The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin
V, 71. No. lO(October 1987), P, 1196-1209,15 Figs., 1 T^hle
Capillary Pressure Techniques: Application to Exploration and
Development Geology^
JEFFREY B. JENNINGS'
ABSTRACT
Capillary pressure can be viewed as the pressure
required to drive a fluid through a pore throat and dis-
place the pore wetting fluid, with greater pressure being
required as the pore throat becomes smaller. The size and
distribution of pore throats within a host rock control its
capillary pressure characteristics, which in turn control
fluid behavior in the pore system. Mercury-injection cap-
illary pressure curves, which measure capillarity, are
obtained by injecting mercury into sample plugs to pro-
duce a plot of injection pressure vs. mercury saturation.
The resulting capillary pressure curves can provide quali-
tative assessments of reservoir rock using such calculated
values as pore-throat sorting, reservoir grade, and oil
columns required to obtain 50 and 15% oil saturations.
Regional capillary pressure maps of these calculated val-
ues identify a north-south trend of favorable reservoir
rock along the state line between Montana and North
Dakota in the third porosity ("C") zone of the Ordovi-
cian Red River Formation. Oil migration and trapping
can be significantly controlled by capillary pressure. At
Bell Creek field, in southeastern Montana, multiple oil-
water contacts in Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone barrier
sands can be explained vrith the concept of a capillary
pressure release valve. Semi-permeable siltstones can
only trap finite columns with the excess oil being released
updip to migrate into other reservoir quality sand bodies.
Oil columns can be estimated from capillary pressure
data by determining the buoyancy force of the oil float-
ing on water and then converting from a mercury-air cap-
illary system to an oil-water capillary system. Relative
permeability data may also be calculated from capillary
pressure data and can be used to estimate fractional
water production at given water saturations. Tilted oil-
water contacts can result from hydrodynamics, capillary
pressure, or both, and capillary pressure data can help
determine the type of tilting present. By understanding
capillarity, we can obtain better insight on the nature of
reservoir rock, oil accumulations, and permeability rela-
tionships.
©Copyright 1987. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved.
^ Manuscript received, April 27,1937; accepted, August 5,1987.
^Consulting Geologist, 21S6 South Field Street, Lakewood, Colorado
80227.
My thanks to B-1 Industries, Inc.; Core Analysis of Casper, Wyoming; and
Cap-Strat, Inc., of Denver, Colorado; for contributing much of the data used in
this paper. A special thanks to Ken Bowen, President of B-1 industries, and
Wes Bowen, President of Cap-Stral, Inc., for making this project possible.
1196
INTRODUCTION
Capillary pressure techniques have been available to
the petroleum industry for over forty years but have been
used primarily in petroleum engineering. With the search
for petroleum becoming more difficult, a review of exist-
ing methods can provide the exploration and develop-
ment geologist with tools to improve the odds.
Mercury injection-capillary pressure data are
obtained by injecting mercury into sample plugs to pro-
duce a plot of injection pressure vs. mercury saturation.
The resulting capillary pressure curves are valuable aids
for exploration and development. In exploration pro-
grams the data can be used to upgrade prospects or define
areas for further exploratory efforts. Regional studies
can be constructed in much the same fashion as strati-
graphic studies and can be integrated into geological,
geophysical, and engineering programs. For field devel-
opment, capillary pressure data can be used to locate eco-
nomic oil-water contacts, calculate oil columns, or
determine if reservoir tilting is a function of hydrody-
namics, capillary pressure, or both. Stratigraphic traps
are significantly influenced by capillary pressure and
understanding the concept of a capillary pressure release
valve can help exploit these types of traps. With the
increasing interest in enhanced recovery programs,
capillary-pressure-derived relative permeabilities can
provide an inexpensive yet valuable source of data.
If we understand how capillary pressure works within
a reservoir or how it affects migration and entrapment,
we can learn and apply new information in our search for
petroleum deposits. Capillary pressure data are neither
difficult nor prohibitively expensive to obtain and can
yield answers that cannot be obtained in any other way.
OBTAINING AND DISPLAYING
CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA
Capillary pressure data are obtained by injecting mer-
cury, at increasing pressure levels, into sample plugs. The
plugs, normally the same ones used in routine core analy-
sis, are approximately 1 in. in diameter and 1 Vi in. long.
After a plug is thoroughly cleaned, its porosity is mea-
sured and it is placed within the sample chamber of the
capillary pressure apparatus (Figure 1). A strong vacuum
reduces the pressure toward 0 atm, and the chamber is
filled with mercury up to an index mark located in an
observation port immediately above the chamber. A
micrometer hand wheel, controlling the mercury reser-
voir, is set to zero; pressure is then applied to the system.
 Jeffrey B. Jennings 1197

irreducible Saturation, %
Pressure gauge 0 20 40 60 80 100
2000 0.05
K Irreducible
Saturation, S^\
1000 0.10
High-pressure hose

