also gave fillip to the spread of Hindi literature.It
would not be wrong to say that he democratized the movement.No doubt he did not
make any effort to establish social equality, but the rigours of caste distinctions were
greatly softened.In those times even this was no mean achievement.
6. Chaitanya (1486 – 1533): Chaitanya also known as Sri Gauranga was a popular
Vaishnava saint and reformer from Bengal. He was born of Brahman parents at
Nadia.After his education he became a teacher.At the age of 25 he took to monastic life
of the feet of Kesava Bharti.Sometime later he went to Puri, where many disciples
gathered round him.He visited various religious places located in the southern and
western parts of the country like Pandharpur.Som Nath, Dwarka etc. and preached his
teachings there.He also paid a pilgrimage to Vrindaban, Mathura and other places in
the north. However, he finally settled down at Puri and stayed there till his death in
1533.
Chaitanya believed in one Supreme Being, whom he called Krishna or
Hari.Chaitanya held that the presence of the God could be realized through love,
devotion, song and dance.He attached great importance to the inner and esoteric way
of realization which he believed could be attained through a guru alone.The essence of
Chaitanya’s teachings has been beautifully summed by Krishnadas Kaviraj thus: “If a
creature adores Krishna and serves his Guru he is released from the mashes of illusion
and attains to Krishna’s feet”, and ”leaving these (i.e. temptations) and the religious
systems based on caste (the true Vaishnava) helplessly takes refuge with
Krishna”.Chaitanya denounced caste system and believed in universal brotherhood of
man.He was opposed to the domination of the priests and the outward forms and
ceremonies of religion.To him ‘love’ alone could lead a man to Hari.He originated the

130
Sankirtan, or service of song ad the institution of celibacy among monks or gosains.He
wrote Shiksha Ashtak if which he gave the cream of the Shastras.According to Prof.
Radhakamad Mukerjee, “The Chaitanya Vaishnava movement added new strand of
morality ad goodness to the Indian character; the maturing, and the transcendent
quality of authentic human approach to the deity.Through him Vaishnavism, which is
the philosophical expression of the ideal of love for God, ushered in a new era”.
Theodore Goldstucker says that Chaitanya comprehended five stages of Bhakti –
quietism, as that of sage; servitude, which every votary takes upon himself’ friendship
for the deity honoured with his acquaintance; tender affection for the deity of the same
nature as love of parents for their children; and the highest degree of affection; such
passionate attachment as the Gopies felt for their beloved Krishna”.Though Chaitanya
did not directly organize any sect, his teachings inspired his disciples to start a new
sect. Chaitanya himself began to be worshipped as an incarnation of Krishna.
7. Kabir: Another prominent saint of the Bhakti movement in northern India was
Kabir.There is much controversy among scholars regarding his date of birth, but it is
certain that he lived either in the closing years of the 14th century or early 15th century. It
is said he was the son of a Hindu widow, who in order to hide her shame left the baby
by the side of the tank in Banaras, where form he was picked up by a Muslim weaver
named Niru.From his childhood itself Kabir was a meditative child.When he grew
young he became the disciple of Ramanand and stayed most of the time at Banaras.He
learnt the Vedanta philosophy in a modified and more acceptable form from
Ramananda.But Kabir felt highly dissatisfied with the asceticism of the Hindu devotees
who subjected themselves to austere bodily mortification.He wanted a life which
provided a temporal and spiritual satisfaction and therefore was greatly impressed by
the teachings of the Muslim saint Pir Taqi.Taqi was opposed to exclusive pursuit of the
contemplative life.
Kabir did not believe in extreme asceticism and abstractions from the world.He
condemned idolatry and useless ceremonies.He believed in the equality of man and
declared that before the high throne of God all were equal.He preached a religion of
love which aimed at promoting unity amongst all castes and creeds.Hinduism and
Islam.Kabir was not interested in organizing any religion.He merely wanted to
popularize the current ideas of Bhakti.According to Prof. Yusaf Husin. “The chief aim
of the teaching of Kabir was to find a modus vivendi, an acceptable means of
reconciling the different castes and the religious communities of northern India. He
wished to abolish the caste system as well as the antagonism of the religions based on
blind superstition or on the selfish interest of the minority exploiting the ignorance of
others.He desired to establish social and religious peace among the people who lived
together, but who were separated from one another by religion”. Kabir made an
attempt “at a fusion of Islamic mysticism, having as its object a loving devotion to a
single God, and Hindu traditions”. Kabir’s teachings do not give preference either to
Hindus or Muslims.On the other hand he admired whatever was good in the two cults
and condemned whatever was dogmatic. The different appellations of God, according
to Kabir, are only expressions of one and the same truth. He said: “Brother! From
where have the two masters of the Universe come? Tell me, who has invented the
names of Allah, Ram, Keshav, Hari and Hazrat? All ornaments of gold are made of a
unique substance. It is to show to the world that two different signs are made; one is

131
called Namaz, while the other is termed Puja. Mahadev and Muhammad are on and the
same; Brahma and Adam are one and the same. What it a Hindu? What is a Turk?
Both inhabit the same earth one reads the Veda, and the other Quran and the
Khutba.One is a Maulana and the other a Pandit. Earthen vessels have different names,
although they are made from the same earth. Kabir says: both are misled, none had
found God”.
According to Gertrude Emerson Sen ‘Kabir was not only a saint but a stern
reformer, hating religious cant and hypocrisy, as can be gathered from his terse and
often caustic verses which are still sung all over Uttar Pradesh and Punjab”.He further
says, “His (Kabir’s) rejection of rituals and image worship might well have been
inspired by the tenets of orthodox Islam, and his ridicule of caste might as easily have
sprung from the underlying Islamic doctrine of social democracy.But when he attacked
fasts and ablutions and pilgrimages as useless performances and found the outward
insignia of religion just so much foolishness, he attacked both orthodox Islam and
orthodox Hinduism. Added to this he proclaimed that Allah and Rama were names of
one and the same God that He was to be found neither in the temple nor in Mosque,
neither in Banaras nor in Mecca, but only in the heart of his devotees”.
Kabir laid great emphasis on Bhakti and said”Both neither austerities, nor works
of any kind are necessary to obtain the Highest and this is only to be obtained by Bhakti
(fervent devotion) and perpetual mediation on the Supreme – His names of Hari, Ram
Govind being ever on the lips and in the heart. The Highest end is absorption in the
Supreme and reunion with Him from whom all proceeded, and who exists in
all”.Though Kabir was opposed to the division of mankind into sects, yet differences
cropped up between his disciples regarding the disposal of his last remains after
death.While the Muslman wanted to bury him, the Hindus demanded that he should
be burnt. It is said that the dispute was resolved because the body of Kabir lying under
the shroud disappeared and only a handful of flowers were left.These flowers were
divided by the Hindus and the Muslmans and they disposed them off according to
their religious rites. This also led to division amongst the disciples of Kabir and two
sects with their headquarters at Kabir Chaura in Banaras and Chattisgarh respectively
continued to exist.Occasionally the relations between these two Kabir-Panthis were
strained.
8. Guru Nanak: Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion was another prominent
saint, who greatly appreciated the teachings of Kabir. Guru Nanak was born at village
Talwandi near Lahore in 1469. Right from his childhood he took delight in religious
discussions with holy men.The initial efforts of his parents to involve him in worldly
things did not yield the desired results. Though he was married and had children, he
renounced the world and paid visits to various holy places to preach spiritualism. Guru
Nanak believed that the married life ad secular business did not obstruct the spiritual
progress and emancipation of man.Nanak not only visited various parts of India but
also visited a number of foreign countries like Ceylon, Persia, and Arabia. He is also
said to have visited Mecca.Guru Nanak laid much impress on the oneness of God as
truth, and fraternity of men, righteous living, the social virtues of dignity of labour and
charity.To him Islam and Hinduism provided two paths for meeting the God. He laid
emphasis on purity of deeds and said “man shall be saved by his works alone. God will
not ask a man his tribe or sect, but what he has done.According to Guru Nanak man

132
could attain salvation by doing four things – Fearing God, doing the right, trust in the
mercy of His name and taking a guide to direct him upon the path which leads to the
goal.
Nanak believed in God as the omnipotent reality ad the human soul could attain
union with Him through love ad devotion, and not by knowledge of ceremonial
observance.He believed in oneness of God and the brotherhood of man.Nanak
preached in the language of the people and his preachings became very popular during
his lifetime itself. His disciples included both the Hindus and the Muslims.
Nanak decried caste system and challenged the monopoly of spiritual evolution
and religious sanctity of higher castes.Unity of God and unity of mankind were the two
fundamental doctrines of his creed. According to Cunningham “Instead of the
circumscribed divinity, the anthropomorphous God of Ramanand and Kabir, he loftily
invokes the Lord as One; the Sole, the Timeless Being, the Creator, the Self-existent, the
Incomprehensible, and the Everlasting.He likens the Deity to Truth which was before
the world began, which is, and which shall endure for ever, as the ultimate idea or
cause of all we know and behold. He addressed equally the Mullah and the Pandit, the
Darwesh ad the Sanyasis and he tells them to remember that Lord of Lords, who had
seen come ad go numberless Muhammads, Vishnus ad Shivas”. “The sweetness of his
character and the simple truth behind his teachings” says Dr. Banerjee “made him an
object of love to all and even today he is remembered as Guru Nanak Shah Fakir,
Hindu Krishnaswami Aiyangar Guru Mussalman Krishnaswami Aiyangar Pir”.Though
Guru Nanak did not intend to start any distinct religion of his own, but gradually his
followers evolved a new religion known as Sikhism, which was quite distinct from
Hinduism.
9. Dadu Dayal (1554 – 1603 A.D.) Dadu Dayal was a weaver from Ahmedabad, who
made significant contributions to the Bhakti movement. He was a mochi by caste and
renounced the world at an early age.He visited a number of places of pilgrimage and
became a saint.In his teachings Dadu laid stress upon the promotion of love, union,
sentiments of brotherhood and toleration among people of various faiths. He said “The
Illusion of Allah ad Rama hath been dispelled from my mind; since I see Thee in all; I
see no difference between Hindu and Turk”.Dadu was opposed to idol-worship, caste
distinctions, the theory of avtars (reincarnation of God), external formalities of religion
and the practice of workship at the shrines of the departed saints. Dr. Tara Chand has
rightly said that his ideas of God, of the world and of man do not differ from those of
his predecessors. He insists upon the unity of God and he regards Him in his two-fold
aspect of transcendence and immanence. To him He is one changeable immortal,
incomprehensible Being; He is brightness, effulgence, light, illumination, perfection; He
is within the heart of all beings”.Dadu expressed his ideas which are contained in the
granth known as Dadu Ram Ki Bani. Dadu like Kabir and Nanak was an embodiment
of free spirit from any taint of religious bigotry or sectarianism, remarkable in any age.
He tried to assuage religious quarrels and did his best to brig Hindus ad Muslims ad all
other sects’ together.He dwelt upon the greatness of Guru even over the sacred books –
the Vedas and the Quran. Dadu established a sect the followers of which are known as
Dadu-panthis.

133
10. Mira Bai (1498 – 1546): Mira Bai was another great saint of the medieval times.She
was born at the village of Kudki in the Merta district in1498 and was married to Bhoj
Raj, the son of renowned warrior Rana Sanga of Mewar in Rajasthan.Mira became a
devotee of Krishna right from childhood and always carried a small image of Girdhar
Gopal with her. After marriage she continued her devotion towards Krishna and
became popular as a Divine singer. Hermits of various religions visited Chittor to
watch her singing in ecstasy and absorbed in Divine consciousness.It is said that even
Akbar along with Tan Sen paid a visit to her in disguise and offered a necklace.Bhoj Raj,
her husband did not like her mixing with people of all types and reprimanded her.Mira
became widow in1565, but continued with her devotion to Lord Krishna and service of
the saints.This was not liked by the brother of her late husband and he tried to kill her
through poison and snake bite, but without any success in his mission.Therefore, Mira
Bai left for Brindaban at dead of night and started doing public kirtan.All the efforts of
the Rana to pursuade her to return to Rajasthan failed and she continued to live a life of
devotee till her death in1546 A.D.
Mira’s massage was that none by reason of birth, poverty, age or sex will be
debarred from His divine presence.The way is but one – that of Bhakti. The portals will
open when the Teacher will bless the devotee with his company and teach him the
mysteries of the Sabda.Once He is reached, is no further or future separation
possible.Sooner or later every one is to meet his Lord.Time is a great factor, and can be
shortened by intensity of one’s affection for the Lord.Burn in the fire of separation from
the Lord. But this is to come neither through practice of no Yogic exercises nor through
mere learning. It is a gift and a boon from the Lord Himself”.Bankey Behari says, “To
me Mira is the moth that burn itself in the candle of love for Girdhar and for all times
filled the Temple of Devotion with gragrance. Undaunted by fire or frown, unperturbed
by persecutions, this devotee of Sri Krishna sang her songs of princely renunciation and
self surrender that shall infuse courage in the aspirantion the Path of Love.Mira lived
the message she preached, scoffed at cold intellectualism and boldly proclaimed the
doctrine of absolute faith in and Devotion to the Lord”.
11. Tulsidas (1532 – 1623): Tulsidas was a great poet and a devotee.He was born in a
Brahman family in1532.On account of a taunt of his wife Ratnawali he is said to have
taken to life of religious hermit. His works, apart from his magnum opus Ram Charit
Manas (popularly known as Ramayana) include Gitawali, Kavitawali, and Vinaya
Patrika. In Ram Charit Manas, Tulsi Das makes an exposition of religious devotion of
the highest order. Tulsi Das was a humanist and Universalist and laid stress upon
knowledge, devotion, worship and mediation. He has blended in his work the
philosophical monist of the past with stress on Bhakti, the poetry d dignity of Valmiki’s
Ramayana with the devotional fervour and humanism of Bhagvata.To Tulsidas, Rama
was a personal and Supreme God, which had feeling of compassion for the humanity
which suffered.Tulsidas says, “There is one God; It is Rama, creator of heaven and earth
and redeamer of mankind…..For the sake of his faithful people a very god, Lord Rama,
became incarnate as a king and for our sanctification lived as it were, the life of any
ordinary man”.He further says “The Supreme spirit, the All pervading, who has
become incarnate and done many things for the love that he bears to his faithful
people”.

134
 According to J.E.Carpenter “Tulsi Das starts from the fundamental conception of
philosophical theology, the eternal Brahaman, passionless, formless, without attributes
(nirguna) and yet possessing the fundamental quality of goodness (sattva); nay, instill
bolder speech, at once the sum and the negation of all qualities self, same in all time-
past, present, and to come”.Though Tulsi Das did not start any new sect or advocate
any new doctrine, yet by his own pure life and the magic of his poetry he rendered
great service to the Bhakti-marga.
12. Sur Das: Sur Das was another saint, and poet who preached religion of love and
devotion to a personal God and provided inspiration to millions of men and women in
northern India.There is lot of controversy amongst the scholars regarding the dates of
birth and death of Sur Das.It is commonly held that he was born sometimes in the lst
qurter of the 15th century.His works include Sur Sagar.Sahitya Ratna and Sur Sarawali.
In Sur Sagar, Sur Das deals with the life of Krishna’s childhood. He displayed himself
not merely as a matter of child psychology but also as a devotee of the Almighty.The
works and poems of Sur Das exercised tremendous influence on the people and
encouraged them to follow the path of Bhakti.
13. Maluk Das (1574 – 1682): Malukdas was born at Kara in the district of
Allahabad.He also founded a sect which mainly consists of laymen.Like other saints
and reformers of his time Malukdas also condemned the externals of religion like
pilgrimage, idol worship, etc.According to Dr. Tara Chand he teaches that the true
religion is an inward faith, that Maya is the enemy of man, and God’s name is the only
protection against it, that the world is transitory and the worldly relations of no avail,
that man is born of dust and will return to dust, that those who are not devoted to
spiritual life are the dogs of the world, that salvation is obtained by knowing the self,
killing pride and egotism, controlling passions, trusting the Guru, and loving
God”.Mlukdas also laid great emphasis on the unity of the Hindus and Muslims and
said: “Where is the string of beads (mala) and the rosary (tasbih) now awake and rely
not on them. Who is infidel (kafir) and who is barbarian (malechchu) look upon
sandhya (Hindu worship) and the prayer (namaz) as one. Where does Yama live and
where is Gabriel? He himself is the judge (Qazi) who else keeps accounts? He
calculates the good and the evil deeds, and renders account and send one where he
deserves to go. Malukdas, why are thou in error, Rama and Rahim are the names of
One”.
14. Sundardas (1596 – 1689): Sundardas was a disciple of Dadu. He was born in the
family of a Bania in Rajasthan in1596 A.D.He spent most of his early childhood with
Dadu at Naraina, and soon gained popularity as a great poet and a saint.He returned to
his home in 1603 after the death of Dadu and spent the rest of the life spreading the
religion of Bhakti taught by Dadu. He spent the later part of his life in travels and
visited numerous places in Rajputana and Punjab.The reputation of Sundardas rests on
his work Sundarvilasa.In this work he deals with the six philosophic systems of the
Hindus and emphasizes their inadequacy in securing salvation of man.He insisted on
the teachings of Dadu as an easy way for salvation.
15. Birbhan: Birbhan was a contemporary of Dadu.He was born near Narnaul in
Punjab in 1543 and founded the famous sect of Sadhs or Salnamis.Birbhan was a
monotheist and described God by the name of Satnam of Truth.Birbhan did not believe

135
in caste and other distinctions ad was opposed to idol worship.He insisted on
meditation and virtuous life with a view to attain ultimate absorption with
God.Birbhan insisted on his followers to abstain from intoxicants and animal food as
well as unnecessary accumulation of wealth.The sect found by Birbhan is known as
Satnamis and their religious granth is known as Pothi, which is revered like the Granth
of the Sikhs.
In addition to the above saints and reformers a number of other saints ad
reformers also tried to bring about religious synthesis ad to reconcile the ideas of Islam
and Hinduism.It is not possible to make mention of the ideas of all these saints within
the limited space at our disposal.However, the prominent amongst them included Lal
Das of Alwar; Bawa Lal of Malwa, Dharnidas of Chapra, Jagjivandas of Barabanki
district, Charandas of Rajputana, Ramcharan of Shahpur, and numerous others.
Saints and Reformers of Maharashtra: The process of religious synthesis was not
confined to northern India alone. In Maharashtra also Hindu-Muslim intercourse
produced far reaching results and encouraged the rise of Bhakti movement.The
religious reformation in Maharshtra dates back to 1290 A.D. when Jnanesvar wrote
commentary on Bhagavad Gita.He laid down certain principles of ideal spiritual life for
the people. Muktabhai, the younger sister of Jnanesvar was also a great saint.She laid
great emphasis on the need of renunciation.Muktibhai said “He alone is a saint who is
possessed of compassion (daya) and forgiveness (kshama) and in whose heart neither
greed nor egoism finds a place.Those re the people who are truly renouncers. They
alone can be happy in this and the next world”.
Nam Dev (1270 – 1350 A.D): According to Dr.Tara Chand “The first of the saintly array
of men who changed the faith of this region (Maharashtra) and turned the mind of men
from the priest-ridden ceremonial of a narrow creed to freedom and love was Nam
Dev.He is remembered by every saint of Maharshtra, Hindustan, Rajputana ad Punjab
as the great historic name in the long list of Bhaktas”.Nam Dev was born in 1270 and
was the disciple of Vishoba Khechar.He preached the sublime gospel of love and
devotion and liberated the peoples from the shackles of rituals and caste system.He was
opposed to idol worship and religious intolerance.He held that salvation could be
achieved through Bhakti or devotion to God. Emphasising the inefficacy of the external
acts of religion Nam Dev said: “Vows, fasts and austerities are not all necessary; nor is it
necessary for you to go on a pilgrimage.Be you watchful in your hearts and always sing
the name of Hari. It is not necessary to give up eating food or drinking water; fix your
mind on the feet of Hari. Yoga or sacrificial ceremonies or giving up objects of desire is
not wanted. Realise a fondness for the fee of Hari”.
Tuka Ram (1601 – 1649): One of the most prominent saints of Maharashtra was Tuka
Ram. He was born in Shudra family, which was devoted to the worship of Vithoba.He
led a normal life during childhood and took to trade at the age of fourteen.Due to death
of his father and losses in business he became disgusted with the wordly life and
devoted himself to contemplation ad devotion.He soon became popular with the people
because of his life of piety and service.Even Shivaji had great admiration for
Tukaram.The teachings of Tukaram are contained in his numerous Abhanjas.Tukaram
insisted that it was not possible to combine both spiritual joy and the activity in the
world.A person who tries to achieve both in the end achieves neither. Tukaram’s

136
conception of God is almost identical to that of Kabir. He says: “He has neither form nor
name, nor place of abode; He is present wherever we go, Vitthal our mother and
sister.He knows neither form nor change of form. He pervades the moving and
immovable world.He is neither with nor without attributes, who indeed can know
Him? He will turn to none, says Tuka who has not faith in Him”.
Tukaram rejects ceremonies, Vedic sacrifices, visits to holy places, worship of
stones, putting on saints’ guise, fasts and other types of austerities. He also tried to
reconcile Hindu and Muslim faiths. In one of his hymns he says:
“What Allah wishes that is accomplished, O! My friend (Baba),
The Maker is the sovereign of all.
Cattle and friends, gardens and goods all depart.
My mind dewells, O! Friend, on my Lord (Sahib) who is the Maker I ride there
on the back of the horse (mind) and the self becomes the horseman.
O! Friend, medite (zikr) on Allah, who is in the guise of all, Says Tuka, the man
who understands this becomes a Darwesh.
Ram Dass (1608 – 1681 A.D): Another great saint of Maharashtra was Ram Dass.Unlike
Tukaram, Ram Dass believed that only success in Samsara can lead to success in
Paramartha and the former was a necessary condition for the latter.Ram Dass tried to
integrate the different sciences and arts of life with religious quest and the monumental
work in which he tright to accomplish this is entitled Dasabodha.Shivaji was greatly
inspired by the teachings of Ram Dass.He advised Shivaji “to adorn his body not with
clothes and ornaments but with shrewdness and wisdom”.According to Swami Ramdas
the essential qualification of a good ruler included the following: “To spread the
message of God, to protect the poor, the pious and the helpless, to strive for the well-
being of his subjects and to remain enternally vigilant and to practice the virtue of
forbearance and tolerance”.
Bahina Bai: Bahina Bai was another great saint of Maharashtra.She received her
Mantra ‘Rama-Krishna-Hari’ in a vision from Tukaram and accepted Tukram as her
Guru.Initially her husband did not like her devotion to Tukaram, but subsequently he
changed his stand.Bahima also produced outstanding poetry in the style and meter of
Tukram. She exercised great control over her sexual appetite.Talking of the duties of a
wife Bahima Bai says ‘a wife must make her domestic life happy by accepting her
husband’s wishes in a noble spirit, and, though it may even mean death to her, she
should not transgress them. Bless is she, her caste and her family”.
It may be noted that all the saints of Maharashtra were devoted to the deity named
Pandurang, Vithoba or Vitthal, and the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra centred
round the shrines of Vithoba or Vishnu at Pandharpur on the banks of Bhima.These
religious reformers and saints made an ardent appeal to God Almighty to intervene on
behalf of the oppressed people and bring them relief from Muslims persecution.Making
an assessment of the commendable work done by the saints of Maharashtra in the field
of social and political life of the people Mahadeo Govind Ranade says, “The saints come
out well in their struggles with their foreign rulers, and they prevailed not by fighting,
not by resistance, but by quite resignation to the Will of God. There was a tendency

137
perceptible towards a reconciliation of the two races in mutual recognition of the
essential unity of Allah with Rama, and by the time Shivaji appeared on the scene, this
reconciliation seems to have been almost complete, though occasional outbursts of
Muhammedan fanaticism were not altogether unknown even then”.
As a result of the teachings of these saints certain changes in the society were also
affected.They subordinated the importance of the rites and ceremonies, and of
pilgrimages and fasts, and of learning ad contemplation, to the higher excellence of
worship by means of love and faith. It checked the excesses of polytheism”.

