HISTORY

Subject : History
(For under graduate student)

Paper No. : Paper-I

History of India

Topic No. & Title : Unit- 4

Indus Civilization
Topic- c
Neolithic-Chalcolithic Cultures
of India

Lecture No. & Title : Lecture 1

Neolithic Cultures in non-
Harappan India

Neolithic cultures in non-Harappan India- Kashmir,

Ganga-Belan valley and South India:

Meaning of Neolithic
Neolithic is actually the last phase of stone age, and this
is denoted by advances marked by the use of finer and
better stone tools which are smaller in size, more
efficient and manufactured for multiple purposes. Along
with this a great signifier of the Neolithic is considered to
be man’s shift from the hunting-gathering stage to food
production. This also means certain paradigm shifts in
the relationship between animal, man and land. It
indicates a more sedentary life, because along with
farming, man’s attachment with land and domesticated
animals was growing, which in turn necessitated the
selection of suitable areas within which they could carry
out these activities.

There are clusters of Neolithic in certain geographical

areas. Chronologically one of the earliest Neolithic
clusters was found located in the Belan valley, which is in
the southern Ganga plains. The next zone was the
Kashmir Neolithic. The third region was in the middle
Ganga plains, where the Bihar sites have been found
located. Then there were the eastern Indian sites in West
Bengal, Orissa and Assam. The southern Neolithic
cultures appear mostly from Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka and also from Tamil Nadu.

There were clusters of Neolithic sites, with Chopanimando

being considered as the type site, located in the small
river valleys of the Belan, Son, Lapari, Paisuni and
Rihand. Chopanimando is very interesting because a
Mesolithic layer here is overlaid with the Neolithic layer
which gives clear indications of the transformation from
the Mesolithic stage to the Neolithic stage. Radio carbon
datings from Koldihwa, are interesting because the
earliest dating is in the 8000 BCE-6000 BCE time bracket.
Koldhiwa is significant, because this is a particular site
which reveals not only signatures of habitation, like
dwelling units, wattle and daub huts, but also the first
use of wild rice, followed by domesticated rice.

Mahagara, a site located in the Belan valley has given

striking evidence of a demarcated area that has been
identified as a cattle stockade. The marks of post holes
around that area, along with hoof marks of cattle indicate
that about forty to sixty animals could be enclosed in this
space.

Pottery was mostly handmade. Three types of pottery

have been identified. These are, cord marked ware, black
and red ware and a plain red ware. Most of the shapes
that have been unearthed were large storage jars and
deep bowls.

In Kashmir most of the Neolithic sites that have been

discovered are located in a diagonal line from north-west
to south-east, in the districts of Baramulla, Srinagar and
Anantnag. The most important sites located here are
Burzahom, Gufkral, Olchibag, and Hariparigam. These
are situated on a geological formation which is locally
known as Karewa. Geologists inform us that the valley of
Kashmir had been a lake in Pleistocene times, which later
dried up. Later due to the movement of the Pir Panjal
Kashmir range, the surface of the lake got elevated, and
led to the formation of some sort of table land or terrace.
The conglomerate which forms this particular kind of
table land is composed of alluvial depositions or fluvial
depositions, consisting of sand and clay which is
extremely fertile and favourable for cultivation. It is
significant that even at present, most of the cultivation
that takes place in Kashmir, actually occurs in the same
kind of deposition, where prehistoric settlements had
been located.
At both Burzahom and Gufkral, the people used to live in
subterranean pits, or holes dug into the ground below the
surface. The earliest holes went as far deep as four
meters. The shape of these pits would mostly be oval or
circular, with the walls plastered with mud. They were
narrower at the surface of the soil, and got deeper and
wider at the bottom. The top circumference would be
about three metres, while at the bottom it would be
about four and a half metres. There are signs of steps
leading down to the floor of the pits, although in some
cases there are no sign of steps which seems to indicate
the use of some kind of ladder. At the ground level the
floor of the pits are marked with post holes, which points
to the possibility of wooden posts having been fixed in
these holes in order to support some kind of thatched
roof.

The other interesting piece of evidence which has come

from the site of Burzahom, is the remains of a birch tree.
In Kashmiri Burzahom means the ‘place of Burzh’ or birch
tree. So it seems probable that they used the wood of the
birch tree and then made a thatched roof with pine
leaves to prepare a shelter.

But in the period-II levels we find these holes filled up

with clay, and the tops covered and plastered with mud,
with a coating of red ochre.

It thus appears that the people of period I were living

inside these pits and that their hearths were also in the
form of pits. The shape of the hearths was not round or
oval but square or rectangular, and was located at the
centre of the settlement. It seems to indicate some sort
of community kitchen.