Vacuum gauge

To
-=* vacuum
pump
3
(A
Supply (A
pressure a>
Sample Chamber a
(internal view) 100
containing rock sample _^ Observation
windows
Handwheel
micrometer
idial l\4etering Mercury
plunger 1 reservoir

Measuring
screw

Figure 1—Capillary pressure apparatus for obtaining mercury Entry

injection-capillary pressure data. Pressure, Pg-

Measurements at 30 pressure levels are normally

obtained starting at 2 psi and progressing, in a logarith-
mic fashion, up to 2,000 psi. At each pressure level, the
system is allowed to reach equilibrium as the sample plug
imbibes mercury. When the mercury will no longer satu-
rate the sample at a given pressure, the mercury level is
reindexed by turning the micrometer handwheel to force
more mercury into the chamber. The quantity of mercury
needed to replenish the sample chamber equals the
amount imbibed into the plug and can be read directly
from the micrometer. By dividing this measurement by
the total pore volume of the plug, we can calculate injec-
tion pressure (psi) vs. mercury saturation (percent pore
space).
To ease interpretation, we plot the injection pressure
vs. mercury saturation data on semi-log paper (Figure 2).
Mercury saturation is plotted along the bottom scale and
ranges linearly from 0 to 100*%, while injection pressure
is plotted on the vertical scale and ranges logarithmically
from 2 to 2,000 psi. Plotted along the top is a scale mea-
suring irreducible pore space, the reciprocal of the mer-
cury saturation scale. An additional vertical scale of
pore-throat radius (microns) is usually displayed next to
injection pressure and estimates pore-throat size at a
given pressure. Capillary pressure data may also be plot-
ted using a linear format, but the semi-log format is more
accurate and easier to interpret. Subtle differences
between curves normally occur at injection pressures
below 200 psi, and these differences are more apparent
on a semi-log plot than on a linear plot.
Each capillary pressure curve can be defined by the
entry pressure, displacement pressure, plateau, and irre-
40
100 80 60 40 20 0
Mercury Saturation, %
Figure 2—Typical capillary pressure curve plotted on a semi-
log graph.
ducible saturation (Figure 2). The entry pressure, P^, is
the pressure at which the sample first begins to accept
mercury into the pore system. P^ is of limited importance
and is primarily a function of the mercury conforming to
irregularities on the surface of the sample plug. Displace-
ment pressure, P^, is estimated by extending the slope of
the plateau to the right side of the graph, and is inter-
preted to be the pressure at which mercury first imbibes
into the rock at reservoir conditions. The plateau reflects
pore-throat sorting within a sample. A horizontal pla-
teau indicates good sorting, with sorting becoming
poorer as the plateau steepens. Irreducible water satura-
tion, S„i, is the percentage of the pore space that mercury
could not enter; this percentage can be used to adjust the
laboratory-measured total porosity to the true effective
porosity.
LIMITATIONS ON CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA
A number of limitations exist when using capillary
pressure data and are, in general, the same that apply to
conventional plug core analysis. Core material is prefer-
red for the test. The mercury injection technique may be
1198 Capillary Pressure Techniques
used on well cuttings or chips, but they tend to provide
inaccurate results due to the large surface-area to volume
ratio. Percussion sidewall plugs can sometimes be used,
but often contain induced fractures that produce errone-
ous capillary pressure measurements. Sidewall plugs,
obtained via wireline coring tools, normally provide
excellent material for capillary pressure testing.
Large-scale fractures, which are significant in the res-
ervoir plumbing framework, cannot be measured by con-
ventional plug analysis or mercury injection capillary
pressures because sampling is limited to small, homoge-
neous plugs. At the other end of the spectrum, the effects
of micro-fractures can be analyzed with capillary pres-
sures.
A single capillary pressure curve cannot be rehed upon
to reflect the true overall character of a reservoir. At least ECon. o/w Contact ^ •-
two samples must be obtained, with selections preferably