EFFECTS OF BHKTI MOVEMENT

It has been noted above that the Bhakti cult was a wide-spread movement, which
embraced practically the whole of the country.It was a people’s movement which
aroused intense interest among them.As the Muslim thinkers and theologians were
critical of Hinduism and its numerous ceremonies, the saints and reformers of the
Bhakti movement tried to reform Hinduism so that it could withstand the onslaughts of
Islam successfully. At the same time some of the reforms were keen to bring about a
compromise between Hinduism and Islam to foster friendly relations between the two
communities.Prof. A.L.Srivastava says that the movement “succeeded in realising to a
great extent the first object of bringing about the simplification of worship and
liberalising the traditional castes rules.The high ad the low among the Hindu public
forgot many of their prejudices and believed in the message of the reformers of the
Bhakti cult that all people were equal in the eyes of God and that birth was no bar to
religious salvation.The movement failed in attaining its second object, viz., Hindu-
Muslim unity.Neither the Turko-Afghan rulers nor the Muslim public accepted the
Rama-Sita or Radha-Krishna cult. They refused to believe that Rama and Rahim,
Ishwar and Allah were the names of the same God.The movement, however,
incidentally became responsible for another solid achievement, viz., the evolution and
enrichment of our vernacular literatures.Most of the reformers preached to the masses
through their mother tongue, and therefore, they enriched our modern languages, such
as Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Maithili, Gujarati etc. The period of Bhakti movement
consequently proved to be golden age in the history of the growth of our vernacular
literature”.
Prof.Yusuf Hussain systems that “like the Reformation of Europe, the
Reformation of Hinduism in the Middle Ages owed a treat debt to Islam.It delivered a
new social message of the worth of every human being in the sight of God, and urged a
reconstruction of the current Hindu thought with a view to making it an efficient
vehicle of the new social and spiritual ideals by the pursuit of Bhakti. And yet it must
be admitted that the influence of Islam leavened but did not fundamentally after the
structure of the Hindu society, which retains the element of exclusiveness and
untouchability even upto our times”.Prof. Hussain further says that “it is generally
conceded by historians of civilization and religious developments reflect or accompany
basic changes in social processes.The Bhakti movement of medieval India represents the
first effective impingement on Hindu society of Islamic culture and outlook.It is true
that the Bhakti cult was essentially indigenous, but it received a great impetus from the
presence of Muslims in this country.This movement not only prepared a meeting-

138
ground for the devout men of both creeds, it also preached human equality and openly
condemned ritual and caste.It was radically new, basically different from old traditions
and ideas of religious authority.It sought to refashion the collective life on a new basis,
envisaging a society in which there shall be justice and equality for all and in which
men of all creeds shall be able to develop to their full moral and spiritual stature”.
Dr.R.P. Tripathi says that “The spiritual movements both of the Hindus and
Muslims, from the 13th to the 16th century, were attempting to direct the mind of the
people from the formal aspect of religion to its underlying spiritualism, from the outer
to the inner from professions to actual living with all their superstitions and
obscurantism, jargons and antics, they laid emphasis on the physical, psychological and
ethical bases of religion, as distinguished from the purely formal, physical, ritualistic
and social ”.Talking of the deep impact of the Bhakti movement on the id life Prof.
Radhakumad Mukerjee systems, “It is the religious dissenters of the middle ages,
Bhaktas and Sufis, who through their eclectic teachings and devotional ecstasies have
largely fashioned the religious faith ad devotion of modern India.A reliable estimate is
that two thirds of the Indian Muslims are under the influence of one or other of the Sufi
orders, the outer shell of religion divides sects and communities.Sufism and Bhakti on
the other hand, which constitute the mystical core or essence of Islam and Hinduism,
have been firm and essential binders of the two cultures”.
The Bhakti saints taught universal toleration and brought about a revolution in
the social structure of the society.All the saints loved humanity and were devoted to
God.But their disciples failed to rise above personal bias and created sects and sub-
sects.As a result the Indian society came to be divided into number of new cults based
on orthodoxy.Even though all the saints taught the same Truth, India failed to attain
cultural unity.

THE CHURCH AND THE STATE IN EUROPE

The Power of the Church: Henry C.Lea, America’s foremost authority on medieval
history, wrote concerning the Roman Catholic, Church, “The history of mankind may
be vainly searched for another institution…..which has exercised so vast an influence on
human destinies”.It is difficult for us to imagine the extent of the influence of the
church in the Middle Ages. In Christendom, its power over religion was all-embracing.
Everyone belonged to it and anyone who questioned its principles was branded a
traitor against God and man.In European civil law in the 12th century, heresy was made
a crime punishable by death.The church did not have to depend uponvoluntary
contributions for its financialsupport, but reaped a vast revenue from land that it
owned and from the “tithe”, a regular tax levied on subjects in all Christian nations.
The church had no army to crush rebellions, no police force to coerce offenders,
but it did have power that was more effective.The clergy had the power of salvation
and could dispense it at will.The Pope, through the interdict, could forbid all forms of
public worship in a state.This was effective in forcing rulers to obey his commands,
because the people took their religion seriously. Excommunication deprived the
individual of all the privileges of the church and forbade anyone to associate with the
condemned.Through the Holy Inquisition; suspects were brought before a secret
ecclesiastical court and condemned to torture.

139
 The church was more than a religious organisation; it performed many of the
functions of a state government.The Pope was at the head of the organisation and
through his subordinates exerted absolute authority.The church had its own law (canon
law) and its own courts, before which all cases involving clergymen, widows, and
orphans and all questions of marriage, wills, and heresy were tried.The Pope had his
own ambassadors (papal legates) who were sent to the various states and made
elaborate reports to Rome. The church, at its height, even claimed supremacy over the
state. Rulers were considered as subjects of the Pope and were responsible to him.
Bishops ruled their dioceses like political princes, and high officials in the church were
given positions of importance in state governments.Voltaire fittingly referred to the 9 th
century as”the age of bishops”.
Conflicting Authority of Church and State. The overlapping authority of the
church and the state resulted in a conflict of jurisdiction that was certain to cause
trouble. So long as the church was strong and the state was weak, there was very little
resistance, but the ruler of a powerful state naturally was opposed to having an outside
power interfere in his government.The popes looked with distate on the growth of the
power of the state and also the gradual control that the temporal ruler was gaining over
the officials of the church.In some instances, the emblems of spiritual authority, the ring
and the crosier, were conferred by a temporal power without much consideration for
the church. Men of noble birth often sought church offices because of the revenue and
the prestige that accompanied them.Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) tried to remedy this
practice. In his Dictatus, he defined the authority of the church. The Pope, he declared,is
the only universal-bishop and might at will appoint and transferother
bishops.Furthermore, “the Pope is the only person whose feet are kissed by all the
princes”; he could depose emperors and abssolve subjects from allegiance to their king;
no one could condemn a person who appealed to the Pope; no decrees of the Pope
could be annulled, and no one could pass judgment upon his acts.These decisions were
sent to kings and princes, including those of England, France, and Germany.
The Investiture Struggle. Henry IV (1056-1106), the youthful king of Germany,
boldly challenged the power of the Pope. Gregory VII condemned the German king for
his actions in no uncertain terms: Incline thine ear to us, O Peter, chief of the Apostles.
As thy representative and by thy favor has the power been granted especially to me by
God of binding and loosing in heaven and earth? On the strength of this, for the honor
and the glory of thy Church, in the name of the Almighty God, Father, Son, and Holy
Ghost, I withdraw, through thy power and authority, from Henry the King, son of
Henry the Emporor, who has arisen against thy church with unheard-of-insolence, the
rule over the whole kingdom of the Germans and over Italy. I absolve all Christians
from the bonds of the oath which they have sworn, or may swear, to him, and forbid
anyone to serve him as king.
Henry felt the weight of the Pope’s authority.His subjects rebelled and he
hastened to make amends.He met the Pope at Canossa, where for three days he had to,
stand before a closed door, barefoot and in ragged clothes, before Pope Gregory would
receive him.Henry’s power was ultimately broken, but not before Gregory, although
deprived of his power, held to his convictions. As he breathed his last, he is reputed to
have said, ”I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore I am left to die in exile”.

140
Later Phases of the Conflict. The investiture struggle did not end with the removal of
these two indomitable rulers.After a long controversy, a compromise was made in the
Concordat of Worms (1122).The Emperor was to allow the church to appoint the
bishops and abbots and renouce his claim to confer the crosier and the ring, but in a
separate ceremony he granted secular prerogatives to the newly appointed
churchmen.The spiritual rights were thus conferred by the church and the state granted
the coveted temporal privileges.The Concordat of Worms did not bring to an end the
struggle between the church and the state. Frederick I (1152-1190), king of Germany,
challenged the power of the papacy.He informed the Pope that the headship of the
empire had been “bestowed upon him by God” and that he felt no necessity of
obtaining the Pope”s permission for his actions. Frederick tried to extend his influence
in Italy as well as Germany, but met the determined opposition of the church and the
Lombard League. In 1176, they defeated Frederick and practically won their
independence.
Age of innocent III. Innocent III (1198-1216) was successful in stopping the inroads of
the state in the affairs of the church. He was virtually the arbiter of Europe during the
period he was in power. He intervened in Germany over the election of a king; he
forced John of England to submit to his authority; and at the Lateran Council (1215) he
called together the principal rulers, bishops, and abbots to discuss religious and
political problems. In spite of Innocent’s undisputed success, the church fought a losing
battle with the state.The prestige held by Innocent III was short duration and never,
after his time, did the church succeed in acquiring such power. In the long struggle, the
papacy made great inroads on the power of the emperor.German unity was destroyed
and the authority of the church was increased.
Decline of the Medieval Church.The church, both temporally and spiritually, reached its
greatest height under Innocent III.This pinnacle of power was of short duration. Six
months after the Fourth Lateran Council, Innocent III died. Signs of decay began to be
noticeable; as corruption and worldliness became increasingly evident among the
clergy.Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) displayed his vices without any attempt at
concealment. Bishops often were appointed from a group of nobleman whose interests
were political rather than religious; as a consequence, sees were neglected and the
church suffered. Even the monasteries showed marked signs of deterioration from
their lofty ideals.The wealth that they had accumulated permitted the abbots and
monks to enjoy luxurious living, residing in fine homes and entertaining on the scale of
wealthy noblemen.
The growth of nationalism and individualism, which had become apparent by
the close of the middle Ages, was detrimental to the power of the church. Doctrine,
however, continued to live, and in sofar as the Roman Catholic Church was concerned,
did not change materially.It should not be concluded that the church lost all its prestige.
Most of the people were deeply religious, and many reformers tried to remedy the
defects.A Dutch reformer, Groot (1340-1384), founded a society called the Brethren of
the Common Life, which emphasized education.Groot condemned many of the
practices in the church and declared, “To love God and worship Him is religion; not the
taking of special vows.”

141
 THE CRUSADES

The Crusades were a series of religiously-sanctioned military campaigns waged

by much of Latin Christian Europe, particularly the Franks of France and the Holy
Roman Empire.The specific crusades to restore Christian control of the Holy Land were
fought over a period of nearly 200 years, between 1095 and 1291. Other campaigns in
Spain and Eastern Europe continued into the 15th century.The Crusades were fought
mainly against Muslims, although campaigns were also waged against papga Slaves,
Jews, Russian and Greek Orthodox Christian, Mongols, Cthars, Hussites, Waldensians,
Old Prussians, and political enemies of the popes.Crusaders took vows and were
granted penance for past sins, often called an indulgence.
The Crusades originally had the goal of recapturing Jerusalem and the Holy
Land from Muslim rule and were launched in response to a call from the Christian
Byzantine Empire for help against the expansion of the Muslim Seljuk Turks into
Anatolia.The term is also used to describe contemporaneous and subsequent campaigns
conducted through to the 16t century in territries outside the Levant usually against
pagans, heretics, and peoples under the ban of excommunication for a mixture of
religious, economic, and political reasons.Rivalries among both Christian and Muslim
powers led also to alliances between religious factions against their opponents, such as
the Christian alliance with the Sultanate of Rum during the Fifth Crusades.
The Crusades had far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts, some of
which have lasted into contemporary times. Because of internal conflicts among
Christian kingdoms and political powers, some of the crusade expeditions were
diverted from their original aim, such as the Fourth Crusade, which resulted in the sack
of Christian Cnstantinople and the partition of the Byzantine Empire between Venice
and the Crusaders. The Sixth Crusade was the first crusade to set sail without the
official blessing of the Pope. The Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Crusades resulted in
Mamluk and Hafsid victories, as the Ninth Crusade marked the end of the Crusades in
the Middle East.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT
MIDDLE EASTERN SITUATION

The Holy Land is significant in Christianity because of the land’s association as

the place of birth, ministry, Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, who
Christians regard as the Saviour or Messiah. By the end of the 4 th century, following
Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity (313) and the founding of the
Byzantine Empire, the Holy Land had become a predominantly Christian
country.Churches commemorating various events in the life of Jesus, had been erected
at key sites.The Muslim presence in the Holy Land began with the initial Arab conquest
of Palestine in the 7th century.The Muslim armies’ successes put increasing pressure on
the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire.
Another factor that contributed to the change in Western attitudes towards the
East came in the year 1009, when the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim Bhakti-Amr Allah
ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In 1039 his successor, after
requiring large sums be paid for the right, permitted the Byzntine Empire to rebuilt

142
it.Pilgrimages were allowed to the Holy Lands before and after the Sepulchre was
rebuilt, but for a time pilgrims were captured and some of the clergy were killed.The
Muslim conquerors eventually realized that the wealth of Jerusalem came from the
pigrims; with this realization the persecution of pilgrims stopped. However, the
damage was already done, and the violence of the Seljuk Turks became part of the
concern that spread the passionfor the Crusades.

WESTERN EUROPEAN SITUATION

The origins of the Crusades lie in developments in Western Europe earlier in the
Middle Ages, as well as the deteriorating situation of the Byzantine Empire in the east
caused by a new wave ofTurkish Muslim attacks.The breakdown of the Carolingian
Empire in the late 9th century, combined with the relative stabilization of local European
borders after the Christianization of the Vikings, Slaves, and Magyars, had produced a
large class of armed warriors whose energies were misplaced fighting one another and
terrorizing the local populace.The Church tried to stem this violence with the Peace and
Truce of God movements, which was somewhat successful, but trained warriors always
sought an outlet for their skills, and opportunities for territorial expansion were
becoming less attractive for large segments of the nobility. One exception was the
Reconquista in Spain and Portugal, which at times occupied Iberian knights’, had some
mercenaries from elsewhere in Europe in the fight against the Islamic Moors. In 1063,
Pope Alexander II had given his blessing to Iberian Christians in their wars against the
Muslims, granting both a papal standard (the vexillum sancti Petri) and an indulgence
to those who were killed in battle. Pleas from the Byzantine Emperors, now threatened
by the Seljuks, thus fell on ready ears.These occurred in 1074, from Emperor Michael
VII to Pope Gregory VII and in 1095, from Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to Pope Urban
II. One source identifies Michael VII in Chinese records as a ruler of Byzantium (Fulin)
who sent an envoy to Song Dynasty China in 1081.A Chinese scholar suggests that this
and further Byzantine envoys in1091 were pleas for China to aid in the fight against the
Turks.
The Crusades were, in part, an outlet for an intense religious piety which rose
up in the late 11th century among the lay public. A crusader would, after pronouncing a
solemn vow, receive a cross from the hands of the pope or his legates, and was
thenceforth considered a “soldier of the Church”. This was partly because of the
Investiture Controversy, which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during
the First Crusade.As both sides of the Investiture Controversy tried to marshal public
opinion in their favor, people became personally engaged in a dramatic religious
controversy.The result was an awakening of intense Christian piety and public interest
in religious affairs, and was further strengthened by religious propaganda, which
advocated Just War in order to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims.The Holy Land
included Jerusalem (where the death, resurrection and ascension into heaven of Jesus
took place according to Christian theology) and Antioch (the first Christian city).
Further, the remission of sin was a driving factor and provided any God-fearing man
who had committed sins with an irresistible way out of eternal damnation in Hell.It
was a hotly debated issue throughout the Crusades as what exactly “remission of sin”
meant.Most believed that by retaking Jerusalem they would go straight to heaven after
death.However, much controversy surrounds exactly what was promised by other

143
popes of the time. One theory was that one had to die fighting for Jerusalem for the
remission to apply, which would hew more closely to what Pope Urban II said in his
speeches.This meant that if the Crusaders were successful, and retook Jerusalem, the
survivors would not be given remission.Another theory was that if one reached
Jerusalem, one would be relieved of the sins one had committed before the
Crusade.Therefore one could still be sentenced to Hell for sins committed afterwards.
All of these factors were manifested in the overwhelming popular support for the First
Crusade and the religious vitality of the 12th century.

IMMEDIATE CAUSE

The immediate cause of the First Crusade was the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I’s
appeal to Pope Urban II for mercenaries to help him resist Muslim advances into
territory of the Byzantine Empire.In 1071, at the Battle of Manzikert, the Byzantine
Empire was defeated, which led to the loss of all of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) save
the coastlands.Although attempts at reconciliation after the East-West Schism between
the Catholic Western Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church had failed. Alexius I
hoped for a positive response from Urban II and got it, although it turned out to be
more expansive and less helpful than he had expected. When the First Crusade
was preached in 1095, the Christian princes of Iberia been fighting their way out of the
mountains of Galicia and Asturias, the Basque Country and Navarre, with increasing
success, for about a hundred years.The fall of Moorish Toledo to the Kingdom of Leon
in1085 was a major victory, but the turning points of the Reconquista still lay in the
future. The disunity of Muslim emirs was an essential factor.
While the Reconquista was the most prominent example of European reactions
against Muslim conquests, it is not the only such example.The Norman adventurer
Robert Guiscard had conquered Calabria in 1057 and was holding what had
traditionally been Byzantine territory against the Muslims of Sicily.The maritime states
of Pisa, Genoa and Catalonia were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in Majorca
and Sardinia, freeing the coasts of Italy ad Catalonia from Muslim raids.Much earlier,
the Christian homelands of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, and so on had been
conquered by Muslim armies.This long history of losing territories to a religious enemy
created a powerful motive to respond to Byzantine Emperor Alexius I’s call for holy
war to defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands starting with Jerusalem.
The papacy of Pope Gregory VII had struggled with reservations about the
doctrinal validity of a holy war and the shedding of blood for the Lord and had, with
difficulty, resolved the question in favour of justified violence.More importantly to the
Pope, the Christians who made pilgrimages to the Holy Land were being
persecuted.Saint Augustine of Hippo, Gregory’s intellectual model, had justified the
use of force in the service of Christ in The City of God, and a Christian “just war” might
enhance the wider standing of an aggressively ambitious leader of Europe, as Gregory
saw himself.The northerners would be cemented to Rome, and their troublesome
knights could see the only kind of action that suited them.Previous attempts by the
church to stem such violence, such as the concept of the “Peace of God”, were not as
successful as hoped.To the south of Rome, Normans were showing how such energies
might be unleashed against both Arabs (in Sicily) and Byzantines (on the mainland).A

144
Latin hegemony in the Levant would provide leverage in resolving the Papacy’s claims
of supremacy over the Patriarch of Constantinople, which had resulted in the Great
Schism of 1054, a rift that might yet be resolved through the force of Frankish arms.
In the Byzantine homelnds, the Eastern Emperor’s weakness was revealed by the
disastrous defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which reduced the Empire’s Asian
territory to a region in western Antolia and around Constantinople.A sure sign of
Byzantine desperation was the appeal of Alexios I to his enemy, the Pope, for aid. But
Gregory was occupied with the Investiture Controversy and could not call on the
German Emperor, so a crusade never took shape.For Gregory’s more moderate
successor, Pope Urban II, a crusade would serve to reunite Christendom, bolster the
Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control.The disaffected Germans and the
Normans were not to be counted on,but the heart and backbone of a crusade could be
found in Urban’s own homeland among the northern French.

AFTER THE FIRST CRUSADE

On a popular level, the first Crusades uleashed a wave of impassioned,

personally felt pious Christian fury that was expressed in the masscres of Jews that
accompanied the movement of the Crusader mobs through Europe, as well as the
violent treatment of “schismatic” Orthodox Christians of the east.During many of the
attacks on Jews, local Bishops and Christians made attempts to protect Jews from the
mobs that were passing through.Jews were often offered sanctuary in churches and
other Christian buildings.In the 13th century, Crusades never expressed such a popular
fever, and after Acre fell for the last time in 1291 and the Occitan Cathars were
exterminated during the Albigensian Crusades, the crusading ideal became devalued
by Papal justifications of political and territorial aggressions within Catholic
Europe.The last crusading order ofknights to hold territory were the Knights
Hospitaller. After the final fall of Acre, they took control of the island of Rhodes, and in
the sixteenth century, were driven to Malta, before being finally unseated by Napoleon
Bonaparte in1798.

LIST

A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades totals nine during the 11 th to 13th
centuries.This division is arbitrary and excludes many important expeditions, among
them those of the 14th , 15th, and 16th centuries. In reality, the crusades continued until
the end of the 17th century, the crusade of Lepanto occurring in 1571, that of Hungary in
1664, and the crusade to Candia in 1669.The Knights Hosptaller continued to crusade in
the Mediterranean Sea around Malta until their defeat by Napolean in 1798. There were
frequent “minor” Crusades throughout this period, not only in Palestine but also in the
Iberian Peninsula and central Europe, against Muslims and also Christian heretics and
personal enemies of the Papacy or other powerful monarchs.

FIRST CRUSADE 1095-1099

In March 1095 at the Council of Piacenza, ambassadors sent by Byzantine Emperor

Alexius I called for help with defending his empire against the Seljuk Turks. Later that
year, at the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II called upon all Christians to join a war

145
against the Turks, promising those who died in the endeavor would receive immediate
remission of their sins.Following abortive popular crusades in early 1096, the official
crusader armies set off from France and Italy on the papally-ordained date of 15 August
1096.The armies journeyed eastward by land toward Constantinople, where they
received a wary welcome from the Byzantine Emperor. Pledging to restore lost
territories to the empire, the Crusaders were supplied and transported to Antolia where
they laid siege to Seljuk-occupied Nicea.The city fell on 19 June 1097.The Crusader
armies fought further battles against the Turks, facing grave deprivation of both food
and water in their summer crossing of Anatolia. The lengthy Siege of Antioch began in
October 1097 and endured until June of 1098.The ruler of Antioch was not sure how the
Christians living within his city would react, so he forced them to live outside the
citadel.The siege only ended when one of the gates to the city was betrayed by an
Armenian dissident.Once inside the city, as was standard military practice at the time,
the Crusaders massacred the Muslim inhabitants, destroyed mosques and pillaged the
city.Local Christians assassinated Yaghisiyan, former ruler of the city.However a large
Muslim relief army under Kerbogha immediately besieged the victorious Crusaders
within Antioch. Bohemund of Taranto led a successful break-out and defeat of
Kerbogha’s army on the 28th of June. The starving crusader army marched south,
moving from town to town along the coast, finally reaching the walls of Jerusalem on 7
June 1099 with only a fraction of their original forces.

SIEGE OF JERUSALEM

The Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the
invading Franks.They were unsuccessful though and on 15 July 1099 the Crusaders
entered the city.They proceeded to massacre the remaining Jewish and Muslim civilians
and pillaged or destroyed mosques and the city itself. One historian has written that
the “isolation, alienation and fear” felt by the Franks so far from home helps to explain
the atrocities they committed, including the cannibalism which was recorded after the
Siege of Maarat in 1098.As a result of the First Crusade, several small Crusader states
were created, notably the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In the Kingdom of Jerusalem at most
120,000 Franks (predominantly French-speaking Western Christians) ruled over 350,000
Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.The Crusaders also tried to gaincontrol of
the city of Tyre, but were defeated by the Muslims.The people of Tyre asked Zahir al-
Din Atabek, the leader of Damascus, for help defending their city from the Franks with
the promise to surrender Tyre to him. When the Franks were defeated the people of
Tyre did not surrender the city, but Zahir al-Din simply said “What I have done I have
done only for the sake of God and the Muslims, nor out of desire for wealth and
kingdom”.
After gaiig control of Jerusalem the Crusaders created four Crusader states: the
kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch and the
County of Tripoli. Initially, Muslims did very little about the Crusaders states due to
internal conflicts.Eventually, the Muslims began to reunite under the leadership of
Imad al-Din Zangi.He began by re-taking Edessa in 1144. It was the first city to fall to
the Crusaders; nd became the first to be recaptured by the Muslims.This led the Pope to
call for a second Crusade.

146
 CRUSADE OF 1101

Following this crusade there was a second, less successful wave of crusaders, in
which Turks led by Kilij Arslan defeated the Crusaders in three separate battles in a
well-managed response to the First Crusade.This is known as the Crusade of 1101 and
may be considered an adjunct of the First Crusade.

NORWEGIAN CRUSADE 1107-1110

Sigurd 1 of Norway was the first European king who went on a crusade and his
crusader armies defeated Muslims in Spain, the Baleares, and in Palestine where they
joined the king of Jerusalem in the Siege of Sidon.