Most of the burials were within the habitation area, right

underneath the hut floors. They were circular pits,
plastered with lime. There were both secondary burials as
well as the practice of inhumation. Animals were
sometimes buried along with humans. Wild animals like
wolves, or deer, and domesticated animals like cattle
were found to have been buried along with humans. A
touching picture of the burial of a dog has been revealed,
which raises the vision of dogs probably accompanying
hunters, and thus developing a close relationship with
them.

Period-I at Burzahom reveals handmade pottery of a very

coarse variety, with the colours ranging from grey, red,
buff and brown. The impressions of a mat appearing on
the surface of some specimens of pottery seem to
indicate that these marks were the result of keeping
them on a mat while they were being made. Pottery is
hand made in period II as well, but a new kind of
polished burnished ware is now in evidence. While we
find rimless bowls and jars in period I, in period II we get
high necked jars, and bowls with flared lids.

The second sub-phase is dated c.1700 BCE, where as the

beginning of this culture at Burzahom is 2900 BCE. At
Burzahom we find pottery in both the periods. But the
Gufkral sequence is aceramic and has revealed no
pottery at all.
A wide array of stone tools are available, ranging from
the Neolithic oblong and oval axes and celts, to chopping
stones, grinding stones and mace heads, which point to
the practice of hunting. An array of bone tools like
harpoons, and bone points have been found, which
indicate fishing. There is therefore a wide array of
Neolithic items at the sites in Kashmir. Plant remains of
wheat, barley, and lentils have also been recovered from
these sites.

Most of the Neolithic sites in the middle Ganga plains are

found in the north Bihar plains. Some of the important
sites are, Chirand, Senuar, Chechar Kutubpur, Maner,
and Taradih. All of them are located near the smaller
streams running out of the Sarayu, Ganga, and the other
tributaries of the Ganga in this region. Chirand is located
in district Saran, at the confluence of the Sarayu and the
Ganga. Senuar is in district Rohtak. Taradih is located,
near Bodhgaya, and Maner near Patna.
The pottery from Chirand is mostly handmade; it is red,
grey, or black ware and burnished grey ware. It appears
to be somewhat more polished than the general
handmade ware.

There are remains of houses made of wattle and daub,

with rammed floors. Hearths were semi circular, with
oblong ovens. It may indicate some kind of community
kitchen for the people living in Chirand.

Senuar has two Neolithic ages. In the first phase we do

not have evidence of any pottery, but in the second
phase we have three kinds of pottery, the red ware, the
burnished grey, and the burnished red ware. Beads of
different forms, sizes and colours, mostly made from
jasper, carnelian or marble have been found, and it
seems as if Chirand was a bead manufacturing centre,
because there is evidence of unfinished beads here. So
far as stone implements were concerned it appears that
microlithic blades were being made of some of the semi-
precious stones like jasper, agate and quartz, while
Neolithic celts, axes, hammer stones, and agricultural
tools like the quern, the pestle and mortar, constitute the
stone tool assemblage.
It seems that rice was the main crop, along with wheat,
and barley, while some traces of lentils and millets have
been observed. Remains of wild animals like the nilgai,
rhinoceros, and elephant, have been found at Chirand,
along with those of domesticated animals like cattle, dog
and sheep,

The states of Orissa and West Bengal have some

Neolithic sites, while further to the east prehistoric finds
are from the northern Cachar, Naga Hills, the borders of
Assam and Meghalaya. Most of the evidence from these
areas comes in the form of surface finds which makes it
difficult to have a clear image of strategraphy.

At Orissa there are Neolithic sites like Mayurbhanj,

Baidipur, Kunwar, Keonjhar and Angul in Sankarganj. At
these sites evidence of dwelling units, rammed floors and
some amount of pottery which is either grey ware or
plain ware with a red slip and some incised decoration
have been found. In other areas, pottery was mostly
black and red ware. The dates range in and around the
second millennium BCE.

West Bengal reveals an interesting scenario, with the

Neolithic layers here being quickly overlaid with
Chalcolithic layers. Pandurajar Dhibi in the Ajay valley
(inBurdwan district), and Bharatpur in the Ajay valley
itself, are significant sites. Both have Neolithic
assemblages, black and red ware, grey ware and
distinctive grey ware. There is also evidence of rice and
animal domestication.

Regarding Meghalaya, not much exploration, or

excavation, has been carried out. The two excavated
sites from the Cachar hills area are Daojali Hading and
Sarutaru (on the border of Meghalaya). Here we get
some Neolithic stone tool assemblages, and some
scattered evidence in the form of surface finds, but they
are insufficient for forming a kind of complete graph of
the Neolithic phase in eastern India.
Whatever dates have been got from Assam, come down
to historical times. Evidence of prehistory in eastern India
happens much later than elsewhere. The Bihar sequence
is of a slightly earlier date, ranging from the middle of
the third millennium to the end of the third millennium
BCE. But so far as Orissa and West Bengal are
concerned, dates fall mostly between the middle of the
second millennium and the first millennium BCE.