made from the best effective foot and the least effective
foot of reservoir rock. In this manner the reservoir qual-
ity can be bracketed. Additional samples may be taken
from low-permeability zones containing some oil satura-
tion and used to calculate possible downdip limits of oil
columns.
Capillary pressure data cannot be used as a stand-
alone tool for evaluation or interpretation. Like any 100% Water Level
other exploration or development tool, they must be inte-
grated into geological, geophysical, or engineering pro-
grams to be of the most benefit.
OIL COLUMN AND ITS RELATION TO
OIL-WATER CONTACT
An oil column is the vertical dimension of a continuous
oil accumulation, with its bottom located at the free-
water level and extending to the top of the trap. The trap
can be structural, stratigraphic, or both with the impor-
tant parameter being the vertical magnitude of the oil
accumulation. The oil column is subdivided into three
zones: (1) 100% oil production zone, (2) oil-water transi-
tion zone, and (3) 100% water production zone. The fol-
lowing describes each of the three zones as depicted in
Figure 3.
The uppermost zone in an oil column is the zone of
100% oil production. Although some water saturation is
present, the relative permeability of oil is much greater
than water, and the produced fluid is entirely oil.
The transition zone is that part of the oil column that
produces both oil and water; it can be further subdivided
into economical and noneconomical zones. Both oil and
water are produced.
At the base of the oil column is a zone of 100% water
production. Ahhough oil occupies some of the pore
space, the relative permeability of the oil to water is too
low to allow oil production.
All three zones may not be present within a reservoir
since their existence is a function of the magnitude of the
oil column and relative permeability characteristics.
Nonproductive or noneconomic reservoirs have a 100%
water production zone and possibly the lower transition
zone. Productive reservoirs, on the other hand, have oil
OIL COLUMN
Top of Trap
n 80%
0)
Free-Oil Level
— '55
r-
Prod, o/w Contact i
Free-Water Level d
Figare 3—Example of an oil column extending up from the
free-watei' level to top of trap. Oil saturations are approximate.
columns that extend into the upper transition zone; bet-
ter reservoirs include the 100% oil production zone.
An oil-water contact can be defined in a number of
Ways, depending on the data available and reservoir phi-
losophy (Figure 3). The following is a list of the different
types of oil-water contacts either described or inferred by
Knutson (1954), Arps (1964), Schowalter (1979), and
Schowalter and Hess (1982). Many of the same criteria
used to subdivide the oil column are used to identify oil-
water contacts.
The free-oil level is the point at which enough oil satu-
ration exists to allow 100% oil production. The free-oil
level corresponds to the top of the transition zone, with
oil saturations normally exceeding 70%. The water
present is of a low enough saturation to be nonproduc-
tive.
The economic oil-water contact is the point at which
enough oil is produced in the total fluid to make the well
economically viable. Generally, this point occurs at
approximately the 50% oil saturation level, but the
actual oil saturation can vary depending upon local con-
ditions.
The productive oil-water contact is located at the base
of the transition zone and is the point at which oil first
can be produced. Oil saturations may be as low as 15-
20%.
The 100% water level is located below the productive
oil-water contact and is the oil column height for which
enough buoyancy force is available to exceed the dis-
 Jeffrey B. Jennings
placement pressure and begin imbibing oil into the rock.
Although common terminology labels this point the
100% water level, it is not 100% water saturated. Oil sat-
urations are commonly in the range of 5 to 10%, with sig-
nificantly higher saturations possible. A better term for
this point might be the displacement or threshold pres-
sure level.
The free-water level is typically the point of zero capil-
lary pressure with oil globules moving freely within large,
open pores. The interval between the free-water level and
the 100% water level (displacement pressure level) is fur-