SECOND CRUSADE 1147 – 1149

After a period of relative peace inwh Christians and Muslims co-existed in the
Holy Land, Muslims conquered the town of Edessa.A new crusade was called for by
various preachers, most notably by Bernard of Clairvaux. French and South German
armies, under the Kings Louis VII and Conrad III respectively, marched to Jerusalem in
1147 but failed to win any major victories, launching a failed pre-emptive siege of
Damascus, an independent city that would soon fall into the hands of Nur ad-Din, the
main enemy of the Crusaders.On the other side of the Mediterranean, however, the
Second Crusade met with great success as a group of Northern European Crusaders
stopped in Portugal, allied with the Portuguese King, Afons I of Portugal, and retook
Lisbon from the Muslims in 1147.A detachment from this group of crusaders helped
Count Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona conquer the city of Tortosa the following
year.In the Holy Land by 1150, both the kings of France and Germany had returned to
their countries without any result.St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who in his preachings had
encouraged the Second Crusade, was upset with the amount of misdirected violence
and slaughter of the Jewish population of the Rhineland.North Germans andDanes
attacked the Wends during the 1147 Wendish Crusade, which was unsuccessful as well.

THIRD CRUSADE 1187 – 1192

In 1187, Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, conquered Jerusalem after nearly a century under
Christian rule, following the Battle of Hattin. After the Christians surrendered the city,
Saladin spared the civilians and for the most part left churches and shrines untouched
to be able to collect ransome money from the Franks.Several thousand apparently were
not redeemed and probably were sold into slavery.Saldin is remembered respectfully in
both European and Islamic sources as a man who “always stuck to his promise and was
loyal”.The reports of Saladin’s victories shocked Europe.Pope Gregory VIII called for a
crusade, which was led by several of Europe’s most important leaders: Philip II of
France, Richard I of England (aka Richard the Lionheart), and Frederick I, Hly Roman
Emperor.Frederick drowned in Cilicia in 1190, leaving an unstable alliance between the
English and the French. Before his arrival in the Holy Land, Richard captured the island
of Cyprus from the Byzantines in1191.Cyprus would serve as a Crusader base for
centuries to come, and would remain in Western European hands until the Ottoman
Empire conquered the island from Venice in1571.After a long siege, Richard the

147
Lionheart recaptured the city of Acre and took the entire Muslim garrison under
captivity, which was executed after a series of failed negotiations. Philip left, in 1191,
after the Crusaders had recaptured Acre from the Muslims. The Crusader army headed
south along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. They defated the Muslims near Arsuf,
recaptured the port city of Jaffa, and were in sight of Jerusalem.However, Richrd did
not believe he would be able to hold Jerusalem once it was captured, as the majority of
Crusaders would then return to Europe, and the crusade ended without the taking of
Jerusalem. Richard left the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin.The
treaty allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims to make pilgrimages to the Holy Land
(Jerusalem), while it remained under Muslim control.

On Richard’sway home, his ship was wrecked and he ended up in Austria,

where his enemy, Duke Leopold, captured him.The Duke delivered Richard to the
Emperor Henry VILLAGE, who held the King for ransom. By 1197, Henry felt ready for
a crusade, but he died in the same year of malaria. Richard I died during fighting in
Europe and never returned to the Holy Land.The Third Crusade is sometimes referred
to as the Kings’ Crusade.

FOURTH CRUSADE 1202 – 1204

The Fourth Crusade was initiated in 1202 by Pope Innocent III, with the intention of
invading the Holy Land through Egypt.Because the Crusaders lacked the funds to pay
for the fleet and provisions that they had contracted from the Venetians, Doge Enrico
Dandolo enlisted the crusaders to restore the Christian city of Zara (Zadar) to
obedience.Because they subsequently lacked provisions and time on their vessel lease,
the leaders decided to go to Constantinople, where they attempted to place a Byzantine
exile on the throne.After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the
Crusaders sacked the city in 1204, and established the so-called Latin Empire and a
series of other Crusader states throughout the territories of the Greek Byzantine
Empire.This is often seen as the final breaking point of the Great Schism between the
Eastern Orthodox Church and (Western) Roman Catholic Church.

ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE

The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars of
Occitania (the south of modern-day France). It was a decade-long struggle that had as
much to do with the concerns of Northern France to extend its control southwards as it
did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France
were exterminated.

CHILDREN’S CRUSADE

The Children’s Crusade is a series of possibly fictitious or misinterpreted events of

1212.The story s that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of
children in France and Germany, which Pope Innocent III interpreted as a reproof from
heaven to their unworthy elders.The leader of the French army, Stephen, led 30,000
children.The leader of the German army, Nicholas, led 7,000 children. None of the
children actually reached the Holy Land; those who did not return home or settle along

148
the route to Jerusalem either died from shipwreck or hunger, or were sold into slavery
in Egypt or North Africa.

FIFTH CRUSADE 1217- 1221

By processions, prayers, and preching, the Church attempted to set another

crusade afoot, and the Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) formulated a plan for the
recovery of the Holy Land. In the first phase, a crusading force from Austria and
Hungary joined the forces of the king of Jerusalem and the prince of Antioch to take
back Jerusalem.In the secnd phase, crusader forces achieved a remarkable feat in the
capture of Damietta in Egypt in 1219, but under the urgent insistence of the papal
legate, Pelagius, they then launched a foolhardy attack on Cairo in July of 1221.The
crusaders were turned back after their dwindling supplies led to a forced retreat.A
night-time attack by the ruler of Egypt, the powerful Sultan Al-Kamil, resulted in a
great number of crusader losses and eventually in the surrender of the army. Al-Kamil
agreed to an eight-year peace agreement with Europe.

SIXTH CRUSADE 1228 – 1229

Emperor Frederick II had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to his
words, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX in 1228. He nonetheless
set stail from Brindisi, landed in Palestine, and through diplomacy he achieved
unexpected success: Jrusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem were delivered to the
crusaders for a period of ten years. In 1229 after failing to conquer Egypt,
Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire, made a peace treaty with Al-Kamil, the ruler of
Egypt.This treaty allowed Christians to rule overmost of Jerusalem, while the Muslims
were given control of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aksa mosque. The peace
brought about by this treaty lasted for about ten years.Many of the Muslims though
were not happy with Al-Kamil for giving up control of Jerusalem and in 1244, following
a siege, the Muslims regained control of the city.

SEVENTH CRUSADE 1248 – 1254

The papal interests represented by the Templars brought on a conflict with

Egypt in 1243, and in the following year a Khwrezmian force summoned by the latter
stormed Jerusalem.The crusaders were drawn into battle at La Forbie in Gaza.The
crusader army and its Bedouin mercenaries were completely defeted within forty-eight
hours by Baibars’ force of Khwarezmian tribesmen.This battle is considered by many
historians to have been the death knell to the Kingdom of Outremer.Although this
provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 had done,
Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254, leaving from
the newly constructed port of Aigues-Mortes in southern France.It was a failure, and
Louis spent much of the crusade living at the court of the crusader kingdom in Acre.In
the midst of this crusade was the first Shepherds’ Crusade in 1251.

149
 EIGHTH CRUSADE 1270

The eighth Crusade was organized by Louis IX in 1270, again siling from Aigues-
Mortes, initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the crusader states in
Syria.However, the crusade was diverted to Tunis, where Louis spent only two months
before dying.For this effort, Louis was later canonised. The Eighth Crusade is
sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades are counted as a
single crusade.The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth.

NINTH CRUSADE 1271 – 1272

The future Edward I of England undertook another expedition against Baibars in

1271, after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. Louis died inTunisia.The
Ninth Crusade was deemed a failure and ended the Crusadesin the Middle East.In their
later years, faced with the threat of the Egyptian Mamluks, the Crusaders’ hopes rested
with a Franco-Mongol alliance.The Ilkhanate’s Mongols were thought to be sympathetic
to Christianity, and the Frankish princes were most effective in gathering their help,
engineering their invasions of the Middle East on several occasions. Although the
Mongols successfully attacked as far south as Damascus on these campaigns, the ability
to effectively coordinate with Crusades from the west was repeatedly frustrated most
notably at the Battle of Ain Jalut in1260. The Mamluks, led by Baibars, eventually made
good their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the Franks.With the fall of
Antioch (1268), Tripoli (1289), and Acre (1291), those Christians unable to leave the
cities were massacred or enslaved and the last traces of Christian rule in the Levant
disappeared.

AFTERMATH

The island of Ruad, three kilometers from the Syrian shore, was occupied for
several years by the Knights Templar but was ultimately lost to the Mamluks in the
Siege ofRuad on September 26, 1302.The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, which was not
itself a crusader state, ad was not Latin Christian, but was closely associated with the
crusader sttes and was ruled by the Latin Christian Lusignan dynasty for its last 34
years, survived until 1375.Other echoes of the crusader states survived for longer, but
well away from the Holy Land itself.The Knights of St John carved out a new territory
based on the Aegean island of Rhodes, which they ruled until 1522.Cyprus remained
under the rule of the House of Lusignan until 1474/89 (the precise date depends on
how Venice’s highly unusual takeover is iterpreted – see Caterina Cornro) and
subsequently that of Venice until 1570. By this time the Knights of St John had moved to
Malta – even further from the Holy Land – which they ruled until 1798.

NORTHERN CRUSADES (BALTIC AND GERMANY)

The Crusades in the Baltic Sea area and in Central Europe were efforts by
(mostly German) Christians to subjugate and convert the peoples of these areas to
Christianity.These Crusades ranged from the 12th century, contemporaneous with the
Second Crusade, to the 16th century.Contemporaneous with the Second Crusade,
Saxons and Danes fought against Polabian Slaves in the 1147 Wendish Crusade. In the

150
13th century, the Teutonic Knights led Germans, Poles, and Pomeranians against the
Old Prussians during the Prussian Crusade.In 1198 German Crusaders started Livonian
Crusade. Despite numerous setbacks and rebellions, by 1290 Livonians, Latgalians,
Selonians, Estonians (including Oeselians), Curonians andSemigllians had been all
gradually subjugated.Denmark and Sweden also paprticipated in fight against
Estonians.

Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the Stedingers. This crusade
was special, because the Stedingers were not heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman
Catholics.They were free Frisian farmers who resented attempts of the count of
Oldenburg and the archbishop Bremen-Hamburg to make and end to their
freedoms.The archbishop excommunicated them, and Pope Gregory IX declared a
crusade in 1232. The Stedingers were defeated in 1234.The Teutonic Order’s attempts
toconquer Orthodox Russia (particularly the Republics of Pskov and Novgorod), an
enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX, can also be considered as a part of the
Northern Crusades. One of the major blows for the idea of the conquest of Russia was
the Battle of the Ice in 1242.With or without the Pope’s blessing; Sweden also undertook
several crusades against Orthodox Novgorod.

OTHER CRUSADE AGAINST THE TATARS

In 1259 Mongols led by Burundai and Nogai Khan ravaged the principality of
Halych-Volynia, Lithuania and Poland.After that Pope Alexander IV tried without
success to create a crusade against the Blue Horde.In the 14th century, Khan
Tokhtamysh combined the Blue ad White Hordes forming the Golden Horde.It seemed
that the power of the Golden Horde had begun to rise, but in1389, Tokhtamysh made
the disastrous decisin of waging war on his former master, the great
Tamerlane.Tamerlane’s hordes rampaged through southern Russia, crippling the
Golden Horde’s economy and practically wiping out its defenses in those lands.
After losing the war, Tokhtamysh was then dethroned by the party of Khan and
Emir Edigu, supported by Tamerlane.When Tokhtamysh asked Vytautas the Great for
assistance in retaking the Horde, the latter readily gathered a huge army which
included Lithuanians, Ruthenians, Russians, Mongols, Moldavians, Poles, Romanians
and Teutonic Knights.In 1398, the huge army moved from Moldavia and conquered the
southern steppe all the way to the Dnieper River and Northern Crimea.Inspired by
their great successes, Vytautas declared a “Crusade against the Tatars’ with Papal
backing.Thus, in 1399, the army of Vytautas once again moved on the Horde. His army
met the Horde’s at the Vorskla River, slightly inside Lithuanian territory.
Although the Lithuanian army was well equipped with cannon, it could not
resist a rear attack from Edigu’s reserve units. Vytautas hardly escaped alive. Many
princes of his kin – possibly as many as 20 – were killed (for example, Stefan Musat,
Prince of Moldavia and two of his brothers, while a fourth was badly injured), and the
victorious Tatars besiegedKiev.“And the Christian blood flowed like water, up to the
Kievan walls”, as one chronicler put it. Meanwhile, Temur Kutlugh died from the
wounds received in the battle, and Tokhtamysh was killed by one of his own men.

151
 CRUSADES IN THE BALKANS

To counter the expanding Ottoman Empire, several crusades were launched in the
15thcentury.The most notable are:
 the Crusade of Nicopolis (1396) organized by Sigismund of Luxemburg king of
Hungary culminated in the Battle of Nicopolis
 the Crusade of Varna (1444) led by the Polish-Hungarian king Wladyslaw
Warnenezyk ended in the Battle of Varna
 and the Crusade of 1456 organized to lift the Siege of Belgrade led by John
Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano
Aragonese Crusade
The Aragonese Crusade, or Crusade of Aragon, was declared by Pope Martin IV
against the King of Aragon, Peter III the Great, in 1284 and 1285.
Alexandrian Crusade
The Alexandrian Crusade of October 1365 was a minor seaborne crusade against
Muslim Alexandria led by Peter I of Cyprus.His motivation was at least as commercial
as religious.
Hussite Crusade
The Hussite Crusade(s), also known as the “Hussite Wars”, or the “Bohemian
Wars”, involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of Jan Hus in
Bohemia in the period 1420 to circa 1434.The Hussite Wars were arguably the first
European war in which hand-held gunpowder weapons such as muskets made a
decisive contribution.The Taborite faction of the Hussite warriors were basically
infantry, and their many defeats of larger armies with heavily armoured knights helped
affect the infantry revolution. In the end, it was an inconclusive war.
Swedish Crusades
The Swedish conquest of Finland in the Middle Ages has traditionally been
divided into three “crusades”; the First Swedish Crusade around 1155 AD, the Second
Swedish Crusade about 1249 AD and the Third Swedish Crusade in 1293 AD.The First
Swedish Crusade is purely legendary, and according to most historians today, never
took place as described in the legend and did not result in any ties between Finland and
Sweden.For the most part, it was made up in the late 13 th century to date the Swedish
rule in Finland further back in time. No historical record has also survived describing
the second one, but it probably did take place and ended up in the concrete conquest of
southwestern Finland.The third one was against Novgorod, and is properly
documented by both parties of the conflict. According to archaeological finds, Finland
was largely Christian already before the said crusades. Thus the “crusades” can rather
be seen asordinary expeditions of conquest whose main target was territorial gain.The
expeditions were dubbed as actual crusades only in the 19 th century by the national –
romanticist Swedish and Finnish historians.

152
Analysis
Elements of the Crusades were criticized by some from the time of their
inception in 1095. For example, Roger Bacon felt the Crusades were not effective
because, “those who survive, together with their children, are more and more
embittered against the Christian faith. In spite of such criticism, the movement was
widely supported in Europe long after the fall of Acre in 1291. Historians agree that St.
Francis of Assisi crossed enemy lines to meet the Sultan of Egypt.Hoeberichts cast
doubt on the intentions most Christian historians assign to Francis.From the fall of Acre
forward, the Crusades to recover Jerusalem and the Christian East were largely
lost.Later, 18th century Enlightenment thinkers judged the Crusaders harshly.Likewise,
some modern historians in the West expressed moral outrage. In the 1950s, Sir Steven
Runciman wrote a resounding condemnation:“High ideals were besmirched by cruelty
and greed……the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the
name of God”.
Historical perspective
Western and Eastern historiography present variously different views on the
crusades, in large part because “crusade” invokes dramatically opposed sets of
associations – “crusade” as a valiant struggle for a supreme cause, and “crusade” as a
by word for barbrism and aggression.

LEGACY
POLITICS AND CULTURE

The Crusades had an enormous influence on the European Middle Ages. At

times, much of the continent was united under a powerful Papacy, but by the 14 th
century, the development of centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern
nation-state) was well on its way in France, England, Spain, Burgundy, and Portugal,
and partly because of the dominance of the church at the beginning of the crusading
era.Although Europe had been exposed to Islamic culture for centuries through
contacts in Iberian Peninsula and Sicily, much knowledge in areas such as science,
medicine, and architecture was transferred from the Islamic to the western world
during the crusade era.
The military experiences of the crusades also had a limited degree of influence on
European castle design; for example, Caernarfon Castle, in Wales, begun in 1283,
directly reflects the style of fortresses Edward I had observed while fighting in the
Crusades.In addition, the Crusades are seen as having opened up European culture to
the world, especially Asia:The Crusades brought about results of which the popes had
never dreamed, and which were perhaps the most, important of all.They re-established
traffic between the East and West, which, after having been suspended for several
centuries, was then resumed with even greater energy; they were the means of bringing
from the depths of their respective provinces and introducing into the most civilized
Asiatic countries Western knights, to whom a new world was thus revealed, and who
returned to their native land filled with novel ideas…. If, indeed, the Christian
civilization of Europe has become universal culture, in the highest sense, the glory
redounds, in no small measure, to the Crusades”.

153
 Along with trade, new scientific discoveries and inventions made their way east
or west. Arab advances (including the development of algebra, optics, and
refinementof engineering) made their way west and sped the course of advancement in
European universities that led to the Renaissance in later centuries.The invasions of
German crusaders prevented formation of the large Lithuanian state incorporating all
Bltic nations nd tribes.Lithuania was destined to become a small country and forced to
expand to the East looking for resources to combt the crusaders. The Northern
Crusades caused great loss of life among the pagan Polabian Slaves, and they
consequently offered little opposition to German colonization (known as Ostsiedlung)
of the Elbe-Oder region and were gradually assimilated by the Germans, with the
exception of Sorbs.The First Crusade ignited a long travellers of organized violence
against Jews in European culture.

TRADE

The need to rise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade
throughout Europe. Roads largely unused since the days of Rome saw significant
increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons.This was not only
because the Crusades prepared Europe for travel, but also because many wanted to
travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East.This also aided in
the beginning of the Renaissance inItaly, as various Italian city-sttes from the very
beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in
the Holy Land and later in captured Byzantine territory.Increased trade brought many
things to Europeans that were once unknown or extremely rare and costly.These goods
included a variety of spices, ivory, jade, diamonds, improved glass-manufacturing
techniques, early forms of gun powder, oranges, apples, and other Asian crops, and
many other products.
From a larger perspective, and certainly from that of noted naval/maritime
historian Archibald Lewis, the Crusades must be viewed as part of a massive
macrohistorical event during which Western Europe, primarily by its ability in naval
warfare, amphibious siege, and maritime trade, was able to advance in all spheres of
civilization.Recovering from the Dark Ages of AD 700-1000, throughout the 11th century
Western Europe began to pushthe boundariesof the civilization. Prior to the First
Crusade the Italian city-state of Venice, along with the Byzantine Empire, had cleared
the Adriatic Sea of Islamic pirates, and loosened the Islamic hold on the Mediterranean
Sea (Byzantine-Muslim War of 1030-1035).The Normans, with the assistance of the
Italian city-states of Genoa and Pisa, had retaken Sicily from the Muslims from 1061-
1091.These conflicts prior to the First Crusade had both retaken Western European
territory and weakened the Islamic hold on the Mediterranean, allowing for the rise of
Western European Mediterranean trading and naval powers such as the Sicilian
Normans and the Italian city-states of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa.
During the Middle Ages, the key trading region of Western Europe was the
Black Sea-Mediterranean Sea-Red Sea.It was the aforementioned pre-First Crusade
actions, along with the Crusades themselves, which allowed Western Europe to contest
the trade of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, for a period which began in the 1000s
and would only be ended by the Turkish Ottoman Empire beginning in the mid-to-late

154
1400s.This Western European contesttion of vital sea lanes allowed the economy of
Western Europe to advance to previously unknown degrees, most obviously as regards
the Maritime Republics of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa. Indeed, it is no coincidence that the
Renaissance began in Italy, as the Maritime Republics, through their control of the
Eastern Mediterranean and Black Seas were able to return to Italy the ancient
knowledge of the Greeks and Romans, as well as the products of distant East Asia.
Combined with the Mongol Empire, Western Europe traded extensively with
East Asia, the security of the Mongol Empire allowing the products of Asia to be
brought to such Western European controlled ports as Acre, Antioch, Kaffa (on the
Black Sea) and even, for a time,Constantinople itself.The Fifth Crusade of 1217-1221 and
the Seventh Crusade of 1248-1254 were largely attempts to secure Western European
control of the Red Sea trade region, as both Crusades were directed against Egypt, the
power base of the Ayyubid, and then Mameluke, Sultanates.It was only in the 1300s, as
the stability of trade with Asia collapsed with the Mongol Empire, the Mamelukes
destroyed the Middle Eastern Crusader States, and the rising Ottoman Empire impeded
further Western European trade with Asia, that Western Europeans sought alternate
trade routes to Asia, ultimately leading toe Columbus’s voyage of 1492.

CAUCASUS

In the Caucasus Mountains of Georgia, in the remote highland region of

Khevsureti, a tribe called the Khevsurs is thought to possibly be direct descendants of a
party of crusaders who got separated from a larger army and have remained in
isolation with some of the crusader culture intact. Into the 20 th century, relics of armor,
weaponry and chain mail were still being used and passed down in such
communities.Russian serviceman and ethnographer Arnold Zisserman who spent 25
years (1842-67) in the Caucasus, believed the exotic group of Georgian highlanders
were descendants of the last Crusaders based on their customs, language, art and other
evidence. American traveler Richard Halliburton saw and recorded the customs of the
tribe in 1935.

ETYMOLOGY AND USAGE

The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants.The original

crusaders were known by various terms, including fideless Sancti Petri (the faithful of
Saint Peter) or milites Christi (knights of Christ).They saw themselves as undertaking
an iter, a journey, or a peregrinatio, a pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually
forbidden from carrying arms.Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a votus), to be
fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (crux)
to be sewn into their clothes.This “taking of the cross”, the crux, eventually became
associated with the entire journey; the word “crusade” (coming into English from the
Medieval French and Spanish cruzada) developed from this.
SUNNI-SHIA CONFLICTS
Sunni and Shī’ah are the two major denominations of Islam.The demographic
breakdown the two groups is difficult to assess and varies by source, but a good
approximation is that 85% of the world’s Muslims are Sunni, and 15% are Shī’a, with

155
most Shī’a is belonging to the Twelver tradition and the rest divided between several
other groups.Shī’a is make up the majority of the population in Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan
and Bahrain, and they are the largest religious group in Lebanon.Sunnis are a majority
in other Muslim communities in South East Asia, China, South Asia, Africa and the rest
of the Arab world.The historic background of the Sunni – Shīa split lies in the schism
that occurred when the Islamic prophet Muhammad died in the year 632 (AD), leading
to a dispute over succession to Muhammad as a caliph of the Islamic community spread
across various parts of the world.
Over the years Sunni-Shī’ah relations have been marked by both cooperation and
conflict, with conflict predominating.A period of relative harmony during most of the
20th century has been replaced by conflict.Today there are differences in religious
practice, traditions and customs as well as religious belief.