Most of the Neolithic sites in the south Indian context,

are found located in the two doabs, the Raichur Doab,
between the Krishna and Tungabhadra, and the Sorapur
Doab, between the Krishna and Bhima rivers, both being
in the most fertile regions. Most of the sites are thus
found located in the Andhra-Karnataka zone. The
ecological setting was favourable for the Neolithic people,
as these sites were mostly located in the foot hills or the
low hills region; not in the flood plains. The vegetation
here is also scanty as the rain fall pattern is insufficient.
The area had shrubs and bushes, which favoured the
Neolithic people with their meagre stone tools.

Most of the locations are near perennial sources of water.

K.A. Paddaya a noted archeologist excavated a Neolithic
site in the Sorapur Doab and his findings made him
suggest that the nuclear zone of the Neolithic sites lay in
the region of the Raichur doab hills and the Sorapur
region, and the early phase of Neolithic activity probably
started out here. It was restricted to this zone, and
spread out towards the west, the east and the south,
later from 1800 BCE.

There is not much evidence of the Mesolithic in this

nuclear zone of the South Indian Neolithic. It seems that
it starts with the Neolithic settlements. This made
Kartikeya Sharma and others to comment that there was
a sudden development, or evolution of the Neolithic in
the context of south India.

The Neolithic seems to have flourished quite early in

south India. One of the earliest dates for Watgal, a
habitation site, places it to around 2900 BCE. There are
two clear Neolithic phases here. The first phase is from
the third millennium BCE, while the second phase is
around 1800 BCE. The third phase here, like eastern
India, (especially West Bengal) has a Neolithic-
Chalcolithic overlap stage.

At certain spots there are huge heaps of ashes in the

shape of mounds, which appear to have been formed due
to accumulation of burnt and vitrified cow dung. Analysis
carried out by the noted palaeo-zoologist F. E. Zooner
has proved that this was cattle dung. Layers of such dung
were probably heaped up one after the other, which
resulted in a shape of that sort. It seems that there was
a cattle pen underneath, because excavations at Utnur
carried out by F.R Allchin has revealed that there were
hoof impressions that resemble those found at Mahagara,
although at Mahagara it was not overlaid with any
accumulated ash mound. The stockade area is quite
large, and possibly enough for eight hundred to a
thousand cattle, according to Allchin.

Another interesting feature is that on the circumference

of the ash mound there are post hole marks, suggesting
a wooden fencing to it. Such ash mounds have also been
found in sites like Utnur, and Kodekal where K. A.
Paddaya had under taken excavations, similar ash
mounds have been found at Piklihal and Pallavoy as well.
A number of habitation sites have also been found in the
Tamil Nadu region in T Narsipur and Payyampally.
Botanical evidence at these sites indicates that they were
using ragi, millet, and horse gram and chickpea kind of
crops.

An interesting feature found at the twin sites of

Sanganakallu and Tekkalakota are the etchings/bruisings
found in nearby rock shelters. They cannot be
characterized as paintings, but as petroglyphs. The
motifs are basically some kind of animal motif system,
with cattle being the most common subject, although
other animals like tiger, deer and buffalo have also been
found to have figured in them. There are also certain
symbolic anthropomorphic figures. Altogether a rich
picture of the south Indian Neolithic emerges before us.
The dates range from the third to the second millennium
BCE. In the next phase we come across an overlap with
the next stage. It has also been revealed that between
the Neolithic assemblages in general, there is the sudden
occurrence of some metal objects of copper and bronze,
and even gold, in some places.

Summing up
In India each region had its own typical characteristics,
and as such, in whichever zone the clusters of Neolithic
cultures developed, it is only natural that it was the
geographical and climatic reasons that compelled early
man to settle in certain areas, and to use whatever raw
material was available in their particular regions. They
had to interact with the nature around them, which is
proved by the evidence of the earliest batch of Neolithic
people in Kashmir who preferred to live in subterranean
pits probably because they provided them some
insulation from the cold climate. In other places in the
Indian subcontinent however so far as dwelling style was
concerned, there may be observed an almost common
feature of wattle and daub houses.

Pottery however had distinctive regional features. The

black and red ware, and the grey ware were no doubt
gradually emerging as one of the common wares in most
areas, but stylistic and manufacturing differences are
clearly visible, in the different regions.

Burzahom pointed to a peculiar type of burial system, but

in other areas there were broad similarities, with certain
regional typicalities. The images of the Neolithic cultures
in the subcontinent thus throw up interesting variations
while the fundamentals remained more or less similar.