ther defined as being 100% water saturated and is not
considered to be part of the oil column. I disagree with
this definition and prefer to place the base of the oil
column at the free-water level. The interval between the
100% water level and the free-water level then defines the
height an oil globule must reach before vertical migration
can occur. In the absence of a trap, the globule will
migrate without producing significant oil saturations.
When a trap does exist, the displacement pressure can be
exceeded and significant oil saturations may start to
form.
A great deal of confusion can exist when the term "oil-
water contact" is used. The most common usage refers to
either the economic oil-water contact or the productive
oil-water contact, as these two points can be determined
from log analysis or drill-stem tests. For applying capil-
lary pressure data, the free-water level represents the only
oil-water contact that is not rock dependent and thus
identifies the absolute bottom of the oil column.
PARAMETERS INTERPRETED FROM
CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA
A number of parameters can be extracted from capil-
lary pressure data for mapping and evaluation. A few of
these are pore-throat sorting, reservoir grade, and oil
columns for 50 and 75% oil saturations. Figure 4 pro-
vides a comparison of these four parameters in relation-
ship to three capillary pressure curves.
Pore-throat sorting (PTS), as the name implies, is a
number that measures the sorting of the pore throats
within a rock sample. The number ranges from 1.0 (per-
fect sorting) to 8.0 (essentially no sorting), with most
rock samples falling between 1.2 and 5.0. The technique
yields results similar to the pore geometrical factor (G)
developed by Thomeer (1960) but is easier to compute.
Thomeer obtains G by comparing a log-log plot of the
capillary pressure data to a family of curves. The result-
ing number provides a measure of the curvature of the
plotted curve, which is in turn related to pore geometry.
In a similar fashion, PTS provides a measure of pore
geometry by applying a numerical value to the slope of
the plateau found on a semi-log plot of the capillary pres-
sure data. Values for PTS can be easily obtained by hand
or with a computer by using the following equation
adapted from a sorting coefficient equation developed by
Trask (1932, p. 70-72):
prp^ _ r 3rd Quartile Pressure] 1/2
I 1st Quartile Pressure J
1199
L
\
20% 20% 20%
0.5md lOmd 350 md
PORE-THROAT SORTING
1.2 4.2 1.2
RESERVOIR GRADE
28 21 5
OIL COLUMN 50% SATURATION
170ft 60ft 6ft
OIL COLUMN 75% SATURATION
210ft 130ft 8ft
Figure 4—Three capOlary pressure curves and their respective
values for pore-throat sorting, reservoir grade, oil column for
50*7o saturation, and oil column for 75% saturation.
where the first and third-quartile pressures are obtained
directly from the capillary pressure curve and reflect the
25 and 75% mercury saturation pressures adjusted for
irreducible saturation. A PTS value of 1.0 represents a
perfectly horizontal plateau, while values much above
5.0 pertain to curves displaying little or no plateau devel-
opment. The significance of PTS centers on the rock's
ability to accept oil saturation. In well-sorted rocks, once
a threshold buoyancy pressure is obtained, oil will rap-
idly saturate the available porosity up to the maximum
capacity. Poorly sorted rocks require a pressure increase
over a much broader range to obtain the same level of oil
saturation. Figure 5 illustrates how pore-throat sorting is
calculated from a capillary pressure curve.
Reservoir grade (RG) indicates the reservoir quality of
a rock and ranges from 0 (best quality) to 100 (lowest
quality). RG is the percentage of linear area integrated
under the capillary pressure curve and can be calculated
by plotting the data linearly and planimetering the area
below the curve. While PTS measures the range in pore-
throat sizes, RG gives a relative number to the size of the
pore throats. A low RG number indicates large pore
throats and the ability to accept oil saturation at low
buoyancy pressures. The larger the RG number, the
smaller the pore throats and the greater the buoyancy
pressure needed to obtain economic oil saturations. Res-
1200 Capillary Pressure Techniques