DIFFERENCES IN BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

Sunnis hold that Abu Bakr was Muhammad’s rightful successor and that the
method of choosing or electing leaders (Shura) endorsed by the Qur’an is the consensus
of the Ummah, (the Muslim community).Shī’īs believe that Muhammad divinely
ordained his cousin and son-in-law Ali (the father of his grandsons Hasan ibn Ali and
Husayn ibn Ali) in accordance with the command of God to be the next Caliph, making
‘Ali and his direct descendants Muhammad’s successors.Sunnis follow the Rashidun
“rightly-guided Caliphs”, who were the first four caliphs who ruled after the death of
Muhammad: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali. Shī’is discount the
legitimacy of the first three caliphs and believe that ‘Ali is the second-most divinely
inspired man (after Muhammad) and that he and his descendants by Muhammad’s
daughter Fatimah, the Imams are the sole legitimate Islamic leaders.
The Imamate of the Shi’ah encompasses far more of a prphetic function than the
Caliphate of the Sunnis.Unlike Sunni, Shī’is believe special spiritual qualities have been
granted not only to the Prophet Muhammad but also to ‘Ali and the other
Imams.Twelvers believe the imams are immaculate from sin and human error (ma
’sum), and can understand and interpret the hidden inner meaning of the teachings of
Islam. In this way the Imams are trustees (wasi) who bear the light of Muhammad
(Nur Muhammadin).
Mahdi
The Shī’ah and some Sunnis differ on the nature of the Mahdi.Shī’is as well as many
Sunnis, particularly Sufi Sunnis, believe that the Mahdi will appear at end times to
bring about a perfect and just Islamic society.The Twelver believe the Mahdi will be
Muhammad al-Mahdi, the twelfth Imam returned from the Occultation, where he has
been hidden by God since 874 CE.In contrast, mainstream Sunnis believe the Mahdi
will be named Muhammad, be a descendant of the Prophet and will revive the faith,
but will not necessarily be connected with the end of the world.
Ahadith
The Shī’is accept some of the same hadiths used by Sunnis as part of the sunnah to
argue their case.In addition, they consider the sayings of Ahl al-Bayt that are not
attributed directly to the Prophet as hadiths.Some Sunni-accepted hadith are less

156
favored by Shi’is; one example is that because of ‘A’ishah’s opposition to ‘Alī, hadith
narrated by ‘A’ishah are not given the same authority as those by other companions.
Emphasis
Mainstream Sunnism has been said to be “about” Sharia, sacred law. In contrast, the
Shī’ah also follow Islamic law with great “vigilance”, but their belief is not defined by
law but emphasises “rituals, passion and drama”.
Shī’Islam and Sufism
Shī’ism and Sunni Sufism are said to share a number of hallmarks: Belief in an inner
meaning to the Quran; special status for some mortals (saints for Sufi, Imams for Shī’īs);
belief in intermediaries between man and God, veneration of ‘Alī and Prophet’s family.
Practices
Many distinctions can be made between Sunnis and Shī’īs through observation alone:
Salah
When prostrating during ritual prayer (Salah), Shī’īs place their forehead onto a piece
of naturally-occurring material, often a clay tablet (mohr), soil (turbah) or at times sand
from Karbala, the place where Imam Hussain was martyred, instead of directly onto a
prayer mat.There is precedence for this in Sunni thought, as it is recommended not to
prostrate on a non-natural surface.The Shī’ah perform prayers back to back, sometimes
worshipping two times consecutively (1+2+2 i.e. fajr + Dhuhr with A sr + Maghrib with
Isha’a), thus praying at three separate times, instead of five as required by Sunni
schools of law.Shī’īs and the followers of the Sunni Maliki school hold their hands at
their sides during prayer; Sunnis of other schools cross their arms (right over left) and
clasp their hands, although it is commonly held by Sunni scholars that either is
acceptable.
Mutah
The Shī’ah permit mutah – fixed-term temporary marriage – which is not acceptable
within the Sunni community.Mutah is not the same as Misyar marriage, which has no
date of expiration and is permitted by some Sunnis. A Misyar marriage differs from a
conventional Islamic marriage in that the man does not have financial responsibility
over the woman by her own free will.
Hijab and dress
Devout women of the Shī’ah traditionally wear black as do male religious
leaders.Mainstream Shī’a and Sunni women wear the hijab differently. Mainstream
Sunni women cover around the perimeter of the face but only to below their chin, thus
the protuberance of the chin shows. Shīa is believed that the hijab must cover around
the perimeter of the face and up to the chin. Some Shī’ī women, such as those in Iran
and Iraq, use the black chador to cover half of their face or chin by their hands when in
public.

157
Given names
Shī’īs often recognizable by their names which are often derived from the proper
names or titles of saints.Shī’Vs who trace their ancestry back to ‘Alī and Fatimah carry
the title Sayyid.
History-Abbasid era
The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 (CE) by a new dynasty, the Abbasids.The
first Abbasid caliph, as Saffah, recruited Shī’īs support in his campaign against the
Umayyads by emphasizing his blood relationship to the Prophet’s household through
descent from his uncle.Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib.The Shī’ah also believe that he
promised them that the Caliphate, or at least religious authority would be vested in the
Shī’ī Imam.As-Saffah assumed both the temporal and religious mantle of Caliph
himself.He continued the Umayyad dynastic practice of succession, and his brother al-
Mansur succeeded him in 754.The sixth Shī’ī Imam died during al-Mansur’s reign, and
there were claims that he was murdered on the orders of the caliph. (However,
Abbasid persecution of Islamic lawyers was not restricted to the Shia. Abu Hanifah, for
example was imprisoned by al-Mansur and tortured).
Shī’ī sources further claim that by the orders of the tenth Abassid caliph, al-
Mutawakkil, the tomb of the third Imam, Husayn ibn Ali in Karbala, was completely
demolished, and Shī’īs were sometimes beheaded in groups,buried alive, or even plced
alive within the walls of government buildings still under construction.The Shī’ah
believe tht their community continued to live for the most part in hiding and followed
their religious life secretly without external manifestations.
Post-Abbasid era
Attacks on Shī’Islam grew even sharper after the Mongol sack of Baghdad and the
destruction of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258. Vali Nasr also credits the influential Sunni
jurist Ibn Taymiyyah with being instrumental in developing the theological foundation
for the belief that Shī’Islam is a heresy, and for generally “setting the tone for much of
the sectarian conflict” between the two groups.
Shī’ī-Sunni in Iraq
Many Shī’ī Iranians migrated to what is now Iraq in the sixteenth century. “It is said
that when modern Iraq was formed, 75% of the population of Karbala was Iranian”. In
time, these immigrants adopted the Arabic language and Arab identity, but their origin
has been used to “unfairly cast them as lackeys of Iran.Other Iraqi Shī’are ethnic Arabs
with roots in Iraq as deep as those of their Sunni counterparts.
Shī’a-Sunni in Persia
Sunnism was the dominant form of Islam in most of Iran until rise of the Safavid
Empire although significant undercurrents of Ismailism ad very small minorities of
Twelvers were present in the north. Many scholars and scientists who lived before the
Safavid era, such as A vicenna, Geber, Alhacen, Al-Farabi and Nasīr ad-Dīn at-Tūsī,
were Shī’ī Muslims of both the Ismaili and Twelver traditions (some indistinguishably
so, such as at Tūsī), as was most of Iran’s elite.There were many Sunni scientists and
scholars as well, such as Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.Nizamiyyas were the medieval
institutions of Islamic higher education established by Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk in the

158
eleventh century.Nizamiyyah institutes were the first well-organized universities in the
Muslim world.The most famous and celebrated of all the nizamiyyah schools was Al-
Nizamiyya of Baghdad (established 1065), where Nizam al-Mulk appointed the
distinguished philosopher and theologian, al-Ghazali, as a professor.Other Nizamiyyah
schools were locted in Nishapur, Balkh, Herat and Isfahan.
The Sunni hegemony did not undercut the Shī’ī presence in Iran.The writers of the
Shī’ī Four Books were Iranian, as were many other great scholars. According to
Mortaza Motahhari, The majority of Iranians turned to Shi’ism from the Safawid period
onwards.Of course; it cannot be denied that Iran’s environment was more favourable to
the flourishing of the Shi’ism as compared to all other parts of the Muslim world.
Shi’ism did not penetrate any land to the extent that it gradually could inIran.With the
passage of time, Iranians’ readiness to practice Shi’ism grew day by day. Had Shi’ism
not been deeply rooted in the Iranian spirit, the Safawids (907-1147/1501-1732) would
not have succeeded in converting Iranians to the Shi’a creed and making them follow
the Prophet’s Ahl al-Bayt sheerly by capturing political power.
The Shī’ah in Iran before the Safavids
The domination of the Sunni creed during the first nine Islamic centuries
characterized the religious history of Iran during this period.There were however some
exceptions to this general domination which emerged in the form of the Zaydīs of
Tabaristan, The Buwayhid, the rule of Sultan Muhammad Khudabandah (r. 1304-1316
CE) and the Sarbedaran. Nevertheless, apart from this domination there existed, firstly,
throughout these nine centuries, Shī’ī inclinations among many Sunnis of this land and,
secondly, Twelver and Zaydī Shī’ism had prevalence in some parts of Iran. During this
period, the Shī’ah in Iran were nourished from Kufah, Baghdad and later from Najaf
and Hillah. Shī’ī were dominant in Tabaristan, Qom, Kashan, Avaj and Sabzevar. In
many other areas the population of Shī’īs and Sunni was mixed.
The first Zaydī state ws established in Daylaman and Tabaristn (Northern Iran)
in 864 C.E. by the Alavids; it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the
Samanids in 928 CE.Roughly forty years later the state ws revived in Gilan (north-
western Iran) and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE. After which from the
12th-13th centuries, the Zaidis of Daylaman, Gilan and Tabaristan then acknowledge the
Zaidi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaidi Imams within Iran. The Buyids, who were
Zaydī and had a significant influence not only in the provinces of Persia but also in the
capital of the caliphte in Baghdad, and even upon the caliph himself, provided a unique
opportunity for the spread and diffusion of Shī’ī thought.This spread of Shī’ism to the
inner circles of the government enabled the Shī’ah to withstand those who opposed
them by relying upon the power of the Caliphate.
Twelvers came to Iran from Arab regions in the course of four stages.First,
through the Asharis tribe at the end of the seventh (CE) and during the eighth
century.Second through the pupils of Sabzevar, and especially those of Shaykh Mufid,
who were from Ray and Sabzawar and resided in those cities. Third, through the
school of Hillah under the leadership of Allama Hilli and his son Fakhr al-
Muhaqqiqin.Fourth, through the scholars of Jabal Amel residing in that region, or in
Iraq, during the 16th ad 17th centuries who later migrated to Iran.On the other hand, the
Ismaili da’wah (“missionry institution”) sent missionaries (du ‘āt, sg. Dā’ī) during the

159
Fatimid Caliphte to Persia.When the Ismailis divided into twosects, Nizaris established
their base in Northern Persia. Hassan-I Sabbah conquered fortresses and captured
Alamut in 10190 CE. Nizaris used this fortress until the Mongols finally seized and
destroyed it in 1256 CE.
After the Mongols and the fall of the Abbasids, the Sunni ulema suffered
greatly.In addition to the destruction of the caliphate there was no official Sunni school
of Law.Many libraries and madrasahs were destroyed and Sunni scholars migrated to
other Islamic areas such as Anatolia and Egypt. In contrast, most Shī’ah were largely
unaffected as their ceter was not in Iran at this time.For the first time, the Shī’ah could
openly convert other Muslims to their movement.Several local Shī’ī dynasties like the
Marashi and Sarbadars were established during this time.The kings of the Aq Qöyünlü
and Qara Qöyünlü dynasties ruled in Tabriz with a domain extending to Fars and
Kerman.In Egypt the Fatimid government ruled (al-Ka-military of Ibn Athir, Cairo,
1348; Raudat al-safa’; and Habib al-siyar of Khwnd Mir).
Shah Muhammad Khudabandah, the famous bulder of Soltaniyeh, was among
the first of theMongols to convert to Shī’ism and his descendants ruled for many years
in Persia and were instrumental in spreading Shī’ī thought.Sufism played a major role
inspread of Shī’ism in this time.After the Mongol invasion Shiims and Sufism once
again formed a close association in many ways.Some of the Ismailis whose power had
broken by the Mongols, went underground and appeared later within Sufi orders or as
new branches of already existing orders.In Twelve-Imam Shiism also from 13th to the
16th century Sufism began to grow within official Shiite circles.The extremist sects of the
Hurufis and Shasha’a grew directly out of a background that is both Shiite and Sufi.
More important in the long run than these sects were the Sufi orders which spread in
Persia at this time and aided in the preparing the ground for the Shiite movement of
Safavids.Two of these orders areof particular significance in this question of the relation
of Shiism and Sufism: The Nimatullahi order and Nurbakhshi order.
Shī’ism in Persia after Safavids
Ismail I initiated a religious policy to recognize Shī’ism as the official religion of
the Safavid Empire, and the fact that modern Iran remains an officially Shī’ī state is a
direct result of Ismail’s actions.Unfortunately for Ismail, most of his subjects were
Sunni.He thus had to enforce official Shī’ism violently, putting to death those who
opposed him.Under this pressure, Safavid subjects either converted or pretended to
convert, but it is safe to say that the majority of the population was probably genuinely
Shī’ī by the end of the Safavid period in the 18 th century, and most Iranians today are
Shī’ī, although there is still a Sunni minority.
Immediately following the establishment of Safavid power the migration of
scholars began and they were invited to Iran…. By the side of the immigration of
scholars, Shi’i works and writings were also brought to Iran from Arabic-speaking
lands, and they performed an important role in the religious development of Iran….In
fact, since the time of thelp of Shaykh Mufid and Shaykh Tusi, Iraq had a central
academic position for Shi’ism. This central position was transferred to Iran during the
Safavid era for two-and-a-half centuries, after which it partly returned to Najaf….Before
the Safavidera Shi’I manuscripts were mainly written in Iraq, with the establishment of
the Safavid rule these manuscripts were transferred to Iran.This led to a wide gap

160
between Iran and its Sunni neighbors, particularly the Ottoman Empire in the wake of
the Battle of Chaldiran.This gap continued until the 10th century.
During the early days of the Islamic Revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini
endeavored to bridge the gap between Shiites and Sunnis by declaring it permissible for
Twelvers to pray behind Sunni immams and by forbidding criticising the Caliphs who
preceded ‘Alī – an issue tht had caused much animosity between the two groups.
Shī’ī – Sunni in Levant
Shī’īs claim that despite these advances, many Shī’īs in Syria continued to be killed
during this period for their faith.One of these was Muhammad Ibn Makki, called
Shahid-I Awwal (the First Martyr), one of the great figures in Shī’ī jurisprudence, who
was killed in Damascus in1384 CE (al-Ka-military of Ibn Athir, Cairo, 1348; Raudat al-
safa’; and Habib al-siyar of Khwand Mir).Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi was another
eminent scholar , killed in Aleppo on charges of cultivating Batini teachings and
philosophy (al-Ka-military of Ibn Athir, Cairo, 1348; Raudat al-safa’; and Habib as-Siyar
of Khwand Mir).
Shī’ī-Sunni in South Asia
Sunni-Shi’i clashes occurred frequently in the 20th century in India.There were many
between 1904 and 1908 especially in the United Provinces (Uttar Pradesh) area.These
clashes revolved around the public cursing of the first three caliphs by Shi’is and the
praising of them by Sunnis. To put a stop to the violence public demonstrations were
banned in 1909 on the three most sensitive days: Ashura, Chehlum and Ali’s death on
21 Ramadan. Intercommunal violence resurfaced in 1935-6 and again in 1939 when
many thousands of Sunni and Shi’is defied the ban on public demonstrations and took
to the streets.Shia are estimated to be 10-35% of the Muslim population in South Asia,
although the total number is difficult to estimate due to the intermingling between the
two groups and practice of taqiyya by Shi’a.

CHINESE RELIGION

Acknowledging the wisdom of Chinese proverbs, most anthologies of Chinese

religion are organized by the logic of the three teachings (sanjiao) of Confucianism,
Daoism, and Buddhism.Historical precedent and popular parlance attest to the
importance of this threefold division for understanding Chinese culture.One of the
earliest references to the trinitarian idea is attributed to Li Shiqian, a prominent scholar
of the 6th century, who wrote that “Buddhism is the sun, Daoism the moon, and
Confucianism the five planets”. Li likens the three traditions to significant heavenly
bodies, suggesting that although they remain separate, they also coexist as equally
indispensable phenomena of the natural world.Other opinions stress the essential unity
of the three religious systems.One popular proverb opens by listing the symbols that
distinguish the religions from each other but closes with the assertion that they are
fundamentally the same:“The three teach ings—the gold and cinnabar of Daoism, the
relics of Buddhist figures, as well as the Confucian virtues of humanity and
righteousness—are basically one tradition”. Stating the point more bluntly, some
phrases have been put to use by writers in the long, complicated history of what
Western authors have called “syncretism”.Such mottoes include “the three teachings

161
are one teaching”; “the three teachings return to the one”; “the three teachings shre one
body”; and “the three teachings merge into one”.
What sense does it make to subsume several thousand years of religious
experience under these three (or three-in-one) ctegories? And why is this anthology
organized differently? To answer these questions, we need first to understand wht the
three teachings are and how they came into existence.There is a certain risk in
beginning this introduction with an archaeology of the three teachings.The danger is
that rather than fixing in the reader’s mind the most significant forms of Chinese
religion – the practices and ideas associated with ancestors, the measures taken to
protect against ghosts, or the veneration of gods, topics which are highlighted by the
selections inthis nthology – emphasis will instead be placed on precisely those terms
themselves nthology seeks to avoid. Or, as one friendly critic stated in a review of an
earlier draft of this introduction, why must “the tired old category of the three
teachings be inflicted on yet another generation of students?” Indeed, why does this
introduction begin on a negative note, as it were, analyzing the problems with
subsuming Chinese religion under the three teachings, and insert a positive appraisal of
what constitutes Chinese religion only at the end? Why not begin with “popular
religion”, the gods of China, and kinship and bureaucracy and then, only after those
categories are established, proceed to discuss the explicit categories by which Chinese
people have ordered their religious world? The answer has to do with the fact that
Chinese religion does not come to us purely, or without mediation. The three teachings
are a powerful and inescapable part of Chinese religion.Whether they are eventually
accepted, rejected, or reformulated, the terms of the past can only be understood by
examining how they came to assume their current status. Even the seemingly pristie
translations of texts deemed “primary” are products of their time; the materials here
have been selected by the translators and the editor according to the concerns of the
particular series in which this book is published.This volume, in other words, is as
much a product of Chinese religion as it is a tool enabling access to that field. And
because Chinese religion has for so long been dominated by the idea of the three
teachings, it is essential to understand where those traditions come from, who
constructed them and how, as well as what forms of religious life are omitted or denied
by constructing such a picture in the first place.

CONFUCIANISM

The myth of origins told by proponents of Confucianism (and by plenty of

modern historians) begins with Confucius, whose Chinese name was Kong Qiu and
who lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E. Judging from the little direct evidence that still
survives, however, it appears that Kong Qiu did not view himself as the founder of a
school of thought, much less as the originator of anything.What does emerge from the
earliest layers of the written record is that Kong Qiu sought a revival of the ideas and
institutions of a past golden age.Employed in a minor government position as a
specialist in the governmental and fmily rituals of his native state, Kong Qiu hoped to
disseminate knowledge of the rites and inspire their universal performance. That kind
of broad-scale transformation could take place, he thought, only with the active
encouragement of responsible rulers.The ideal ruler, as exemplified by the legendary
sage-kings Yao and Shun or the adviser to the Zhou rulers, the Duke of Zhou, exercises

162
ethical suasion, the ability to influence others by the power of his moral example. To the
virtues of the ruler correspond values that each individual is supposed to cultivate:
benevolence toward others, a general sense of doing what is right, loyalty and diligence
in serving one’s superiors.Universal moral ideals are necessary but not sufficient
conditions for the restoration of civilization.Society also needs what Kong Qiu calls li,
roughly translated as “ritual”.Although people are supposed to develop propriety or
the ability to act appropriately inany given social situation (another sense of the same
word, li), still the specific rituals people are supposed to perform (also li) very
considerably, depending onage, social status, gender, and context. In family ritual, for
instance, rites of mourning depend on one’s kinship relation to the deceased.In
international affairs, degrees of pomp, as measured by ornateness of dress and
opulence of gifts, depend on the rank of the foreign emissary.Offerings to the gods are
also highly regulated; the sacrifices of each social class are restricted to specific classes
of deities, and a clear hierarchy prevails.The few explicit statements attributed to Kong
Qiu about the problem of history or tradition all portray him as one who “transmits but
does not crete” Such a claim can, of course, serve the ends of innovation or revolution.
But in this case it is clear that Kong Qiu transmitted not only specific rituals and values
but also a hierarchical social structure and the weight of the past.
The portrayal of Kong Qiu as originary and the coalescence of a self-conscious
identity among people tracing their heritage back to him took place long after his
death.Two important scholar-teachers, both of whom aspired to serve as close advisers
to a ruler whom they could convince to institute a Confucian style of government, were
Meng Ke (or Mengzi, ca. 371-289 B.C.E.) and Xun Qing (or Xunzi, d. 215 B.C.E.). Mengzi
viewed himself as a follower of Kong Qiu’s example. His doctrines offered a program
for perfecting the individual.Sageliness could be achieved through a gentle process of
cultivating the innate tendencies toward the good. Xunzi professed the same goal but
argued that the means to achieve it required stronger measures. To be civilized,
according to Xunzi, people need to restrain their base instincts and have their behavior
modified by a system of ritual built into social institutions.
It was only with the founding of the Han dynasty (202 B.C.E.-220 C.E.), however,
that Confucianism became Confucianism, that the ideas associated with Kong Qiu’s
name received state support and were disseminated generally throughout upper-class
society.The creation of Confucianism was neither simple nor sudden, as three examples
will make clear. In the year 136 B.C.E. the classical writings touted by Confucian
scholars were made the foundation of the official system of education and scholarship,
to the exclusion of titles supported by other philosophers. The five classics or five
scriptures, were the Classic of Poetry, Classic of History, Classic of Changes , Record of
Rites, and Chronicles of the Spring and Autumn Period with the Zuo Commentary,
most of which had existed prior to the time of Kong Qiu. Although Kong Qiu was
commonly believed to have written or edited some of the five classics, his own
statements and the writings of his closest followers were not yet admitted into the
canon. Kong Qui’s name was implicated more directly in the second example of the
Confucian system, the state-sponsored cult that erected temples in his honor
throughout the empire and that provided monetary support for turning his ancestral
home into a national shrine. Members of the literate elite visited such temples, paying
formalized respect ad enacting rituals in front of spirit tablets of the master and his

163
disciples. The third example is the corpus of writing left by the scholar Dong Zhongshu
who was instrumental in promoting Confucian ideas and books in official circles. Dong
was recognized by the government as the leading spokesman for the scholarly elite.His
theories provided an overarching cosmological framework for KongQiu’s ideals,
sometimes adding ideas unknown in Kong Qiu’s time, sometimes making more explicit
or providing a particular interpretation of what was already stated inKong Qiu’s
work.Dong drew heavily on concepts of erlier thinkers—few of whom were self-
avowed Confucians—to explain the workings of the cosmos.He used the concepts of
yin and yang to explain how change followed a knowable pattern, and he elaborated on
the role of the ruler as one who connected the realms of Heaven, Earth, and
humans.The social hierarchy implicit in Kong Qiu’s ideal world was coterminous,
thought Dong, with a division of all natural relationships into a superior ad inferior
member.Dong’s theories proved determinative for the political culture of Cofucianism
during the Han and later dynasties.
What in all of this, we need to ask, was Confucian? Or, more precisely, what
kind of thing is the “Confucianism” in each of these examples? In the first, that of the
five classics, “Confucianism” amounts to a set of books that were mostly written before
Kong Qiu lived but that later tradition assocites with his name.It is a curriculum
instituted by the emperor for use in the most prestigious institutions of learning. In the
second example, “Confucianism” is a complex ritual apparatus, an empire-wide
network of shrines patronized by government authorities.It depends upon the ability of
the government to maintain religious institutions throughout the empire and upon the
willingness of state officials to engage regularly in worship. In the third example, the
work of Dong Zhongshu, “Confucianism” is a conceptual scheme, a fluid synthesis of
some of Kong Qiu’s ideals and the various cosmologies popular well after Kong Qiu
lived.Rather than being an updating of something universally acknowledge as Kong
Qiu’s philosophy, it is a conscious systematizing, under the symbol of Kong Qiu, of
ideas current in the Han dynasty.
If even during the Han dynasty the term “Confucianism” covers so many
different sorts of things—books, a ritual apparatus, a conceptual scheme—one might
well woder why we persist in using one single word to cover such a broad range of
phenomena.Sorting out the pieces of that puzzle is now one of the most pressing tasks
in the study of Chinese history, which is alredy beginning to replace the wooden
division of the Chinese intellectual world into the three teachings—each inturn marked
by phases called “proto-“ “neo-,” or “revivl of”—with amore critical and nuanced
understanding of how traditions are made and sustained. For our more limited
purposes here, it is instructive to observe how theword “Confucianism” came to be
applied to all of these things and more.As a word,”Confucianism” is tied to the Latin
name, “Confucius”, which originated not with Chinese philosophers but with European
missionaries in the 16th century. Committed to winning over the top echelons of
Chinese society, Jesuits and other Catholic orders subscribed to the verson of Chinese
religious history supplied to them by the educated elite. The story they told was that
their teaching began withKong Qiu, who was referred to as Kongfuzi, rendered into
Latin as “Confucius”. It was elaborated by Mengzi (rendered as “Mencius”) and Xunzi
and was given official recognition—as if it has existed as the same entity, unmodified
for several hundred years—under the Han dynasty.The teaching changed to the status

164
of an unachieved metaphysical principle during the centuries that Buddhism was
believed to have been dominant and was resuscitated—still basically unchanged—only
with the teachings of Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Cheng Hao, and Cheng Yi, and the
commentaries authored by Zhu Xi. As a genealogy crucial to the self-definition of
modern Confucianism, that myth of origins is both misleading and instructive.It lumps
together heterogeneous ideas, books that predate Kong Qiu, and a state-supported cult
under the same heading. It denies the diversity of names by which members of a
supposedly unitary tradition chose to call themselves, including _ru_(the early meaning
of which remains disputed, usually translated as “scholars” or “Confucians”),
_daoxue_(study of the Way), _lixue_(study of principle), and _xinxue_(study of the
mind). It ignores the long history of contention over interpreting Kong Qiu and
overlooks the debt owed by later thinkers like Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming to Buddhist
notions of the mind and practices of meditation and to Daoist ideas of change.And it
passes over in silence the role played by non-Chinese regimes in making Confucianism
into an orthodoxy, as in the year 1315, when the Mongol government required that the
writings of Kong Qiu and his early followers, redacted nd interpreted through the
commentaries of Zhu Xi, become the basis for the national civil service examination. At
the same time, Confucianism’s story about tself revels much.It names the figures, books,
and slogans of the past that recent Confucians have found most inspiring.As a string of
ideals, it illuminates what its proponents wish it to be. As a lineage, it imagines a line
of descent kept pure from the traditions of Daoism and Buddhism.The construction of
the latter two teachings involves similar process.Their histories, as will be seen below,
do not simply move from the past to the present; they are also projected backward from
specific presents to significant pasts.
Daoism
Most Daoists have argued that the meaningful past is the period that proceeded,
chronologically and metaphysiclly, the past in which the legendary sages of
Confucianism lived.In the Daoist goldenage the empire had not yet been reclaimed out
of chaos. Society lacked distinctions based on class, and human beings lived happily
inwhat resembled primitive, small-scale agricultural collectives.The lines between
different nation-states, betdi occupations, even between humans and animals were not
clearly drwn. The world knew nothing of the Confucian stte, which depended on the
carving up of an undifferentited whole into social ranks, the imposition of artificially
ritualized modes of behavior, and a campaign for conservative values like loyalty,
obeying one’s parents,and moderation.Historically speaking, this Daoist vision was first
articulated shortly after the time of Kong Qiu, and we should probably regard the
Daoist nostalgia for a simpler, untrammeled time as roughly contemporary with the
development of a Confucian view of origins. In Daoist mythology whenever Wiseman
encounters a representative of Confucianism, is it Kong Qiu himself Oran envoy
seekingadvice for an emperor, the hermit escapes to a worlduntainted by civilization.
For Daoists the philosophical equivalent to the pre-imperial primordium is a
state of chaotic wholeness, sometimes called _hundun_, roughly translated as “chaos”.
In that state, imagined asan uncarved block or as the beginning of life in the womb,
nothing is lacking. Everything exists, everything is possible: before a stone is carved
there is no limit to the designs that may be cut, and before the fetus develops the
embryo can, in an organic worldview, develop into male or female.There is not yet any

165
division into parts, any name to distinguish one thing from another.Prior to birth there
is no distinction, from the Daoist standpoint, between life and death.Once birth
happens—once the stone is cut—however, the world descends into a state of
imperfection. Rather than a mythological sin on the part of the first human beings or an
ontological separation of God from humanity, the Daoist version of the fall involves
division into parts, the assigning of names, and the leveling of judgments injurious to
life. The Classic on the Way and Its Power (_Dao de jing_) describes how the original
whole, the _dao_(here meaning the “Way” above all other ways), was broken up: “The
Dao gave birth to the One, the One gave birth to the Two, the Two gave birth to the
Three, and the Three gave birth to the Ten Thousand Things.” That decline-through-
differentiation also offers the model for regaining wholeness.The spirit may be restored
by reversing the process of aging, by reverting from multiplicity to the One.By
understanding the road or path (the same word, dao, in another sense) that the great
Dao followed in its decline, one can return to the root nd endure forever.
Practitioners and scholars alike have often succumbed to the beauty and power
of the language of Daoism and proclaimed another version of the Daoist myth of
origins. Many people seem to move from a description of the Daoist faith-stance (the
Dao embraces all things) to active Daoist proselytization masquerading as historical
description (Daoism embraces all forms of Chinese religion). As with the term
“Confucianism”, it is important to consider not just what the term “Daoism” covers, but
also where it comes from, who uses it, and what words Daoists have used over the
years to refer to themselves.
The most prominent early writings associated with Daoism are two texts, The
Classic on the Way and Its Power, attributed to a mythological figure named Lao Dan
or Laozi who is presumed to have lived during the 6th century and the Zhuangzi,
named for its putative author, Zhuang Zhou or Zhuangzi.The books are quite different
in language and style.The Classic on the Way and Its Power is composed largely of
short bits of aphoristic verse, leaving its interpretation and application radically
indeterminate.Perhaps because of that openness of meaning, the book has been
translated into Western languages more often than any other Chinese text.It has been
read as a utopian tract advocating a primitive society as well as a compendium of
advice for a fierce, engaged ruler.Its author has been described as a relativist, skeptic, or
poet by some, and by others as a committed rationalist who believes in the ability of
words to name a reality that exists independently of them.The Zhuangzi is a much
longer work composed of relatively discrete chapters written largely in prose, each of
which brings sustained attention to a particular set of topics.Some portions have been
compared to Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations.Others develop a story at some
length or invoke mythological figures from the past.The Zhuangzi refers to Laozi by
name and quotes some passges from the Classic on the Way and Its Power, but the text
as weknow it includes contributions written over a long span of time. Textual analysis
reveals at least four layers, probably more, that may be attributed to different authors
and different times, with interests as varied as logic, primitivism, syncretism, and
egotism.The word “Daoism” in English (corresponding to Daojia, “the School or
Philosophy of the Dao”) is often used to refer to these and other books or to a free-
floating outlook on life inspired by but in no way limited to them.

166
 “Daoism” is also invoked as the name for religious movements that began to
develop in the late 2nd century; Chinese usage typically refers to their texts as Daojiao,
“Teachings of the Dao” or “Religion of the Dao”. One of those movements called the
Way of the Celestial Masters (Tianshi dao), possessed mythology and rituals and
established a set of social institutions that would be maintained by all lter Daoist
groups.The Way of the Celestial Masters claims its origin in a revelation dispensed in
the year 142 by the Most High Lord Lao (Taishang Laojun), a deified form of Laozi, to a
man named Zhang Daling. Laozi explained teachings to Zhang and bestowed on him
the title of “Celestial Master” (Tianshi), indicating his exlted position in a system of
ranking that placed those who hd achieved immortality at the top and humans who
were working their way toward that goal at the bottom. Zhang was active in the part of
western China now corresponding to the province of Sichuan, and his descendants
continued to build a local infrastructure.The movement divided itself into a number of
parishes, to which each member-household was required to pay an annual tax of five
pecks of rice—hence the other common name for the movement in its early years, the
Way of the Five Pecks of Rice (Wudoumi dao).The administrative structure and some of
the political functions of the organization are thought to have been modeled in part on
secular government administration.After the Wei dynasty was founded in 220, the
government extended recognition to the Way of the Celestial Masters, giving official
approval to the form of local social administration it had developed and claiming at the
same time that the new emperor’s right to rule was guaranteed by the authority of the
current Celestial Master.
Several continuing traits are apparent in the first few centuries of the Way of the
Celestial Masters.The movement represented itself as having begun with divine-human
contact: a god reveals a teaching and bestows a rank on a person.Later Daoist groups
received revelations from successively more exalted deities.Even before receiving
official recognition, the movement was never divorced from politics.Later Daoist
groups too followed that general pattern, sometimes in the form of millenarian
movements promising to replace the secular government, sometimes in the form of an
established church providing services complementary to those of the state. The local
communities of the Way of the Celestial Masters were formed around priests who
possessed secret knowledge and held rank in the divine-human bureaucracy.
Knowledge and position were interdependent: knowledge of the proper ritual forms
and the authority to petition the gods and spirits were guaranteed by the priest’s
position in the hierarchy, while his rank ws confirmed to his community by his
expertise in a ritual repertoire. Nearly all types of rituals performed by Daoist masters
through the ages are evident in the early years of the Way of the Celestial
Masters.Surviving sources describe the curing of illness, often through confession; the
exorcism of malevolent spirits; rites of passage in the life of the individual; and the
holding of regular communal feasts.
While earlier generations (both Chinese bibliographers and scholars of Chinese
religion) have emphasized the distinction between the allegedly pristine philosophy of
the “School of the Dao” and the corrupt religion of the “Teachings of the Dao”, recent
scholarship instead emphasizes the complex continuities between them.Many selections
in this anthology focus on the beginnings of organised Daoism and the liturgical and
social history of Daoist movements through the 5th century.The history of Daoism can

167
be read, in part, as a succession of revelations, each of which includes but remains
superior to the earlier ones.In South China around the year 320 the author Ge Hong
wrote ‘He Who Embraces Simplicity’ (_Baopuzi_), which outlines different methods for
achieving elevation to that realm of othe immortals known as “Gret Purity” (Tiqing).
Most methods explain how, fter the observance of moral codes and rules of abstinence,
one need to gather precious substnces for use in complex chemical
experiments.Followed properly, the experiments succeed in producing a
sacredsubstance, “gold elixir” (jindan_), the eating of which leads to immortality.In the
second half of the 4th century new scriptures were revealed to a man named Yang Xi,
who shared them with a family named Xu. Those texts give their possessors access
toan even higher realm of Heaven, that of “Highest Clarity” (Shangqing).The scriptures
contain legends about the level of gods residing in the Heaven of Highest
Clarity.Imbued with a messianic spirit, the books foretell an apocalypse for which the
wise should begin to prepare now.By gaining initiation into the textual tradition of
Highest Clarity and following its program for cultivating immortality, adepts are
assured of a high rank in the divine bureaucracy and can survive into the new age. The
5th century saw the canonizaton of a new set of texts, titled “Numinous Treasure”
(Lingbao).Most of them are presented as sermons of a still higher level of deities, the
Celestial Worthies (Tiazun), who are the most immediate personified manifestations of
the Dao.The books instruct followers how to worship the gods supplicated in a wide
variety of rituals.Called “retreats” (zhai, a word cannoting both “fast” and “feast”),
those rites are performed for the salvation of the dead, the bestowal of boons on the
living, and the repentance of sins.
As noted in the discussion of the beginnings of the Way of the Celestial Masters,
Daoist and imperial interests often intersected.The founder of the Tang dynasty (618-
907), Li Yuan known as Gaozu claimed to be a descendant of Laozi’s. At various points
during the reign of the Li family during the Tang dynasty, prospective candidates for
government service were tested for their knowledge of specific Daoist
scriptures.Imperial authorities recognized and sometimes paid for ecclesiastical centers
where Daoist priests were trained and ordained, and the surviving sources on Chinese
history are filled with examples of state sponsorship of specific Daoist ceremonies and
the activities of individual priests. Later governments continued to extend official
support to the Daoist church, and vice-versa. Many accounts portray the 12th century as
a particularly innovative period; it saw the development of sects named “Supreme
Unity” (Taiyi), “Perfect and Great Dao” (Zhenda dao), and “Complete Perfection”
(Quanzhen). In the early part of the fifteenth century, the forty-third Celestial Master
took charge of compiling and editing Daoist ritual texts, resulting in the promulgation
of a Daoist canon that contemporary Daoist still consider authoritative.
Possessing a history of some two thousand years and appealing to people from
all walks of life. Daoism appears to the modern student to be a complex and hardly
unitary tradition.That diversity is important to keep in mind, especially in light of the
claim made by different Daoist groups to maintain a form of the teaching that in its
essence has remained the same over the millennia.The very notion of immortality is one
way of grounding that claim. The greatest immortals, after all, are still alive. Having
conquered death, they have achieved the original state of the uncarved block and are
believed to reside in the heavens.The highest gods are personified forms of the Dao, the

168
unchanging Way.They are concretized in the form of stars and other heavenly bodies
and can manifest themselves to advanced Daoist practitioners following proper
visualization exercises.The transcendents (xianren, often translated as “immortals”)
began life as humans and returned to the ideal embryonic condition through a variety
of means. Some followed a regimen of gymnastics and observed a form of macrobiotic
diet that simultaneously built up the pure elements and minimized the coarser ones.
Others practiced the art of alchemy, assembling secret ingredients and using laboratory
techniques to roll back time.Sometimes the elixir was prepared in real crucibles;
sometimes the refining process was carried out eidetically by imagining the interior of
the body to function like the test tubes and burners of the lab. Personalized rites of
curing and communal feasts alike can be seen as small steps toward recovering the state
of health and wholeness that obtains at the beginning (also the infinite ending) of
time.Daoism has always stressed morality.Whether expressed through specific
injunctions against stealing, lying, and taking life, through more abstract discussions of
virtue, or through exemplary figures who transgress moral codes, ethics was an
important element of Daoist practice.Nor should we forget the claim to continuity
implied by the institution of priestly investiture. By possessing revealed texts and the
secret registers listing the members of the divine hierarchy, the Daoist priest took his
place in a structure that ppered to be unchanging.
Another way that Daoists have represented their tradition is by asserting tht
their activities are different from other religious practices.Daoism is constructed, in
part, by projecting a non-Daoist tradition, picking out ideas and actions and ssigning
them a name that symbolizes “the other” The most common others in the history of
Daoism have been the rituals practiced by the less institutionalized, more poorly
educated religious specialists at the local level and any phenomenon connected with
China’s other organized church, Buddhism.Whatever the very real congruences in
belief and practice among Daoism, Buddhism, and popular practice, it has been
essential to Daoists to assert a fundamental difference. In this perspective the Daoist
gods differ in kind from the profane spirits of the popular tradition; the former partake
of the pure and impersonal Dao, while the latter demand the sacrifice of meat and
threaten their benighted worshippers with illness and other curses. With their
hereditary office, complex rituals, and use of the classical Chinese language, modern
Daoist masters view themselves as utterly distinct from exorcists and mediums, who
utilize only the language of everyday speech and whose possession by spirits appears
uncontrolled.Similarly, anti-Buddhist rhetoric (aswell as anti-Daoist rhetoric from the
Buddhist side) has been severe over the centuries, often resulting in the temporary
suppression of books and statues and the purging of the priesthood.All of those
attempts to enforce difference, however, must be viewed alongside the equally real
overlap, sometimes identity, between Daoism and other traditions.Records compiled by
the state detailing the official titles bestowed on gods prove that the gods of the popular
tradition and the gods of Daoism often supported each other and colesced or, at other
times, competed in ways that the Daoist church could not control.Ethnographies about
modern village life show how all the various religious personnel cooperate to allow for
coexistence; in some celebrations they forge an arrangement that allows Daoist priests
to officiate at the esoteric rituals performed in the interior of the temple, while mediums
enter into trance among the crowds in the outer courtyard. In imperial times the highest

169
echelons of the Daoist and Buddhist priesthoods were capable of viewing their roles as
complementary to each other and as necessarily subservient to the state.The
government mandated the establishment in each province of temples belonging to both
religions; it exercised the right to accept or reject the definition of each religion’s canon
of sacred books; and it sponsored ceremonial debates between leading exponents of the
two churches in which victory most often led to coexistence with, rather than the
destruction of, the losing party.
Buddhism
The very name given to Buddhism offers important clues about the way that the
tradition has come to be defined in China. Buddhism is often called Fojiao, literally
meaning “the teaching (jiao_) of the Buddha (Foreign)”. Buddhism thus appears to be a
member of the same class as Confucianism and Daoism: the three teachings are Rujiao
(“teaching of the scholars” or Confucianism), Daojiao (“teaching of the Dao” or
Daoism), and Fojiao (“teaching of the Buddha” or Buddhism).But there is an interesting
difference here, one that requires close attention to language.As semantic units in
Chinese, the words Ru and Dao work differently than does Fo. The wprd Ru refers to a
group of people and the word Dao refers to a concept, but the word Fo does not make
literal sense in Chinese.Instead it represents a sound, a word with no semantic value
that in the ancient language was pronounced as “Buddhist”, like the beginning of the
Sanskrit word “buddha” The meaning of the Chinese term derives from the fact that it
refers to a foreign sound. In Sanskrit the word “buddha” means “one who has
achieved enlightenment”, one who has “awakened” to the true nature of human
existence. Rather than using any of the Chinese words that mean “enlightened one”,
Buddhists in China have chosen to use a foreign word to name their teaching, much as
native speakers of English refer to the religion that began in India not as “the religion of
the enlightened one,” but rather s “Buddhism”, often without knowing precisely what
the word “Buddha” means.Referring to Buddhism in China as Fojiao involves the
recognition that this teaching, unlike the other two, originated in a foreign land. Its
strangeness, its non-native origin, its power are all bound up in its name.
Considered from another angle, the word Buddha also accentuates the ways in
which Buddhism in its Chinese context defines a distinctive attitude toward
experience.Buddhas—enlightened ones—are unusual because they differ from other,
unenlightened individuals and because of the truths to which they have
awakened.Most people live in profound ignorance, which causes immense suffering.
Buddhas, by contrast, see the true nature of reality. Such propositions, of course, were
not advanced in a vacuum.They were articulated originally in the context of traditional
Indian conmology in the first several centuries and as Buddhism began to trickle
haphazardly into China in the first centuries of the common era, Buddhist teachers
were faced with a dilemma.To make their teachings about the Buddha understood to a
non-Indian audience, they often began by explining the understanding of human
existence—the problem, as it were—to which Buddhism provided the answer. Those
basic elements of the early Indian worldview are worth reviewing here. In that
conception, all human beings are destined to be reborn in other forms, human and
nonhuman, over vast stretches of space and time. While time in its most abstract sense
does follow a pattern of decline, then renovation, followed by a new decline, and so on,
still the process of reincarnation is without beginning or end.Life takes six forms: at the

170
top are gods, demigods, and human beings, while animls hungry ghosts, and hell
beings occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy.Like the gods of ancient Greece, the
gods of Buddhism reside in the heavens and leadlives of immense worldly pleasure.
Unlike their Greek counterparts, however, they are without exception mortal, and at the
end of a very long life they are invariably reborn lower in the cosmic scale. Hungry
ghosts wander in search of food and water yet re unable to eat or drink, and the
denizens of the various hells suffer a battery of tortures, but they will all eventually die
and be reborn again.The logic that determines where one will be reborn is the idea of
karma. Strictly speaking the Sanskrit word karma means “deed” or “action”. In its
relevant sense here it means that every deed has result; morally good acts lead to good
consequences, and the commission of evil has a bad result.Applied to the life of the
individual, the law of karma means that the circumstances an individual faces are the
result of prior actions.Karma is the regulating idea of a wide range of good works and
other Buddhist practices.
The wisdom to which buddhas awaken is to see that this cycle of existence
(saymsmara in Sanskrit, comprising birth, death, rebirth) is marked by impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness, and lack of a permanent self.It is impermanent because all things,
whether physical objects, psychological states, or philosophical ideas, undergo change;
they are brought into existence by preceding conditions at a particular point in time,
and they eventually will become extinct. It is unsatisfactory in the sense that not only
do sentient beings experience physical pain; they also face continual disappointment
when the people and things they wish to maintain invariably change.The third
characteristic of sentient existence, lack of a permanent self, has a long and complicated
history of exegesis in Buddhism. In China the idea of “no-self” (Sanskrit: _anmatman_)
was often placed in cretive tension with the concept of repeated rebirth. On the one
hand, Buddhist teachers tried to convince their audience that human existence did not
end simply with a funeral service or memorial to the ancestors that humans were
reborn in another bodily form and could thus be related not only to other human beings
but to animls, ghosts, and other species among the six modes of rebirth. To support
that argument for rebirth, it was helpful to draw on metaphors of continuity, like a
flame passed from one candle to the next and a spirit that moves from one lifetime to
the next.On the other hand, the truth of impermanence entailed the argument that no
permanent ego could possibly underlie the process of rebirth.What migrated from one
lifetime to the next were not eternal elements of personhood but rather temporary
aspects of psychophysical life that might endure for a few lifetimes—or a few
thousand—but would eventually cease to exist.The Buddha provided an analysis of the
ills of human existence and a prescription for curing them. Those ills were caused by
the tendency of sentient beings to grasp, to cling to evanescent things in the vain hope
that they remain permanent. In this view, the very act of clinging contributes to the
perpetution of desires from one incarnation to the next grasping, then, is both a cause
and result of being committed to a permanent self.
The wisdom of Buddhas is neither intellectual nor individualistic. It was always
believed to be a soteriological knowledge that was expressed in the compassionate
activity of teaching others how to achieve liberation from suffering.Traditional
formulations of Buddhist practice describe a path to salvation that begins with the
observance of morality. Lay followers pledged to abstain from the taking of life,

171
stealing, lying, drinking, intoxicating beverages, and engaging in sexual relations
outside of marrige.Further injunctions applied to householders who could observe a
more demanding life-style of purity, and the lives of monks and nuns were regulated in
even greater detail.With morality as a basis, the ideal path also included the cultivation
of pure states of mind through the practice of meditation and the achieving of wisdom
rivaling that of a buddha.
The discussion so far has concerned the importance of the foreign component in
the ideal of the Buddha and the actual content to which Buddhas are believed to
awaken.It is also important to consider what kind of a religious figure a Buddha is
thought to be. We can distinguish two separate but related understandings of what
abuddha is. In the first understanding the Buddha (represented in English with a
capital B) was an unusual human born into a royal family in ancient India in the 6th or
5th century B.C.E.He renounced his birthright,followed established religious teachers,
and then achieved enlightenment after striking out on his own.He gathered lay and
monastic disciples around him and preached throughout the Indian subcontinent for
almost 50 years, and he achieved final “extinction” (the root meaning of the Sanskrit
word _nirvna_) from the woes of existence.This unique being was called Gautama
(family name) Siddh; amartha (personal name) during his lifetime, and later tradition
refers to him with a variety of names, including Sakyamuni (literally “Sage of the Sakya
clan”) and Tthagata (“Thus-Come One”).Followers living after his death lack direct
access to him because, as the word “extinction” implies, his release was permanent and
complete.His influence can be felt, though, through his traces—through gods who
encountered him and are still alive, through long-lived disciples, through the places he
touched that can be visited by pilgrims, and through his physical remains and the
shrines (stupa_) erected over them.In the second understanding a buddha (with a
lowercase b) is a generic label for any enlightened being, of whom Sakyamuni was
simply one among many. Other Buddhas preceded Sakyamuni’s appearance in the
world, and others will follow him, notably Maitreya (Chinese: Mile), who is thought to
reside now in a heavenly realm close to the surface of the Earth. Buddhas are also
dispersed over space: they exist in all directions, and one in particular, Amitayus (or
Amitabha, Chinese: Amituo), presides over a land of happiness in the West. Related to
this second genre of Buddha is another kind offigure, a bodhisattva (literally “one who
is intent on enlightenment,”Chinese :).Bodhisattvas are found in most forms of
Buddhism, but their role was particularly emphasized in the many traditions claiming
the polemical title of Mahavana (“Greater Vehicle”, in opposition to Hinayana, “Smaller
Vehicle”) that began to develop in the 1st century B.C.E. Technically speaking,
bodhisattvas are not as advanced as buddhas on the path to enlightenment.
Bodhisattvas particularly popular in China include Avalokitesvara (Chinese: Guanyin,
Guanshiyin, or Guanzizai),Bhaisjyaguru (Chinese:Yaoshiwang),Ksitigrbha (Chinese:
Dizang), Manjusri (Wenshu), and Samantabhadra (Puxian).While buddhas appear to
some followers as remote and all-powerful, bodhisattvas often serve as mediating
figures whose compassionate involvement in the impurities of this world makes them
more approachable.Like buddhas in the second sense of any enlightened being, they
function both as models for followers to emulate and as saviors who intervene actively
in the lives of their devotees.