2000 columns, or estimate relative permeability characteris-

8%; I00%-Sy^i = 9 2 % tics. Stout (1964) presented the concept of using capillary
^wi pressure data as a tool to evaluate petrophysical charac-
Q| = 0.25 X 9 2 % = 2 3 % teristics. His concept makes it possible for capillary pres-
1000
P I = 22psi sure data to be applied on a regional basis in much the
same fashion as more conventional stratigraphic studies.
Q3 =0.75 X 9 2 % = 6 9 % Regional maps based on pore-throat sorting, reservoir
grade, and oil columns required for 50 and 75% oil satu-
P3 =40psi rations can be generated to identify areas with the best
Q. reservoir rock or to determine the minimum economic
trapping requirements. Other values such as effective
PTS= / 4 0 p s i / 2 2 p s i = 1.35 porosity or displacement oil columns may also be
3
mapped. Note that capillary pressure studies are not sub-
in
stitutes for stratigraphic studies, but complement them.
0)
Where stratigraphic studies identify facies and deposi-
100 tional environments, capillary pressure studies measure
c the quality of these facies as reservoirs. A capillary pres-
o
sure study is not intended to be a stand-alone tool and
o should be integrated with other geologic methods to
9) derive maximum value.
A capillary pressure study was conducted on the third
porosity (C) zone of the Ordovician Red River Forma-
tion in the Williston basin of Montana and North
u Dakota. Sixteen wells with core data were sampled, and
mercury injection capillary pressures were selected from
the best effective foot of reservoir rock in each core. Val-
ues for pore-throat sorting, reservoir grade, and oil
column requirements to obtain 50 and 75% oil satura-
tions were then plotted and contoured to produce four
regional maps (Figures 6-9). The actual mapping was
biased to take advantage of known stratigraphic trends.
Although some might view this as presenting an overly
optimistic picture based on a relatively small data set,
remember that the maps are regional and designed to be
guides for exploration. The four maps provide a first step
80 60 40 20 0 toward regional evaluation from which selected areas can
Mercury Saturation, % then be chosen to concentrate further and more detailed
exploratory efforts.
Figure 5—Calculating pore-throat sorting (PTS) using injec- Pore-throat sorting (Figure 6) measures the flatness of
tion pressure values from the first and third quartile of the cap- the plateau. Favorable Red River rock was contoured
illary pressure curve. using a cutoff value of 1.5. Values between 1.5 and 2.0
were considered to be fair to marginal, and those greater
ervoir grade, in conjunction with pore-throat sorting, than 2.0 were considered poor.
can provide a good evaluation of a reservoir. Reservoir grade (Figure 7) measures the percentage of
Oil columns can be calculated for any oil saturation area that lies below a linear plot of the capillary pressure
but, for comparison and mapping purposes, are fixed at curve. A reservoir grade value of 20.0 was used as the cut-
50 and 75%. The numbers are not arbitrary in that a 50<% off for favorable Red River reservoirs, while values
oil saturation will commonly yield a marginal to fair well, between 20.0 and 40.0 define an area of fair to marginal
while oil saturations of 75 % or greater can be expected to reservoirs. Values greater than 40.0 represent rock with
yield good to excellent wells. In practice, oil column val- low reservoir potential.
ues can be used to determine the minimum trap relief, The oil column required for a 50% oil saturation (Fig-
either structural or stratigraphic, needed to obtain a 50 or ure 8) provides an estimate of the minimum trap closure
75% oil saturation at the top of the trap. In exploration (structural or stratigraphic) required to obtain a 50% oil
programs this type of data can be used to upgrade pros- saturation. A cutoff value of 100 ft (30.4 m) was used to
pects. For field development, oil column data are useful define favorable Red River rock. Values between 100 and
for locating offset drilling that will remain within the 200 ft (30.4 and 60.9 m) define the area of fair to mar-
productive economic limits of the oil column. ginal rock, while values greater than 200 ft (60.9 m) rep-
resent poor-quality rock. A 50% oil saturation was used
MAPPING CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA because, generally, reservoir rock will not produce eco-
nomic quantities of oil until approximately 50% of the
Capillary pressure data have, in the past, been used available porosity is oil saturated. This is only a ballpark
primarily to evaluate reservoir rock quality, calculate oil figure and, if conditions or experience should dictate oth-
 Jeffrey B. Jennings 1201

Canada Canada

Dakota
0 30 Ordovician Red River Ordovician Red River
i_ _i Pore-Throat Sorting Reservoir Grade
miles miles
C.l. = 0.25units C.I. = 10 units

Figure 6—Contour map of pore-throat sorting from third Figure 7—Contour map of reservoir grade from third porosity
porosity ("C") zone of the Ordovician Red River Formation. A ("C") Zone of the Ordovician Red River Formation. A fairway
fairway of favorable reservoir rock lies inside the 1.50 units of favorable reservoir rock lies Inside the 20 units contour.
contour.