172
 THE THREE JEWELS

In addition to the word “Buddhism” (Fojiao), Chinese Buddhists have represented

the tradition by the formulation of the “three jewels” (Sanskrit: triratna, Chinese:
sanbao_).Coined in India, the three terms carried both a traditional sense as well as a
more worldly reference that is clear in Chinese sources. The first jewel is Buddha, the
traditional meaning of which has been discussed above.In China the term refers not
only to enlightened beings, but also to the materials through which buddhas are made
present, including statues, the buildings that house statues, relics and their containers,
and all the finances needed to build and sustain devotion to buddha images.
The second jewel is the dharma (Chinese, meaning “truth” of “law”. The
dharma includes the doctrines taught by the Buddha and passed down in oral and
written form, thought to be equivalent to the universal consmic law. Many of the
teachings are expressed in numerical form, like the three marks of existence
(impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and no-self, discussed above), the four noble truths
(unsatisfactoriness, cause, cessation, path), and so on. As a literry tradition the dharma
also comprises many different genres, the most important of which is called sutra in
Sanskrit.The Sanskrit word refers to the warp thread of a piece of cloth, the regulating
or primary part of the doctrine (compare its Proto-Indo-European root, *_syu_, which
appears in the English words suture, sew, and seam).The earliest Chinese translators of
Buddhist Sanskrit texts chose a related loaded term to render the idea in Chinese:
_jing_, which denotes the generic name given to the classics of the Confucian and Taoist
traditions.Sutras usually begin with the words “Thus have I herd. Once, when the
Buddha dwelled at…..”That phrase is attributed to the Buddha’s closest disciple,
Ananda, who according to tradition was able to recite all of the Buddha’s sermons from
memory at the first convocation of monks, held after the Buddha died. In its material
sense the dharma referred to all media for the Buddha’s law in China, including
sermons and the platforms on which sermons were delivered, Buddhist rituals that
included preaching, and the thousands of book—first handwritten scrolls, then booklets
printed with wooden blocks—in which the truth was inscribed.
The third jewel is sangha (Characteristic: or), meaning “assembly”. Some sources
offer a broad interpretation of the term, which comprises the four subject-orders of
monks, nuns, lay men, and lay women. Other sources use the term in a stricter sense to
include only monks and nuns, thatis, those who have left home, renounced family life,
accepted vows of celibacy, and undertaken other austerities to devote themselves full-
time to the practice of religion.The differences and interdependencies between
householders and monastics were rarely absent inany Buddhist civilization.In China
those differences found expression in both the spiritual powers popularly attributed to
monks and nuns and the hostility sometimes voiced toward their way of life, which
seemed to threaten the core values of the Chinese family system. The interdependent
nature of the relationship between lay people and the professionally religious is seen in
such phenomena as the use of kinship terminology—an attempt to re-create family—
among monks and nuns and the collaboration between lay donors and monastic
officiants in a wide range of rituals designed to bring comfort to the ancestors.“Sangha”
in China also referred to all of the phenomena considered to belong to the Buddhist
establishment.Everything and everyone needed to sustain monastic life, in a very

173
concrete sense, was included: the living quarters of monks; the lands deeded to temples
for occupancy and profit; the tenant families and slaves who worked on the farm land
and served the sangha; and even the animals attached to the monastery farms.
Standard treatments of the history of Chinese Buddhism tend to emphasize the
place of Buddhism in Chinese dynastic history, the translation of Buddhist texts, and
the development of schools or sects within Buddhism. While these research agenda are
important for our understanding ofchi Buddhism, many of the contributors to this
anthology have chosen to ask rather different questions, and it is worthwhile explaining
why.Many overviews of Chinese Buddhist history are organized by the template of
Chinese dyasties.In this perspective, Buddhism began to enter China as a religion of
non-Chinese merchants in the later years of the Han dynasty. It was during the
following four centuries of disunion, including a division between non-Chinese rulers
in the north and native (“Han”) governments in the south as well as warfare and social
upheaval, that Buddhism allegedly took root in China.Magic and meditation ostensibly
appealed to the “barbarian” rulers in the north, while the dominant style of religion
pursued by the southerners was philosophical.During the period of disunion, the
general consensus suggests, Buddhist translators wrestled with the problem of
conveying Indian ideas in a language their Chinese audience could understand; after
many false starts Chinese philosophers were finally able to comprehend common
Buddhist terms as well as the complexities of the doctrine of emptiness.During the Tang
dynasty Buddhism was finally “Sinicized” or made fully Chinese.Most textbooks treat
the Tang dynasty as the apogee or mature period of Buddhism in China.The Tang saw
unprecedented numbers of ordinations into the ranks of the Buddhist order; the
flourishing ofnew, allegedly “Chinese” schools of thought; and lavish support from the
state.After the Tang, it is thought, Buddhism entered into a thousand-year period of
decline. Some monks were able to break free of tradition and write innovative
commentaries on older texts or reshape received liturgies, some patrons managed to
build significant temples or sponsor the printing of the Buddhist canon on a large scale,
and the occasional highly placed monk found a way to purge debased monks and nuns
from the ranks of the sangha and revive moral vigor, but on the whole the stretch of
dynasties fter the Tang is treted as a long slide into intellectual, ethical, and material
poverty.Stated in this caricatured a fashion, the shortcomings of this approach are not
hard to discern.This approach accentuates those episodes in the history of Buddhism
that intersect with important moments in a political chronology, the validity of which
scholars in Chinese studies increasingly doubt.The problem is not so much that the
older, dynastic-driven history of China is wrong as that it is limited and one-sided.
While traditional history tends to have been written from the top down, more recent
attempts argue from the bottom up. Historians in the past forty years have begun to
discern otherwise unseen patterns in the development of Chinese economy, society, and
political institutions. Their conclusions, which increasingly take Buddhism into account,
suggest that cycles of rise and fall in popultion shifts, economy, family fortunes, and the
like often have little to do with dynastic history—the implication being that the history
of Buddhism and other Chinese traditions can no longer be pegged simply to a
particular dynasty.Similarly, closer scrutiny of the documents and a greater
appreciation of their biases and gaps have shown how little we know of what really
transpired in the process of the control of Buddhism by the state.The Buddhist church

174
was always, it seems, dependent on the support of the landowning classes in medieval
China.And it appears that the condition of Buddhist institutions was tied closely to the
occasional, decentralized support of the lower classes, which is even harder to
document than support by the gentry. The very notion of rise and fall is a teleologicl,
often theological, one, and it has often been linked to an obsession with one particular
criterion—accurate translation of texts, or correct understanding of doctrine—to the
exclusion of all others.
The transltion of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit and other India and Central Asian
languages into Chinese constitutes a large area of study.Although written largely in
classical Chinese in the context of a premodern civilization inwh relatively few people
could read, Buddhist sutras were known far and wide in China.The seemingly magical
spell (Sanskrit: dharani_) from the Heart Sutra was known by many; stories from the
Lotus Sutras were painted on the walls of popular temples; religious preachers, popular
storytellers, and low-class dramatists alike drew on the rich trove of mythology
provided by Buddhist narrative.Scholars of Buddhism have tended to focus on the
chronology and accuracy of translation. Since so many texts were translated and the
languages of Sanskrit and literry Chinese are so distant, the results of that study are
foundational to the field.To understand the history of Chinese Buddhism it is
indispensable to know what texts were available when, how they were translated and
by whom, how they were inscribed on paper and stone, approved or not approved,
disseminated, and argued about. On the other hand, within Buddhist studies scholars
have only recently begun to view the act of translation as a conflict-ridden process of
negotiation, the results of which were Chinese texts whose meanings were never closed.
Older studies, for instance, sometimes distinguish between three different translation
styles.One emerged with the earliest known translators, a Parthian given the Chinese
name An Shigao and an Indoscythian named Lokaksema, who themselves knew little
classical Chinese but who worked with teams of Chinese assistants who peppered the
resulting translations with words drawn from the spoken language.The second style
was defined by the Kuchean translator Kumrajiva, who retained some elements of the
vernacular in a basic framework of literary Chinese that was more polished, consistent,
and acceptable to contemporary Chinese tastes. It is that style—which some have
dubbed a “church” language of Buddhist Chinese, by analogy with the cultural history
of Medieval Latin—that proved most enduring and popular.The third style is
exemplified in the work of Xuanzang, the 7th century Chinese monk, philosopher,
pilgrim, and translator. Xuanzang was one of the few translators who not only spoke
Chinese and knew Sanskrit, but also knew the Chinese literary language well, and it is
hardly accidental that Chinese Buddhists and modern scholars alike regard his
translations as the most accurate and technically precise.At the same time, there is an
irony in Xuanzang’s situation that forces us to view the process of translation in a wider
context. Xuanzang’s is probably the most popular Buddhist image in Chinese folklore;
he is the hero of the story _Journey to the West_ (_Xiyou ji_), known to all classes as the
most prolific translator in Chinese history and as an indefatigable, sometimes overly
serious and literal, pilgrim who embrked on a sacred mission to recover original texts
from India. Though the mythological character is well known, the surviving writings of
the seventh-century translator are not.They are, in fact, rarely reed, because their
grammar and style smack more of Sanskrit than of literary Chinese.What mttered to

175
Chinese audiences—both the larger audience for the novels and dramas about the
pilgrim and the much smaller one capable of reading his translations—was that the
Chinese texts were based on a valid foreign original, made even more authentic by
Xuanzang’s personal experiences in the Buddhist homeland.

THE PROBLEM OF POPULAR RELIGION

The brief history of the three teachings offered above provides, it is hoped, a
general idea of what they are and how their proponents have come to claim for them
the status of a tradition. It is also important to consider what is not named in the
formultion of the three teachings.To define Chinese religion primarily in terms of the
three traditions is to exclude from serious consideration the ideas and practices that do
not fit easily under any of the three labels.Such common rituals as offering incense to
the ancestors, conducting funerals, exorcising ghosts, and consulting fortune tellers;
belief in the patterned interaction between light and dark forces or in the ruler’s
influence on the natural world; the tendency to construe gods as government officials;
the preference for balancing tranquility and movement—all belong as much to none of
the three traditions as they do to one or three. These forms of religion, introduced in
more detail below, are the subject of numerous selections in this anthology.
The focus on the three teachings is another way of privileging precisely the
varieties of Chinese religious life that have been maintained largely through the
support of literate and often powerful representatives.The debate over the unity of the
three teachings, even when it is resolved in favor of toleration or hrmony—a move
toward the one rather than the three—drowns out voices that talk about Chinese
religion as neither one nor three. Another problem with the model of the three
teachings is that it equalizes what are in fact three radically incommensurable things.
Confucianism often functioned as a political ideology and a system of values; Daoism
has been compred, inconsistently, to both an outlook on life and system of gods and
magic; and Buddhism offered, according to some analysts, a proper soteriology, an
array of techniques and deities enabling one to achieve salvation in the other world.
Calling all three traditions by the same unproblematic term, “teaching”, perpetues
confusion about hw the realms of life that we tend to take for granted (like politics,
ethics, ritual, religion) were in fact configured differently in traditional China.
Another way of studying Chinese religion is to focus on those aspects of religious life
that are shared by most people, regardless of their affiliation or lack of affiliation with
the three teachings.Such forms of popular religion as those named above (offering
incense, conducting funerals, and so on) are important to address, although the
category of “popular religion” entails its own set of problems.
We can begin by distinguishing two senses of the term “populr religion”. The
first refers to the forms of religion practiced by almost all Chinese people, regardless of
social and economic standing, level of literacy, region, or explicit religious
identification. Popular religion in this first sense is the religion shared by people in
general, across all social boundaries.Three examples, all of which can be dated as early
as the first century of the Common Era, help us gain some understanding of what
counts as popular religion in the first sense. The first example is a typical Chinese
funeral and memorial service. Following the death of a family member and the

176
unsuccessful attempt to reclaim his or her spirit, the corpse is prepared for burial.
Family members are invited for the first stage of mourning, with higher-ranking
families entitled to invite more distant relatives.Rituals of wailing and the wearing of
coarse, undyed cloth are practiced in the home of the deceased. After some days the
coffin is carried in a procession to the grave.After burial the attention of the living shifts
toward caring for the spirit of the dead. In later segments of the funerary rites the spirit
is spatially fixed—installed—in a rectangular wooden tablet, kept at first in the home
and perhaps later in a clan hall.The family continues to come together as a corporate
group on behalf of the deceased; they say prayers and send sustenance, in the form of
food, mock money, and documents addressed to the gods who oversee the realm of the
dead.The second example of popular or common religion is the New Year’s festival,
which marks a passage not just in the life of the individual and the family, but in the
yearly cycle of the cosmos. As in most civilizations, most festivals in China follow a lunr
calendar, which is divided ito twelve numbered months of 30 days apiece, divided in
half at the full moon (15th night) and new moon (30th night); every several years an
additional (or intercalary) month is added to synchronize the passage of time in lunar
and solar cycles. Families typically begin to celebrte the New Year’s festival ten or so
days before the end of the twelfth month.On the twenty-third day, family members
dispatch the God of the Hearth (Zaojun), who watches over all that transpires in the
home from his throne in the kitchen, to report to the highest god of Heaven, the Jade
Emperor (Yuhuang dadi).For the last day or two before the end of the year, the doors to
the house are sealed and people worship in front of the images of the various gods kept
in the house and the ancestor tablets.After a lavish meal rife with the symbolism of
wholeness, longevity, and good fortune, each junior member of the family prostrates
himself and herself before the head of the family and his wife.The next day, the first day
of the first month, the doors are opened and the family enjoys a vacation of resting and
visiting with friends. The New Year season concludes on the 15th night (the full moon)
of the first month, typically marked by a lantern celebration.
The third example of popular religion is the ritual of consulting a spirit medium
in the home or in a small temple. Clients request the help of mediums (sometimes
called “shames” in Western-language scholarship; in Chinese they are known by many
different terms) to solve problems like sickness in the family, nightmares, possession by
aghost or errant spirit, or some other misfortune.During the séance the medium usually
enters a trance and incarnates a tutelary deity.The divinity speaks through the medium,
sometimes in an altered but comprehensible voice, sometimes in sounds, through
movements, or by writing characters in sand that require deciphering by the medium’s
manager or interpreter. The deity often identifies the problem and prescribes one
among a wide range of possible cures. For an illness a particular herbal medicine or
offering to a particular spirit may be recommended, while for more serious cases the
deity himself, as dramatized in the person of the medium, does battle with the demon
causing the difficulty. The entire drama unfolds in front of an audience composed of
family members and nearby residents of the community.Mediums themselves often
come from marginal groups (unmarried older women, youths prone to sickness), yet
the deities who speak through them are typically part of mainstream religion, and their
message tends to affirm rather than question traditional morality.

177
 Some sense of what is at stake in defining “popular religion” in this manner can
be gained by considering when, where, and by whom these three different examples are
performed.Funerals and memorial services are carried out by most families, even poor
ones; they take place in homes, cemeteries, and halls belonging to kinship corporations;
and they follow two schedules, one linked to the death date of particular members
(every 7 days after death, 100 days after death, etc.) and one linked to the passage of
nonindividualized calendar time (once per year). From a sociological perspective, the
institutions active in the rite are the family, a complex org stretching back many
generations to a common male ancestor, and secondarily the community, which is to
some extent protected from the baleful influences of death.The family too is the primary
group involved in the New Year’s celebration, although there is some validity in
attributing a trans-social dimension to the festival in that a cosmic passage is marked by
the occasion.Other social spheres are evident in the consultation of a medium; although
it is cured through a social drama, sickness is also individuating; and some mediumistic
rituals involve the members of a cult dedicated to the particular deity; membership
being determined by personal choice.These answers are significant for the contrast they
suggest between traditional Chinese popular religion and the forms of religion
characteristic of modern or secularized societies, in which religion is identified largely
with doctrine, belief about god, and a large, clearly discernible church.None of the
examples of Chinese popular religion is defined primarily by beliefs that necessarily
exclude others. People take part in funerals without any necessary commitment to the
existence of particular spirits, and belief in the reality of any particular tutelary deity
doesnot preclude worship of other gods. Nor are these forms of religion marked by
rigidly drawn lines of affiliation; in brief; there are families, temples, and shrines, but no
church.Even the “community” supporting the temple dedicated to a local god is
shifting, depending on those who choose to offer incense or make other offerings there
on a monthly basis.There are specialists involved in these examples of Chinese popular
religion, but their sacerdotal jobs are usually not full-time and seldom involve the
theorizing about a higher calling typical of organized religion.Rather, their forte is
considered to be knowledge or abilities of a technical sort. Local temples are
administered by a standing committee, but the chairmanship of the committee usually
rotates among the heads of the dominant families in the particular locale.
Like other categories, “popular religion” in the sense of shared religion obscures
as much as it clarifies.Chosen for its difference from the unspoken reality of the
academic interpreter (religion in modern Europe and America), popular religion as a
category functions more as a contrastive notion than as a constitutive one; it tells us
what much of Chinese religion is not like, rather than spelling out a positive content. It
is too broad a category to be of much help to detailed understanding—which indeed is
why many scholars in the fied avoid the term, preferring to deal with more discrete and
meaningful units like family religion, mortuary ritual, seasonal festivals, divination,
curing, and mythology.“Popular religion” in the sense of common religion also hides
potentially significant variation: witness the number of times words like “typical”,
“standard”, “traditional”, “often”, and “usually” recur in the preceding paragraphs,
without sepcifying particular people, times, and places, or naming particular
understandings of orthodoxy.In addition to being static and timeless, the category
prejudices the case against seeing popular religion as a conflict-ridden attempt to

178
impose one particular standardon contending groups. Several of the contributions to
this volume, for instance, are works from non-Han cultures.Their inclusion suggests
that we view China not as a unitary Han culture peppered with “minorities”, but as a
complex region in which a diversity of cultures are interacting.To place all of them
under the heading of “popular religion” is to obscure a fascinating conflict of cultures.
We may expect a similar mix of insight and erasure in the second sense of
“popular religion”, which refers to the religion of the lower classes as opposed to that of
the elite.The bifurcation of society into two tiers, is hardly a new idea. It began with
some of the earliest Chinese theorists of religion.Xunzi, for instance, discusses the
emotional, social, and cosmic benefits of carrying out memorial rites.In his opinion,
mortuary ritual allows people to balance sadness and longing and to express grief, and
it restores the natural order to the world. Different social classes, writes Xunzi,
interpret sacrifices differently: “Among gentlemen [junzi], they are taken as the way of
humans; among common people [baixing], they are taken as matters involving ghosts”
For Xunzi, “gentlemen” are those who have achieved nobility because of their virtue,
not their birth; they cnsciously dedicate themselves to following and thinking about a
course of action explicitly identifiedas moral.The common people, by contrast, are not
so much amoral or immoral as they re unreflective. Without making a conscious
decision, they believe that in the rites addressed to gods or the spirits of the dead, the
objects of the sacrifice—the spirits themselves—actually exist.The true member of the
upper class, however, adopts something like the attitude of the secular social theorist:
brcketing the existence of spirits, what is important about death ritual is the effect it has
on society.Both classes engage in the same activity, but they have radically different
interpretations of it.
Dividing what is clearly too broad a category (Chinese religion or ritual) into two
discrete classes (elite and folk) is not without advantages.It is a helpful pedagogical tool
for throwing into question some of the egalitarian presuppositions frequently
encountered in introductory courses on religion; that, for instance, everyone’s religious
options are or should be the same, or that other people’s religious life can be
understood (or tried out) without reference to social status.Treating Chinese religion as
fundamentally affected by social position also helps scholars to focus on differences in
styles of religious practice and interpretation.One way to formulate this view is to say
that while all inhabitants of a certain community might take part in a religious
procession, their style—both their pattern of practice and their understanding of their
actions—will differ according to social position.Well-educated elites tend to view gods
in abstract, impersonal terms and to demonstrate restrained respect, but the
uneducated tend to view gods as concrete, personal beings before whom fear is
appropriate.In the social sciences and humanities in general there has been a clear move
in the past forty years away from studies of the elite, and scholarship on Chinese
religion is beginning to catch up with that trend. More and more studies focus on the
religion of the lower classes and on the problems involved in studying the culture of the
illiterati in a complex civilization.Many of the contributors to this anthology reflect a
concern not only with the “folk” as opposed to the “elite”, but with how to integrate
our knowledge of those two strata and how our understanding of Chinese religion,
determined unreflectively for many years by accepting an elite viewpoint, has begun to
change. In all of this, questions of social class (Who participates? Who believes?) And

179
questions of audience (Who writes or performs? For what kind of people?) are
paramount.
At the same time, treating “popular religion” as the religion of the folk can easily
perpetuate confusion.Some modern Chinese intellectuals, for instance, are committed to
an agenda of modernizing and reviving Chinese spiritual life in a way that both accords
with Western secularism and does not reject all of traditional Chinese religion.The
prominent 20th century Confucian and interpreter of Chinese culture Wing-isit Chan,
for instance, distinguishes between “the level of the masses” nd “the level of the
enlightened”.The massesworship idols, objects of nature, andnearly any deity, while the
enlightened confine their worship to Heaven, ancestors, moral exemplars, and historical
persons.The former believe in heavens and hells and indulge in astrology and dream
interpretation, but the latter “are seldom contaminated by these diseases.” For authors
like Chan, both those who lived during the upheavals of the last century in China and
those in Chinese diaspora communities, Chinese intellectuals still bear the
responsibility to lead their civilization away from superstition andtoward
enlightenment. In that worldview there is no doubt where the religion of the masses
belongs. From that position it can be a short step—one frequently taken by scholars of
Chinese religion—to treating Chinese popular religion in a dismissive spirit. Modern
anthologies of Chinese tradition can still be found that describe Chinese popular
religion as “grosser forms of superstition”, capable only of “facile syncretism” and
resulting in “a rather shapeless tradition”.
Kinship and Bureaucracy
It is often said that Chinese civilization has been fundamentally shaped by two
enduring structures, the Chinese family system and the Chinese form of
bureaucracy.Given the embeddedness of religion in Chinese social life, it would indeed
be surprising if Chinese religion were devoid of such regulating concepts.The
discussion below is not confined to delineating what might be considered the “hard”
social structures of the family and the state, the effects of which might be seen in the
“softer” realms of religion and values. The reach of kinship and bureaucracy is too
great, their reproduction and representation far richer than could be conveyed by
treating them assimple, given realities. Instead we will explain them also as metaphors
and strategies.
Early Christian missionaries to China were fascinated with the religious aspects
of the Chinese kinship system, which they dubbed “ancestor worship”. Recently
anthropologists have changed the wording to “the cult of the dead” because the
concept of worship implies a supernatural or transcendent object of veneration, which
the ancestors clearly are not. The newer term, however, is not much better, because “the
dead” are hardly lifeless.As one modern observer remarks, the ancestral cult “is not
primarily a matter of belief……The cult of ancestors is more nearly a matter of plain
everyday behavior…..No question of belief ever arises.The ancestors……literally live
among their descendants, not only biologically, but also socially and psychologically”.
The significanceof the ancestors is partly explained by the structure of the traditional
Chinese family; in marriageswomen are sent to other surname groups (exogamy);
newly married couples tend to live with the husband’s family (virilocality); and
descent—deciding to which family one ultimately belongs—is traced back in time

180
through the husband’s male ancestors (patrilineage).A family in the normative sense
includes many genertions, past, present, and future, all of whom trace their ancestry
through their father (if male) or their husband’s father (if female) to an originating male
ancestor. For young menthe ideal is to grow up “under the ancestors” shadow” (in
Hsu’s felicitous phrase), by bringing in a wife from another family, begetting sons and
growing prosperous, showering honor on the ancestors through material success,
cooperating with brothers in sharing family property, and receiving respect during life
and veneration after death from succeeding genertions. For young women the avowed
goal is to marry into a prosperous family with a kind mother-in-law, give birth to sons
who will perpetuate the family line, depend upon one’s children for immediate
emotional support, and reap the benefits of old age as the wife of the primary man of
the household.
Early philosophers assigned a specific term to the value of upholding the ideal
family; they called it _xiao_, usually translated as “filial piety” of “filility”. The written
character is composed of the graph for “elder” placed above the graph for “son”, an apt
visual reminder of the interdependence of the generations and the subordination of
sons. If the system works well, then the younger generations support the senior ones,
and the ancestors bestow fortune, longevity, and the birth of sons upon the living. As
each son fulfills his duty, he progresses up the family scale, eventually assuming his
sttus as revered ancestor.The attitude toward the dead (or rather the significant and, it
is hoped, benevolent dead—one’s ancestors) is simply a continuation of one’s attitude
toward one’s parents while they were living. In all cases, the theory goes, one treats
them with respect and veneration by fulfilling their personal wishes and acting
according to othe dictates of ritual tradition.
Like any significant social category, kinship in China is not without tension and
self-contradiction.One already alluded to is gender; personhood as a functin of the
family system is different for men and women.Sons are typically born into their lineage
and hope to remain under the same roof from childhood into old age and ancestorhood.
By contrast, daughters are brought up by a family that is not ultimately theirs; at
marriage they move into a new home; as young brides without children they are not yet
inalienable members of their husband’s lineage; and even after they have children they
may still have serious cnflicts with the de facto head of the household, their husband’s
mother.Women may gain more security from their living children than from the
prospect of being a venerated ancestor.In the afterlife, in fact, they are punished for
having polluted the natural world with the blood of parturitin; the same virtue that the
kinship system requires of them as producers of sons it also defines as a sin.There is
also in the ideal of filiality a thinly veiled pretense to universality and equal access that
also serves to rationalize the _status inaequalis_. Lavish funerals and the withdrawal
from employment by the chief mourner for three years following his parents’ death are
the ideal. In the Confucian tradition such examples of conspicuous expenditure are
interpreted as expressions of the highest devotion, rather than as a waste of resources
and blatant unproductivity in which only the leisure class is free to indulge.And the
ideals of respect of younger generations for older ones and cooperation among brothers
often conflict with reality.
Many aspects of Chinese religion are informed by the metaphor of kinship. The
kinship system is significant not only for the path of security it defines but also because