erwise, oil columns could be calculated to reflect a more
appropriate oil saturation. The contours on the map thus
represent the minimum oil columns or trap closures
required before marginal oil production can be expected.
The oil column required for a 75% oil saturation (Fig-
ure 9) provides an estimate of the minimum trap closure
(structural or stratigraphic) required to obtain a 75% oil
saturation. The same oil column cutoffs for good, fair,
and marginal rock were used as in the 50% oil saturation
map. A 75% oil saturation represents the level of satura-
tion that should yield good economic recoveries of oil.
The contoured fairways are narrower than in the 50% oil
saturation map because of the higher minimum oil satu-
ration, which reflects the higher reservoir quality of the
rock.
The data delineate a north-south-trending fairway;
when compared to a lithology map by Foster (1972), res-
ervoir quality appears to be associated with dolomitiza-
tion. The best reservoir rock possesses a dolomite content
ranging from 40 to 80%. This range may be evidence for
enhanced porosity and permeability as a function of opti-
mum dolomitization. Dolomite within the Red River
Formation is a result of secondary processes (Foster,
1972), and workers have long recognized that primary
limestone porosity and permeability can be enhanced by
dolomitization (Levorsen, 1954, p. 126-128). Evidence
from capillary pressure data would also infer that beyond
an 80% dolomite content, dolomitization becomes
destructive, reducing porosity and permeability. By cor-
relating capillary pressure data with stratigraphy, we can
measure the effects of dolomitization and identify a fair-
way exhibiting the best reservoir potential. Note that a
number of dry holes are present within the favorable fair-
way trend. The quality of the rock in these wells was
good, but unfortunately either a trap was not present or
petroleum never migrated into these areas.
Other than identifying an area possessing favorable
reservoir rock, what other capillary pressure applications
are available to the explorationist? Geophysical pros-
pecting is popular in the WiUiston basin, and a direct
application of oil column heights can be used. If a partic-
ular area of interest requires a minimum of 100 ft (30.4
m) of trap closure to obtain a 50% oil saturation, then the
seismic data need only be tuned to detect structures of
this magnitude. This tuning can eliminate costly repro-
cessing and can provide constraints for analyzing seismic
data or when acquiring new data.
Ranking prospects is valuable. The explorationist
commonly generates a number of prospects of which
only a few can be drilled. Regional capillary pressure
maps can be used to help select the best prospects for first
consideration. Other uses might be in developing more
accurate effective porosity maps or, in the case of strati-
graphic traps, mapping displacement pressure oil
1202 Capillary Pressure Techniques
Canada
\ N. Dakota
Ordovician Red River
Oil Column
for
50% Oil Saturation
C.I. = 5 0 '
Figure 8—Contour map of oil columnrequiredfor a SOVo oii
saturation in third porosity ("C") Zone of the Ordovician Red
River Formation. A fairway of favorable reservoir rock lies
inside the 100-ft contour.
columns to determine the downdip limit of oil accumula-
tions.
OIL MIGRATION AND ENTRAPMENT AT
BELL CREEK OIL FIELD
Oil migration and entrapment can be controlled by the
capillary pressure characteristics of the conduit and seal-
ing rocks. For purposes of applying capillary pressure
techniques, oil is viewed as migrating in the form of glob-
ules. As oil is generated from a source rock, it accumu-
lates as small globules. These globules coalesce and
enlarge until enough buoyancy force is developed to initi-
ate migration. The process is analogous to filling a sub-
merged balloon with air. The larger the balloon becomes,
the greater is its upward force. The size that a globule
must obtain before migrating (expressed in terms of feet
of vertical oil column) is controlled by the displacement
pressure of the rock in conjunction with the density dif-
ferential between the oil and formation water. When the
displacement pressure oil column is obtained, the globule
will migrate until it encounters a trap or loses enough oil
along the way to reduce its buoyancy force below the dis-
placement pressure. In stratigraphic traps involving per-
meability pinch-outs, the capillary displacement pressure
Canada
N. Dakota
Ordovician Red River
Oil Colunr\n
for
75% Oil Saturation
C.I. = 50"
Figure 9—Contour map of oil column required for a 75% oU
saturation in the third porosity ("C") Zone of the Ordovician
Red River Formation. A fairway of favorahlereservoirrock
lies inside the 100-ft contour.
in the trapping rock builds up oil saturation in the down-
dip reservoir rock. If the resulting oil column is large
enough, an economic oil accumulation can occur. A pos-
sible model for this type of trapping is Bell Creek oil field
in southeastern Montana.
Berg et al (1985) describe the trapping mechanism at
Bell Creek as being controlled by both hydrodynamic
flow and capillary pressure with hydrodynamics provid-
ing the largest contribution. Of the 500 ft (152.4 m) of