181
of the religious discomfort attributed to all those who fall short of the ideal.It can be
argued that the vagaries of life in any period of Chinese history provide as many
counterexamples as fulfillments of the process of becoming an ancestor. Babies and
children die young, before becoming accepted members of any family; men remain
unmarried, without sons to carry on their name or memory; women are not successfully
matched with a mate, thus lacking any mooring in the afterlife; individuals die in
unsettling ways or come back from the dead as ghosts carrying grudges deemed fatal to
the living. There are plenty of people, in other words, who are not caught by the safety
net of the Chinese kinship system. They may be more prone than others to possession
by spirits, or their anomalous position may not be manifest until after they die. In
either case they are religiously significant because they abrogate an ideal of proper
kinship relations.
Patrilineage exercises its influence as a regulating concept even in religious
organizations where normal kinship—men and women marrying, having children, and
tracing their lineage through the husbnd’s fther—is impossible.The Buddhist
monkhood is a prime example; sororities of unmarried women, adoption of children,
and the creation of other “fictive” kinship ties are others. One of the defining features of
being a Buddhist monk in China is called “leaving the family” (_chujia_, a translation of
the Sanskrit _pravrajya_). Being homeless means not only that the boy has left the
family in which he grew up and has taken up domicile in a monastery, but also that he
has vowed to abstain from any sexual relations. Monks commit themselves to having
no children.The defining feature of monasticism in China is its denial, its interruption of
the patrilineage. At the same time, monks create for themselves a home—or a family—
away from home; the Buddhist order adopts some of the important characteristics of
the Chinese kinship system. One part of the ordination ceremony is the adoption of a
religious name, both a new family name and a new personal name, by which one will
henceforth be known.The family name for all Chinese monks, at least since the
beginning of the fifth century, is the same surname attributed to the historical Buddha
(Shi in Chinese, which is a shortened translitertion of the first part of Sakyamuni). For
personal names, monks are usually assigned a two-character name by their
teacher.Many teachers follow a practice common in the bestowal of secular personal
names: the first character for all monks in a particular generation is the same, and the
second character is different, bestowing individuality.“Brothers” of the same generation
can be picked out because one element of their name is the same; as far as their names
are concerned, their relationship to each other is the same as that between secular
brothers. Not only do monks construct names and sibling relations modeled on those
of Chinese kinship, they also construe themselves as Buddhist sons and descendants of
Buddhist fathers and ancestors.Monks of the past are not only called “ancestors”, they
are also treated as secular ancestors are treated. The portraits and statues of past
members are installed, in order, in special ancestral halls where they receive offerings
and obeisance from current generations.
Another domain of Chinese religion that bears the imprint of Chinese kinship is
hagiography, written accounts of gds and saints.Biographies of secular figures have
long been part of the Chinese written tradition. Scholarly opinin usually cites the
biographies contained in the 1st century B.C.E. _Records of the Historian_(_Shiji_) as
the paradigm for later biographical writing.Such accounts typically begin not with the

182
birth of the protagonist, but rather with his or her family background.They narrate the
individual’s precocious abilities, posts held in government, actions deemed particularly
virtuous or vile, and posthumous fate, including titles awarded by the government and
the disposition of the corpse or grave.They are written in polished classical prose, and,
like the writing of Chinese history, they are designed to cast their subjects aseither
models for emulation or unfortunate examples to be avoided.Many of the same feature
can be found in the hagiographies contained in this anthology.Gods who re
bureaucrats, goddesses, incarnations of bodhisattvas, even immortals like Laozi and
deities of the stars are all conceived through the lens of the Chinese family.
The logic of Chinese kinship can also be seen in a wide range of rituals, many of
which take place outside the family and bear no overt relationship to kinship.The basic
premise of many such rites is a family banquet, a feast to which members of the oldest
generation of the family (the highest ancestors) are invited as honored guests.
Placement of individuals and the sequence of action often follow seniority, with older
generations coming before younger ones.Such principles can be observed even in
Buddhist rites and the community celebrations enacted by groups defined by locale
rather than kinship.
What about the other organizing force in Chinese civilization, the bureaucratic
form of government used to rule the empire? It too has exerted tremendous influence
on Chinese religious life.Before discussing bureaucracy proper, it is helpful to introduce
some of the other defining features of Chinese government.
Chinese political culture has, at least since the later years of the Shang dynasty
(1600-1028 B.C.E), been conceived of as a dynastic system. A dynasty is defined by a
founder whose virtue makes clear to all—both common people and other factions vying
for control—that he and his family are fit to take over from a previous, corrupt ruler.
Shortly after assuming the position of emperor, the new ruler chooses a name for the
dynasty: Shang, for instance, means to increase or prosper.Other cosmically significant
actions follow. The new emperor installs his family’s ancestral tablets in the imperial
ancestral hall; he performs the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth that are the emperor’s
duty; he announces new names of offices and institutes a reorganization of government;
and the office of history and astronomy in the government keeps careful watch over
any unusual phenomena (the appearance of freakish animals, unusual flora, comets,
eclipses, etc) that might indicate the pleasure or displeasure of Heaven at the change in
rule. All activities that take place leading up to and during the reign of the first
emperor in a new dynasty appear to be based on the idea that the ruler is one whose
power is justified because of his virtue and abilities. When the new emperor dies and
one of his sons succeeds to the throne, however, another principle of sovereignty is
invoked; the second emperor is deemed fit to rule because he is the highest-ranking son
in the ruling family. First emperors legitimate their rule by virtue; second and later
emperors validate their rule by family connections.The latter rationale is invoked until
the end of the dynasty, when another family asserts that its moral rectitude justifies a
change.Thus, the dynastic system makes use of two theories of legitimation, one based
on virtue and one based on birth.
Another important principle of Chinese politics, at least since the early years of
the Zhou dynasty, is summarized by the slogan “the mandate of Heaven”

183
(Tianming).In this conception, the emperor and his family carry out the commands of
Heaven, the latter conceived as a divine, semi-natural, semi-personal force.Heaven
demonstrtes its approval of an emperor by vouchsafing plentiful harvests, social order,
and portents of nature that are interpreted positively.Heaven manifests its displeasure
with an emperor and hints at a change in dynasty by sending downfamine, drought,
widespread sickness, political turmoil, or other portents.It is important to note that the
notion of the mandate of Heaven can serve to justify revlution as well as
continuity.Rebellions in Chinese history, both those that have failed and those have
succeeded, usually claim that Heaven has proclaimed its displeasure with the ruling
house and is transferring its mandte to a new group.The judgment of whether the
mandate has indeed shifted is in principle always open to debate.It furnishes a
compelling rationale for all current regimes at the same time that it holds open the
possibility of revolution on divine grounds.
The dynastic system and the mandate of Heaven were joined to a third basic
idea, that of bureaucracy. A bureaucratic form of government is not, of course, unique
to China. What is important for our purposes is the particular shape and functin of the
bureaucracy and its reach into nearly all spheres of Chinese life, including religion.
Max Weber’s listing of the characteristics of bureaucracy offers a helpful starting
point for discussing the Chinese case. According to Weber, bureaucracy includes: (1)
the principle of official jurisdictional areas, so that the duties and powers of each office
are clearly stipulated; (2) the principle of hierarchy, which makes clear who ranks above
and who ranks below, with all subordinates following their superiors; (3) the keeping of
written records or files and a class of scribes whose duty is to make copies; (4) training
of officials for their specific tasks; (5) full-time employment of the highest officials; and
(6) the following of general rules, Virtually all of these principles can be found in one
form or another in the Chinese bureaucracy, the roots of which some scholars trace to
the religion of the 2nd millennium B.C.E.The only consistent qualification that needs to
be made as Weber himself points out concerns the fourth point. Aspirants to
government service were admitted to the job, in theory at least, only after passing a
series of examinations, but the examintion system rewarded a general course of
learning in arts and letters rather tha the technical skills demanded in some posts like
engineering, forensic medicine, and so on.
The central government was also local; the chief government official responsible
for a county was a magistrate, selected from a central pool on the basis of his
performance in the examinations and assigned to a specific county where he hadno
prior family connections.He was responsible for employing lower-level functionaries in
the county like scribes, clerks, sheriffs, and jailers; for collecting taxes; for keeping the
peace; and, looking upward in the hierarchy, for reporting to his superiors and
following their instructions. He performed a number of overtly religious functions.He
made offerings at a variety of officially recognized temples, like those dedicated to the
God of Walls and Moats (the so-called “City God”, Chenghuang shen) and to local
deified heroes; he gave lectures to the local residents about morality; and he kept close
watch over all religious activities, especially those involving voluntary organizations of
people outside of family and loclity groups, whose actions might threaten the
sovereignty and religious prerogative of the state.He was promoted on the basis of
seniority and past performance, hoping to be named to higher posts with larger areas of

184
jurisdiction or to a position in the central administration resident in the capital city. In
his official capacity his interctions with others were highly formalized and impersonal.
One of the most obvious areas influenced by the bureaucratic metaphor is the
Chinese pantheon.For many years it has been a truism that the Chinese conception of
gods is based on the Chinese bureaucracy, that the social organization of the human
government is the essential model tht Chinese people use when imagining the gods.At
the apex of the divine bureaucracy stands the Jade Emperor (Yuhuang dadi) in Heaven,
corresponding to the human Son of Heaven (Tianzi, another name for emperor) who
rules over Earth.The Jade Emperor is incharge of an administration divided into
bureaus. Each bureaucrat-god takes responsibility for a clearly defined domain or
discrete function.The local officials of the celestial administration are the Gods of Walls
and Moats, and below them are the Gods of the Hearth, one per family, who generate a
never-ending flow of reports on the people under their jurisdiction.They are assisted in
turn by gods believed to dwell inside each person’s body, who accompany people
through life and into death, carrying with them the records of good and evil deeds
committed by their charges.The very lowest officers are those who administer
punishment to deceased spirits passing through the purgatorial chambers of the
underworld.They too have reports to fill out, citizens to keep track of, and jails to
manage.Recent scholarship has begun to criticize the generalization that most Chinese
gods are bureaucratic, raising questions about the way in which the relation between
the human realm and the divine realm should be conceptualized.Should the two realms
be viewed as two essentially different orders, with one taking priority over the other?
Should the two bureaucracies be seen as an expression in two spheres of a more unitary
conceptualization of power? Is the attempt to separate a presumably concrete social
system from an allegedly idealized projection wrong in the first place? Other studies
(and the discussion in the next section) suggest that some of the more significant deities
of Chinese religion are not approached in bureaucratic terms at all.
An important characteristic of any developed bureaucratic system, earthly or
celestial, is that it is wrapped in an aura of permanence and freedom from blame.Office-
holders are distinct from the office they fill.Individual magistrates and gods come and
go, but the functions they serve and the system that assigns them their duties do not
change. Government officials always seem capable of corruption, and specific
individuals may be blameworthy, but in a sprawlig ad principled bureaucracy, the
blame attaches only to the individuals currently occupying the office, and wholesale
questioning of the structure as a whole is easily deferred. Graft may be everywhere—
local magistrates and the jailers of the other world are equally susceptible to bribes—
but the injustice of the bureaucracy in general is seldom broched.When revolutionary
groups have succeeded or threatened to succeed in overthrowing the government, their
alternative visions are, as often as not, couched not in utopian or apolitical terms, but as
a new version of the old kingdom, the bureaucracy of which is staffed only by the pure.
Bureaucratic logic is also a striking part of Chinese iconography, temple architecture,
and ritual structure.For peasants who could not read in traditional times, the
bureaucratic nature of the gods was an apodictic matter of apperance; gods were
dressed as government officials.Their temples are laid out like imperial palaces, which
include audience halls where one approaches the god with the proper
deportment.Many rituals involving the gods follow bureaucratic procedures.Just as one

185
communicates with a government official through his staff, utilizing proper written
forms, so too common people depend on literate scribes to write out their prayers, in
the correct literary form, which are often communicated to the other world by fire.

THE SPIRITS OF CHINESE RELIGION

Up to this point the discussion has touched frequently on the subject of gods
without explaining what gods are and how they are believed to be related to other
kinds of beings.To understand Chinese theology (literally “discourse about gods”), we
need to explore theories about human existence, and before that we need to review
some of the basic concepts of Chinese cosmology. What is the Chinese conception
of the cosmos? Any simple answer to that question, of course, merely confirms the
biases assumed but not articulated by the question—that there is only one such
authentically Chinese view, and that the cosmos as such, present unproblematically to
all people, was a coherent topic of discussion in traditional China. Nevertheless, the
answer to that question offered by one scholar of China, Joseph Needham, provides a
helpful starting point for the analysis.In Needham’s opinion, the dominant strand of
ancient Chinese thought is remarkable for the way it contrasts with European
ideas.While the latter approach the world religiously as created by a transcendent deity
or as a battleground between spirit and matter, or scientifically as a mechanism
consisting of objects and their attributes, ancient Chinese thinkers viewed the world as
a complete and complex “organism”.“Things behaved in particular ways”, writes
Needham, “not necessarily because of prior actions or impulsions of other things, but
because their position in the ever-moving cyclical universe was such that they were
endowed with intrinsic natures which made that behaviour inevitable for them”.Rather
than being created out of nothing, the world evolved into its current condition of
complexity out of a prior state of simplicity and undifferentiation. The cosmos
continues to change, but there is a consistent pattern to that change discernible to
human beings.Observation of the seasons and celestial realms, and methods like
plastromancy ad scapulimancy (divination using tortoise shells and shoulder blades),
dream divination, and manipulating the hexagrams of the Classic of Changes allow
people to understand the pattern of the universe as a whole by focusing on the changes
taking place in one of its meaningful parts.
The basic stuff out of which all things are made is called _qi_. Everything that
ever existed, at all times, is made of qi, including inanimate matter, humans and
animals, the sky, ideas and emotions, demons and ghosts, the undifferentiated state of
wholeness, and the world when it is teeming with different beings.As an axiomatic
concept with a wide range of meaning, the word qi has over the years been translated in
numerous ways. Even in this anthology, different translators render it into English in
three different ways. Because it involves phenomena we would consider both
psychological—connected to human thoughts and feelings—and physical, it can be
translated as “psychophysical stuff”.The translation “pneuma” draws on one early
etymology of the word as vapor, steam, or breath.“Vital energy” accentuates the
potential for life inherent to the more ethereal forms of qi.These meanings of qi hold for
most schools of thought in early Chinese religion; it is only with the renaissance of
Confucian traditions undertaken by Zhu Xi and others that qi is interpreted not as a
single thing, part-matter and part-energy, pervading everything, but as one of two basic

186
metaphysical building blocks. According to Zhu Xi, all things partake of both qi and
_li_ (homophonous to but different from the _li_meaning “ritual” or “propriety”); the
latter understood as the reason a thing is what it is and its underlying “principle” or
“reason”.
While traditional cosmology remained monistic, in the sense that qi as the most
basic constituent of the universe was a single thing rather than a duality or plurality of
things, still qi was thought to move or to operate according to a pattern that did
conform to two basic modes. The Chinese words for those two modalities are _yin_
and _yang_; we shall attempt to explain them here but shall leave them
untranslated.Yin and yang re best understood in terms of symbolism. When the sun
shines on a mountain at some time other than midday, the mountain has one shady side
and one sunny side.Yin is the emblem for the shady side and its characteristics; yang is
the emblem for the sunny side and its qualities. Since the sun has not yet warmed the
yin side, it is dark, cool, and moist; plants are contracted and dormant; and water in the
form of dew moves downward. The yang side of the mountain is the opposite. It is
bright, warm, and dry; plants open up and extend their stalks to catch the sun; and
water in the form of fog moves upward as it evaporates. This basic symbolism was
extended to include a host of other oppositions. Yin is female, yang is male. Yin
occupies the lower position, yang the higher. Any situation in the human or natural
world can be analyzed within this framework; yin and yang can be used to understand
the modulations of qi on a mountainside as well as the relationships within the
family.The social hierarchies of gender and age, for instance—the duty of the wife to
honor her husband, and of younger generations to obey older ones—were interpreted
as the natural subordination of yin to yang.The same reasoning can be applied to any
two members of a pair.Yin-yang symbolism simultaneously places them on an equal
footing and ranks them hierarchically.On the one hand, all processes are marked by
change, making it inevitable that yin and yang alternate and imperative that humans
seek a harmonious balance between the two.On the other hand, the system as a whole
attaches greater value to the ascendant member of the pair, the yang.Such are the
philosophical possibilities of the conceptual scheme.Some interpreters of yin and yang
choose to emphasize the nondualistic, harmonious nature of the relationship, while
others emphasize the imbalance, hierarchy, and conflict built into the idea.
How human life is analyzed in terms of the yin and yang modes of “material
energy” (yet another rendering of qi)? Health for the individual consists in the
harmonious balancing of yin and yang. When the two modes depart from their natural
course, sickness and death result.Sleep, which is dark and therefore yin, needs to be
balanced by wakefulness, which is yang. Salty tastes (yin) should be matched by bitter
ones (yang); inactivity should alternate with movement; and so on. Normally the
material energy that constitutes a person, though constantly shifting, is unitary enough
to sustain a healthy life. When the material energy is blocked, follows improper
patterns, or is invaded by pathogens, then the imbalance between yin and yang
threatens to pull the person apart, the coarser forms of material energy (which are yin)
remaining attached to the body or near the corpse, the more ethereal forms of material
energy (which are yang) tending to float up and away.Dream-states and minor
sicknesses are simply gentler forms of the personal dissociation—the radical conflict
between yin and yang—that comes with spirit-possession, serious illness, and death.At

187
death the material force composing the person dissipates, and even that dissipation
follows a pattern analyzable in terms of yin and yang.The yin parts of the person—
collectively called “earthly souls” (_po_)—move downward, constituting the flesh of
the corpse, perhaps also returning as a ghost to haunt the living. Since they are more
like energy than matter, the yang parts of the person—collectively called “heavenly
souls” (_hun_)—float upward. They—notice that there is more than one of each kind of
“soul”, making a unique soul or even a dualism of the spirit impossible in principle—
are thought to be reborn in Heaven or as another being, to be resident in the ancestral
tablets, to be associated more amorphously with the ancestors stretching back seven
generations, or to be in all three places at once.
Above we claimed that knowledge of Chinese cosmology and anthropology was
essential to understanding what place gods occupy in the Chinese conceptual
world.That is because the complicated term “god”, in the sense either of a being
believed to be perfect in power, wisdom, and goodness or a superhuman figure worthy
of worship, does not correspond straightforwardly to a single Chinese term with a
similar range of meanings. Instead, there are general areas of overlap, as well as
concepts that have no correspondence; between the things we would consider “gods”
and specific Chinese terms. Rather than pursuing this question from the side of
modern English usage, however, we will begin with the important Chinese terms and
explain their range of meanings.
One of the terms crucial to understanding Chinese religion is _shen_, which
translate with different versions of the English word “spirit”. Below these three words
are analyzed separately as consisting of three distinct spheres of meaning, but one
should keep in mind that the three senses are all rooted in a single Chinese word.They
differ only in degree or realm of application, not in kind.The first meaning of shen is
confined to the domain of the individual human being: it may be translated as “spirit”
in the sense of “human spirit” or “psyche”. It is the basic power or agency within
humans that accounts for life. To extend life to full potential the spirit must be
cultivated, resulting in ever clearer, more luminous states of being.In physiological
terms “spirit” is a general term for the “heavenly souls”, in contrast to the yin elements
of the person.The second meaning of shen may be rendered in English as “spirit” or
“gods”, the latter written in lowercase because Chinese spirits and gods need not be
seen as all-powerful, transcendent, or creators, of the world. They are intimately
involved in the affairs of the world, generally lacking a perch or time frame completely
beyond the human realm.An early Chinese dictionary explains; “Shen are the spirits of
Heaven.They draw out the ten thousand things”. As the spirits associated with objects
like stars, mountains, and streams, they exercise a direct influence on things in this
world, making phenomena appear and causing things to extend themselves. In this
sense of “spirits”, shen are yang and opposed to the yin class of things known in
Chinese as _gui_, “ghosts” or “demons”.The two words put together, as in the
combined form _guishen_(“ghosts and spirits”), cover all manner of spiritual beings in
the largest sense, those benevolent and malevolent, lucky and unlucky. In this view,
spirits are manifestations of the yang material force, and ghosts are manifestations of
the yin material force. The 19th century Dutch scholar Jan J.M. de Groot emphasized this
aspect of the Chinese worldview, claiming that “animism” was an apt characterization
of Chinese religion because all parts of the universe—rocks, trees, planets, animals,

188
humans—could be animated by spirits, good r bad. As support for that thesis he quotes
a disciple of Zhu Xi’s: “Between Heaven and Earth there is no thing that does not
consist of yin and yang, and there is no place where yin and yang are not
found.Therefore there is no place where gods and spirits do not exist”.Shen in its third
meaning can be translated as “spiritual”. An entity is “spiritual” in the sense of
inspiring awe or wonder because it combines categories usually kept separate, or it
cannot be comprehended through normal concepts.The Classic of Changes states”,
“Spiritual” means not measured by yin and yang”. Things that are numinous cross
categories.They cannot be fathomed as either yin or yang, and they possess the power
to disrupt the entire system of yin and yang.A related synonym, one that emphasizes
the power of such spiritual things, is _ling_, “numinous” or possessing unusual
spiritual characteristics. Examples that are considered shen in the sense of “spiritual”
include albino members of a species; beings that are part-animal, part-human; women
who die before marriage and turn into ghosts receiving no care; people who die in
unusual ways like suicide or on battlefields far from home; and people whose bodies
fail to decompose or emit strange signs after death.
The fact that these three fields of meaning (“spirit”, and “spiritual”) can be
traced to a single word has important implications for analyzing Chinese
religion.Perhaps most importantly, it indicates that there is no unbridgeable gap
separating humans from gods or, for that matter, separating good spirits from
demons.All are composed of the same basic stuff, qi, and there is no ontological
distinction between them.Humans are born with the capacity to transform their spirit
into one of the gods of the Chinese pantheon.The hagiographies included in this
anthology offer details about how some people succeed in becoming gods and how
godlike exemplars and saints inspire to follow their example.

189
 CHAPTER – VII
TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN

The transition from feudalism to capitalism has been a much discussed and
debated subject. During 1950s and 60s it has been a lively subject, since the publication
of Maurice Dobb’s Development of Capitalism in 1948.Dobb’s work has been of a non
Marxist economist and among his critics are Paul Sweezy, the Marxist analyst of
contemporary capitalism, Christopher Hill, Eric Hobsbaum and E.P.Thompson.The
Japanese Marxist analyst Takashahi, French historian Soboul, Proccacci the Italian
historian and the like re involved in the debate.An analysis of serfdom, the
development of towns, the role of handicrafts, merchants, money, commodity
production, the concept of prime mover etc. are essential for understanding the
discussion on transition from medieval to modern period.
Serfdom has been the main form of labour in the feudal mode of production and
implies the enforced transfer of the surplus labour or product of labour to the use of the
feudal lord.The peasants who received the charters of freedom in the villages of France
was freed from a range of obligations in the 13 th century.During the period of the
transition there was an increasing commutation of feudal labour in feudal rent in
England, and this has been pointed out by the British Marxists as a significant element
in the transition. There was a real change in the nature of European serfdom between
9th and13th centuries. Urban development in13th and 14th centuries coincides with the
new form of serfdom. Lords share was realised more and more in the form of cash.
Some small towns were started with the initiative of feudal lords simply to provide
convenient market, which would earn them stall rents. The development of merchant
capital has been crucial to the transition. The Italian merchants especially the Florentine
and Venitians who traded in high priced low bulk commodities, had intra and
intercontinental commerce connection. They also dealt with in money as bankers to
rulers and popes. But their capital remained with in the sphere of circulation ad was not
applied to agriculture or industry and according to Marx the commercial revolution did
not alter the feudal mode of production. There developed the system of cash rentage,
the cash salaries to soldiers, etc.But those money payments did not alter the nature of
the feudal lords. Dobb and Takahashi draw attention to the failing grip of aristocratic
domination as a significant feature of the transition. Even before Marx the Economic
historian James Thorold Rogers had pointed out this.In the changes which gave
freedom to the agriculture and industrial commodity producers, there was no
transformation of the relationships constituting the feudal mode of production.
The decline of serfdom and seigneurial relations have been the symptoms of the
decline of feudalism and the slow transition from medieval to modern period.By the
15th and16th century feudalism lost its hold on many a European country. Still it
lingered in a few countries. Feudalism was legally abolished in France during the
French revolution.In countries like Russia it continued to exist even in the beginning of
20th century.By the 13th century their developed cities in Europe. The rich merchants of
these cities were able to have freedom from baronial control by paying large sums of
money and securing charters of rights. Almost all these towns were emporia of trade

190
and the rich merchants in these towns were not tied to the land and not obliged to the
feudal barons. These wealthy merchants were influence and were in charge of the
administration of the newly developed towns.The towns were an asylum to fugitive
slaves and enabled them to be free. If a slave left the manor and was delected he would
be brought back to his master.But if he ran away and evaded detection for one year and
one day after his escape he could be free. Thus many a serf could escape to the towns
from the clutches of feudal lord. In town these serfs could have vocations other than
agriculture. During the feudal period famine was common. It aggravated the pitiable
conditions of the serfs. Owing to the poor returns from the land many a feudal lord had
fallen indebt.It was in this condition of financial stringency that they offered freedom to
towns men on payment. As the feudal lords had the right to private war and private
jurisdiction wars and conflicts among them were common. These wars took a heavy toll
of men and money from them which in their turn weakened their position.
The development of centralized monarchy also has been a blow to seigneurial
positions.The traders were not to obey the strict feudal rules and they could support the
newly developing monarchy with men and money.The help of this new middle class
strengthened the hands of the feudal king against the seigneurial position of the feudal
lord. In England with the support of the new middle class the king had established a
centralized monarchy, which made the role of feudal lords as the protector of people
superfluous. Following the defeat of the Yorkist group in the Wars of the Roses king
Henry established the Tudor dynasty.
Technological development had a great role in the decline of serfdom and
seigneurial position of the feudal lord.When gunpowder came in to use in western
Europe it was made the monopoly of the king.The crusades offered chances for the
feudal lords to escape from financial stringency.Many a feudal lord sold his estate on
the eve of the crusades ad went to the east to try their luck there.The decline in
population also had affected agriculture and there by income to the feudal lords.Those
lords who had gone to the crusades lost heavily in terms of men and money many died
in the crusades.The nobles impoverished by crusades also began to the sell their feudal
rights.The importance of new ideas had made the common people aware of their rights
and were no more prepared to tolerate the tyranny of the feudal barons. Actually
feudalism had outlived its purpose.During the period of anarchy, following the fall of
the Roman empire and later during the decline of Holy Roman empire the protection
offered by the powerful lords was a need in the society.But now their role was assumed
by the newly developing monarchies. By the 14th and 15th centuries national
monarchies began to develop and the new nationalism in Europe centred on the king.
The end of the Middle Ages was marked by the development of national
monarchies.The rulers claimed absolute power on the basis of the divine right theory,
according to which they were answerable only to god and not to any earthly
organization or people.The Hundred Years War had strengthened patriotism both in
England and France and contributed to the power of the rising monarchies.In both
France and England the new monarchies had the support of the new middle class who
became affluent through trade and commerce.These indigenous used the laws of the
land to crush feudal barons and to wipe out even the vestiges of feudal power and
position. Henry VII, the founder of the Tudor monarchy by the Statute of Livery and
Maintenance dealt a crushing blow to the titular powers of the feudal lords.The Tudor

191
monarchs used the parliament as a plient instrument to develop their absolute power.
Henry’s successor Henry VIII severed the relation with the Pope of Rome and thereby
the allegiance of England to Rome in his attempt to be autocratic.
In Spain the two ruling families of Castile and Aragon joined together by a
marriage alliance and the combined monarchy was able to wield absolute power.In
France by the time of Louis XIII, the Bourboe monarchy had become strong with a very
powerful army and a full treasury.An important feature of this new absolute
monarchies was a well trained standing army instead of the contingent of armed men
supplied by the feudal barons.
Revival of trade and subsequent commercial revolution has been another
characteristic feature of the period of transition from medieval to modern. Another
feature was the development of commodity production which led to the growth of
capitalist economy in the nation states.The technological development made log
voyages feasible and this induced enterprises for discovering new sea routes. In the
wake of the attempts at finding out a new sea route to the east the European navigators
discovered new continents. This led to plunder and colonialism of the newly
discovered regions and continents and the flow of wealth from the same to Europe.This
wealth contributed much to the development of capitalism.
Dobb summarises the generally accepted explanation of the decline of feudalism
thus: the more or less stable economy of the feudal age was disintegrated by the impact
of commerce acting as an external force. The transition from old order to the new finds
dominant sequences with in the sphere of exchange between manorial economy and the
outside world. ‘National economy’ and ‘exchange economy’ cannot mix and the
presence of the ltter is sufficient tocause the former to go into dissolution.Dobb doesnot
deny the outstanding importance of this process. But he find this explanation in
adequate because it does not probe deeply enough into the effectof trade on
feudalism.Dobb rgues that the growth of money economy led toan intensification of
serfdom and it was the cause of feudal decline. Engels finds this ‘secod serfdom’ as
associated with the growth of production for the market. According to Dobb must have
been other factors at work causing the transition from feudalism to modern
period.According to him it was the inefficiency of feudalism as a system of production,
coupled with the growing needs of the ruling class for revenue that was primarily
responsible for its decline.This need for additional revenue promoted an increase in the
pressure on the producer to a point where this pressure became unendurable. In the
end it led to an exhaustion of the labour force by which the system was nourished.Thus
according to Maurice Dobb it was the over exploitation of the labour force that was the
essential cause for the breakdown of feudalism. Dobb stresses the disregard for the
interest of the serfs and the growing expenditure of the feudal lords arising art of war
and brigandage that increased the need for revenues on the end of the decline of
feudalism. But Paul Sweezy finds that these two factors were there throughout the
feudal period and were not particular to the period of transition and that they do not
support the theory of Dobb. During the 14th century the flight of the serfs from the land
has been a serious problem and Sweezy finds this as an important cause of the crisis of
the feudal economy in the 14th century. Dobb finds that it thus flight was due to the
oppression of the lords. But according to Sweezy he does not make out convincing
cases for this. According to Paul Sweezy the important conflict in connection with the

192
transition period is not between money economy and natural economy, but between
production for market and production for use. Sweezy analyses the process by which
trade engendered a system of production for the market.The rise of the towns which
were the centres of exchange economy opened up to the servile population of the
country side the prospect of a free and better life.This was undoubtedly the main cause
for the flight from the land which Dobb rightly considers to have been one of the
decisive factors in the decline of feudalism. No doubt the rise of exchange economy
had effects on the old order but Sweezy finds the inefficiency of the manorial
organization of production, the process by which the existence of exchange value as a
massive economic fact tended to transform the attitude of the producers, development
of the demand for new goods on the part of the feudal lords and the rise of towns as
crucial factors in the transition from medieval to modern period. The character of the
decline of feudalism Western Europe is uneven.Takahashi intervenes on the debate
between Dobb and Sweezy.According to him transition from feudalism to capitalism
relates to a change in the mode of production and feudalism and capitalism must be
stages of socio economic structure, historical categories. The question of transition from
feudalism to capitalism is not merely are of a transformation informs of economic and
social institutions.The basic problem must be the change in the social existence - form of
labour power.

THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE BEGINNINGS

OF THE MODERN WORLD

The feudal economy rose from the ashes of the slave economy of the Roman
Empire.The relationship between owner and slave, a relationship that is only possible if
the slave can produce more than he consumes, was transformed into one between
owner and serf.The serf was tied to the land he cultivated and received protection from
the lord in return for certain economic and political services.The ultimate control of
economic activity was in the hands of the king, who could, in most cases, transfer the
feuds from one lord to another. Land and labour were transferred rather than bought
and sold; ad this meant that there was no need for labour and land markets.Authority,
faith, and tradition were enough to guarantee that the system worked well.
The relative economic security created by the feudal institutions contributed to
an improvement in the living conditions of the population, if for no other reason than
that the social condition of the serf was higher than that of the slave.At the same time,
the formation of cities in densely populated areas and the widespread diffusion of craft
workshops laid the ground for the beginnings of intense commercial activity.The figure
of the independent merchant appeared, initially, in the gaps in and at the edges of the
traditional economy and, later, in a new economic sphere; the free city and its markets;
the seeds of the modern European city.
The growth of the city economies and of the commercial and financial traffic of
the urban bourgeoisie began in the 12th and 13th centuries. It was in this period that the
first serious attempts at economic theorizing started.Before this there were just a few
interesting ideas: Aristotle’s theories of ‘natural chrematistics’, that is, the art of
becoming rich by producing goods and services useful to life, and of ‘unnatural
chrematistics’, which concerns enrichment from trade and usury; his distinction

193
between the use value and the exchange value of goods, the former consisting of the
ability of a good to satisfy a specific need and the latter of the quantitative relationship
in which one good is exchanged for another; and his attempt to define the ‘just price’ of
goods on the basis of the equivalence of the values exchanged.
The scholastic philosophy of the 13th century, whose principal exponent was
Thomas Aquinas (1221-74), was explicitly linked to Aristotelian philosophy and heavily
marked by the attempt to assimilate it into Christianity. Its crucial assumption was that
human intelligence is able to reach the truth by means of the speculative method.There
are three orders of truth to which speculation should be turned; divine law, as
manifested in the revelation; natural law (jus naturalis), as embodied in the ‘universals’
which God had given to the creatures; and positive law, produced by human choices
and conventions and valid for all of mankind (jus gentium) or for the subjects of the
single states (jus civilis).The majority of the economic propositions of scholasticism
come under jus gentium and only a few under jus naturalis.The theory of the ‘just
price’, reduced to the communis aestimatio (common evaluation) of the normal price in
the absence of monopoly, was derived from Aristotle.There was also a theory of the
‘just wage’, which was defined, again according to the communis aestimatio principle,
as the wage which would guarantee the worker a standard of living adequate to his
social condition. In connection with this, there were also signs of a just price theory
which, by virtue of the principle of ‘exchange of equivalents’, was connected to the cost
of production and, therefore, mainly to the cost of labour. A profit is included in the
cost of production, but it must be fair and moderate, just enough for the merchant to
look after his family and devote a little money to charity.Thus, taking into account the
fact that commerce was only considered legitimate if it was useful to the collectivity, it
is difficult to see little more than the notion of a wage for direction in the scholastic
concept of profit.
The just price is an intrinsic property of a good, as it expresses its intrinsic value
(bonitas intrinseca).But how this value is determined is not clear.The prevailing
opinions oscillate between the theory of the efforts sustained in production ad that of
the capability of the good to satisfy a human need. In both cases, however, we are
dealing with an objective property of the good. And it is not clear whether the
propositions concerning the value of the goods are of natural law, as suggested by the
theory of the bonitas intrinseca, or should be reduced to the jus gentium, as the theory
of communis aestimatio seems to suggest.In fact, the scholasticists were not really
interested in understanding what value is or how it is determined.They believed that
the just price must be such as to guarantee commutative justice, that is, equal exchange,
in such way that nobody can obtain more than he gives from the exchange of goods. If
this price is ‘just’ because it corresponds to the natural law, it is also true, even though it
cannot be observed—and, in a certain sense, even truer than the prices at which the
goods are really exchanged on the market, which can be a little origin of the classical
theories of natural and market prices.
Unlike real goods, which have an intrinsic value, money has a conventional
value (impositus), a value imposed by the prince, and there is no doubt that the
doctrine of the value of money comes within positive rather than natural law. At any
rate, a conventionalist theory of money predominates in scholastic thought, and
especially in the work of Thomas Aquinas, who considered money as standard

194
invented by man to measure the value of goods and facilitate in use. In fact, the main
justification for the condemnation of usury was derived from this.Thomas Aquinas took
up the Aristotelian condemnation of usury and added to it a theory according to which
money, as it is not a durable good which produces services, like capital goods, cannot
be rented out, so that its lending cannot give the right to the collection of interest. He
was against those who maintained that interest, being proportional to the duration of
the loan, is produced by time, an opinion that he attacked by arguing that time is a
common good. It is God’s gift to mankind, and nobody has the right to appropriate it
for himself or to appropriate its fruits.Finally, Aquinas made an interesting attempt to
justify private property, an attempt that seems to be the first link in the long chain
which, as we will see, connects scholastic thought to the seventeenth-century natural-
law philosophy, and to Locke, Quesnay, Smith, and nineteenth-century socialism.God
created the earth for the whole of mankind, and nobody can claim a right which
deprives other men of the goods created. Private property, however, could be justified
as a stimulus to work and is not in contrast with natural law, even though it is not
established by it.It can be seen as a form of concession that the community gives to
individuals, provided they use it as a service to the community; it is not a right of using,
enjoying, and abusing (jus utendi, fruendi, et abutendi), but only a power of procuring
and dispensing (potestas procurandi et dispensandi).
It is not difficult to understand the strong moralist tone of the scholastic theories
and their normative function.This was a period in which the revival of commerce
threatened to break up a social order which was supposed to be based on the divine
will, while bringing wealth and welfare, if not to all the community, certainly to some
new classes and social groups. In this situation there was a strongly felt need to keep
under the community’s controls, wherever possible, the economic instruments by
which the new wealth was accumulated; commercial profits, prices, usury loans, and
private property.
The economic ideas of Aquinas, and of scholasticism in general, have little
scientific value and belong to the prehistory of economic science.But they cannot be
ignored in any history of this science as, after becoming part of the social doctrine of the
Catholic Church, they have continued to influence economic thought for several
centuries, even in writers who did not agree with them. Economists who have
elaborated opposing doctrines have had to take them into consideration.An excellent
example is the abbe Galiani, who, as late as the 18th century, at the height of the
Enlightenment, was not able to formulate his own modern theory of interest without
feeling the need to show its coherence with the doctrine of ‘commutative’ justice and
the precept that prohibits usury. A slow but inexorable process of economic, social,
political, and cultural transformation began around the middle of the 15th century, and
was to last beyond the middle of the 18th, when all the preconditions for the birth of
modern industrial capitalism had been laid down.
One of the main factors in this transformation process was the flow of gold from
the Americas.The prices in Europe tripled from 1500 to 1650. The social consequences
were enormous.On the one hand, there was a gradual impoverishment of those classes,
aristocratic and clerical, who lived on incomes which, being fixed by custom, adjusted
extremely slowly to the fall in the value of money.On the other hand, there was an
unprecedented enrichment of the mercantile class, who lived on ‘profits upon

195
alienation’, namely, incomes derived from the difference between the buying and
selling prices of goods, a type of profit that naturally increases with inflation.This
growth of the monetary wealth of the middle classes and the corresponding gradual
expropriation of the old dominant classes was one of the fundamental factors in the
process of primitive accumulation.
The expansion of trade, especially long-distance commerce, led to the formation
of commercial and industrial centres and, gradually, to the new figure of the merchant-
manufacturer.Thus inducing profound changes in productive activity.The need for an
increasing quantity of manufactured products and, above all, the need for greater
stability in their supply led the merchants to extend their control over the production
activity. Already by the end of the sixteenth century the craft model of production,
where the craftsman was the owner of his tools and workshop and worked as a small
independent businessman, had begun to be replaced, in the export sector, by a system
of working at home, the ‘putting-out’ system. At first, the merchant supplied the raw
materials and commissioned the craftsman to transform them into finished products,
while the work continued to be done in independent workshops.In the succeeding
phase, the ownership of the tools of production, and often the workshops themselves,
passed to the merchant, who was then able to employ workers himself. Workers no
longer sold the finished product to the merchant but instead sold their own working
capacity. The textile industry was one of the first sectors in which this new method of
production took place.
Thus occurred the slow formation of a modern working class, a social class
whose members are deprived of control over the production process and for whom the
sale of their own working capacity represents the only way of making a living. In the
countryside this process was favoured by the diffusion of the putting-out system, the
enclosure movement (especially in England), and the increase in the population.
Furthermore, the increase in prices in the towns drastically impoverished those
categories of semi-skilled craft workers who made up the lowest strata of the old guilds,
and who earned, at least in part, incomes which were fixed by tradition. Such incomes
were heavily cut by inflation.This social group merged with the farmers expelled from
the countryside and the poor craftsmen whose goods were no longer competitive
because of lack of commercial outlets.
Another important change that occurred in these three centuries was the
affirmation of the modern nation states, a process triggered by the struggles between
the free cities, the papacy, and the Empire which took place in Italy in the lat Middle
Ages.The transformation ended in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, thus
giving life to various national unification processes which were completed towards the
end of the 15th century, at least in England, France, and Spain. In the following three
centuries, European wars were wars among nation states, where the reason of the state
prevailed over every other, even when, as with religious wars, the ideological element
was very strong.

196
 THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND THE BIRTH OF POLITICAL ECONOMY

The affirmation of the supremacy of spiritual power over temporal power was
one of the main ideological weapons in the struggle of the free cities against the central
power. This struggle demolished the basis of the legitimacy of the order of the Empire
and led to a revolutionary process which was to change the face of Europe. It was the
spirit of man which emancipated itself from tradition.The cultural revolution was slow
but inexorable. With Humanism and the Renaissance, man was placed at the centre of
the universe and philosophy emancipated from Aristotle and Thomism. And while
politics, with Machiavelli, ceased to be a branch of moral philosophy and became a
science, with the Protestant Reformation it was faith, or the spiritual base of the free act,
which emancipated itself from tradition and authority. Machiavelli’s The Prince was
published in 1516; Luther began preaching against the sale of indulgences in 1517.
The Renaissance also witnessed the beginning of that great process of
intellectual emancipation known as the Scientific Revolution. In the 16th and 17th
centuries there was a second wave in the expansion of European universities. The first
wave had taken place in the late middle Ages under the protection of the Church. Later,
in the 14th and 15th centuries, the university system collapsed, mainly because of the
attempt by the freer and more creative intellectuals to escape from the spiritual control
of the Church and to look for employment in the royal courts and in the lay academies.
During the revival of the universities in the 16th and 17th centuries, the State tended to
take the place of the Church in the control of intellectual activity. In this period, the
traditionally higher-ranked faculties of theology, law, and medicine, where the spiritual
control fed by the wars of religion was still important, lost prestige and importance.At
the same time the faculties of philosophy, relegated to an ancillary role in the middle
Ages, acquired increasing prominence.
Modern philosophy was born in the new universities, and with it science. And
it was not by chance that the greatest philosophers of the period were also great
scientists, or at least showed great interest in scientific research. The Scientific
Revolution began with Copernicus in the first half of the 16th century, continued with
Keplero, Galileo, Bacon, Leibnitz, Descartes, and was completed by Newton in the 18th
century. It was in this climate of cultural revolution that the basis of modern economic
thought was laid down.While the natural sciences were freeing themselves from belief
in various forms of magic, economics wished to emancipate itself from ethics and
political philosophy.The process had been under way for some time when Antoyne de
Monchretien (1575-1621) announced the programme in the title of his main work,
Traicte de l’oeconomie politique (1615), in which he sustained that economics, the
‘science of acquisition’, was an important part of politics, and that it should concern
itself, not only with the household, but also with the State.The birth of economic science
passed through two emancipation processes.The first led to the abandonment of the
Aristotelian and Thomistic idea that economics should deal exclusively with the
behaviour of individual economic agents and households, while the other resulted in
the abandonment of scholastic metaphysics and gnosiology.We will consider them
separately.
In classical Greek thought and, owing to the influence of Aristotle, in medieval
philosophy, economics was considered as the art of family management.For Thomas

197
Aquinas, oeconomia was simply the ‘government of the house’. It was a discipline
which focused on the private sphere of human action.In this role it was subordinate to
ethics and political philosophy, the philosophical discipline which studied the public
activities of man. Politics was concerned with the behaviour of collective agents such as
social classes, the State, and its organs, whereas economics studied the behaviour of the
individual social agents, the families.The aim of the ‘science’ of political philosophy was
the study of the political society.In relation to this, the families represented something
which was considered inessential.
On the other hand, political philosophy and ethics produced knowledge,
whereas economics only had practical ends. For Aristotle, as for his followers in the late
Middle Ages, especially Aquinas, ‘science’ that is to say, speculative knowledge,
consisted of the application of a rational deductive procedure to an object of study, on
the basis of which propositions could be formulated ad conclusions reached that would
be both universal and necessary.The universality of political propositions was derived
from the fact that God’s will was manifested in the popular consent given to the
legislative power of the governors; while the universality of ethical propositions
derived from the fact that the ends of human action coincided with the ends which God
had modeled for all creatures.The economic activities of a household could not be
studied in this way.All the actions of the single social cells would come under either
ethics or politics, and those which could not thus be classified were not worth
‘scientific’ study.In other words, economics was not a ‘science’ because it was neither
ethics nor politics. Indeed, Schumpeter is right when, in his History, he observes that
Aquinas was not interested in economic questions in themselves, and that ‘it is only
where economic phenomena raise questions of moral theology that he touched upon
them at all’. He is also correct when he observes that, in scholasticism, economics as a
whole was never treated as a subject in itself.Aquinas considered individual
commercial action as despicable.What universal propositions could be formulated on
it? How could a ‘science’ deal with it?
Now, pretending to be public, national, or political economy, the new discipline
defined itself as a science precisely because it had located its own subject of study
within the sphere of public activity.With this it affirmed, among other things, its own
autonomy from the new political science, which was developing at the same time.They
were two independent disciplines which studied different aspects of collective action:
one was concerned with the accumulation and management of wealth, the other with
the accumulation and management of power. Both studied the behaviour of collective
agents; still the State and its organs, but now subordinately to another social subject, the
nation. From the latter the State tended to receive legitimacy, especially as the
legitimacy of the papacy or the Empire had been strongly weakened. Public welfare
was becoming one of the legitimating factors by which a new sphere of State activity
was to be defined.Political economy was born, together with theories of economic
policy, in order to give sense and efficacy to this activity.
In order to outline the second aspect of the process of emancipation of economics
from Thomism, it is important to note that the birth of political economy occurred at the
same time as the concept of economic science underwent a secularization process.Only
when human action is no longer motivated by spiritual ends does it make sense to
study it without aspiring to reach universal propositions.And it is precisely when

198
public choices are no longer legitimated by God, but only by the ends of men and the
nation, tht it is possible to study them scientifically.
This secularization process, as far as political economy is concerned, was
completed in the seventeenth century, when the new science was fertilized by natural-
law philosophy, English empiricism, and Cartesian rationalism. But it had begun much
earlier, at the time of the philosophical debates about ‘universals’.The ‘universals’ are
the essential properties of things. According to Aquinas, before existing in the mind of
man, who is able to understand them by means of abstraction, universals exist in the
mind of God.They also reside in things themselves, behind and at the roots of their
empirical reality. It is for this reason that speculation leads to ‘science’: the human
mind, with its speculative ability, operates on an ontological structure of the world to
which it corresponds.
A different theory of knowledge was put forward by the nominalist
philosophers, who denied the real existence of the universals.These, from the
nominalist point of view, were purely conventional signs; the names of things and not
their real essence.The principal supporters of this conception were Roger Bacon and
William Ockham, to whom we owe the distant origin of modern scientific thought.The
nominalist philosophers looked for knowledge in the study of the individual and
empirical aspects of the things, rather than in their universal essences.
Karl Pribram has pointed out that it was some of the nominalist thinkers, above
all students and followers of Ockham, who, in the late 14th and early 15th centuries,
made the first attempts at scientific reasoning in economics. Jean Buridan who tried to
explain the values of goods, not as what they should be, but as what they really are; and
not as substance but as relational phenomena, expressions of human needs.Nocholas
Oresme, who distanced himself from Thomism by attributing a real rather than a
conventional value to money, a value linked to that of the precious metals from which
money was made. Oresme was also one of the first scholars to have a clear idea of
‘Gresham’s Law’, which we will consider in the next section.And Antonio Pierozzi
(1389-1459), better known as St. Antoninus of Florence, who advanced a theory
according to which, the value of goods, besides being dependent on the costs sustained
in production, was also dependent o scarcity (raritas), ad on the evaluation
(complacibilitas) of the individuals.In this way he turned the doctrine of communis
aestimatio to serve a subjectivist notion of value.

*****************************************************************************************

199
200