total oil column, 429 ft (130.7 m) could be accounted for
from hydrodynamic flow and 71 ft (21.6 m) from capil-
lary pressure trapping. They further state that long-range
migration was needed to provide oil for Bell Creek and
that this was most easily accomplished under hydrostatic
conditions. Oil entrapment was then timed with the start
of hydrodynamic flow in the late Pliocene when the Cre-
taceous Muddy Sandstone was uplifted and exposed
along the western and southwestern flanks of the Black
Hills. Although hydrodynamics provides a plausible
trapping mechanism, data I have collected suggest an
alternative explanation using capillary pressure as the
major trapping mechanism at Bell Creek.
Oil migration and entrapment as a function of capil-
lary pressure can explain pure stratigraphic trapping
involving updip permeability pinch-outs. The degree of
permeability reduction does not have to be significant,
for even reservoir quality sands may form effective barri-
 Jeffrey B. Jennings
R53E R54E
Figure 10—Map of producing sands from Bell Creek oil field in 26% with permeabilities ranging from 300 to 1,500 md.
southeastern Montana. Hachuring identifies oil and gas pro- Lagoonal facies is a siltstone displaying porosities of 15% to
duction, while nonhachured areas are water productive reser- 20% and permeabilities ranging from less than 0.1 to 3 md.
voir quality sands. Eleven separate reservoirs, each with a Although lagoonal facies has low permeability, it can only con-
unique oil-water contact, are mapped.
ers to oil migration (Berg, 1975). The model. Bell Creek
oil field, produces from the Cretaceous Muddy Sand-
stone barrier bar, with trapping formed by updip permea-
bility barriers in lagoonal facies (Berg and Davies, 1968).
The reservoir sands, as mapped, consist of at least 11 sep-
arate reservoirs bounded at their updip edges by low-
permeability siltstones (Figure 10). Each reservoir has its
own oil-water contact, and water-wet reservoir quality
sands can usually be found downdip from each of the oil-
water contacts. While the total oil column, as measured
from the extreme updip and downdip wells, is approxi-
mately 500 ft (152.4 m), each separate sand unit possesses
an oil column significantly less than this. In addition,
some of the reservoirs are gas capped while others are
not, including some gas production in the center of the
field. Hydrodynamic theory by itself would not seem to
adequately explain these characteristics, but capillary
pressures can provide a mechanism to develop a working
model.
Thirty capillary pressure curves from 12 wells were
obtained from cores within and around Bell Creek and,
as expected, the reservoir sands displayed good to excel-
lent reservoir properties, while the updip siltstones pos-
sessed nonreservoir qualities. Measured porosity from
the reservoir sands averaged approximately 26% with
permeabilities ranging from 300 to 1500 md. The
lagoonal sihstones recorded significantly lower permea-
bilities, ranging from 3 to less than 0.1 md, yet retained
porosities from 15 to 20%. Even with the low permeabili-
ties, the siltstones can allow oil to migrate, as evidenced
by live oil staining. This oil staining combined with the
capillary pressure data suggest the possibility of capillary
pressure trapping as diagramed in cross section AA'
(Figure 11). Using the displacement capillary pressure
from the updip well, approximately 140 ft (42.6 m) of oil
1203
Valve
Lagoon
Facies
Cross Section A A'
Capillary Pressure Curves Bell Creek Field
Powder River Co., Montana
Figure 11—Cross section AA' at Bell Creek diagraming the
concept of a capillary pressure release valve. The barrier sand-
stone bars form the reservoirs and possess average porosities of
tain a 140-ft (42.6 m) oil column. When oil column exceeds 140
ft (42.6 m), excess oil is released updip where it becomes
entrapped in upper bar sand.
column can be backed up behind the siltstone seal. When
the oil column exceeds 140 ft (42.6 m) the buoyancy force
becomes greater than the displacement pressure, causing
the seal to leak. In essence, the sihstone functions as an
automatic valve that releases excess oil updip when the
maximum oil column is exceeded. This concept of a cap-
illary pressure release valve may explain the separate oil-
water contacts and the absence of production from
otherwise high-quality downdip reservoir sands. After
exceeding the threshold oil column, excess oil migrates
updip through the siltstones until encountering another
body of reservoir-quality sand. This sand will then fill
with oil to the displacement pressure level of its seal, and
the process of updip oil seepage will continue. In this
fashion, a series of separate sand bodies can be progres-
sively filled with economic saturations of oil. Although
data were not available from the gas-producing units, we
might infer that capillary trapping is also responsible
with the trapping rock being somewhat less porous and
thus able to capture the gas columns.
Capillary pressure trapping is suggested as a possible
mechanism, with hydrodynamics presenting a plausible
alternative. Some advantages do exist when the capillary
pressure model is used. With capillary trapping, the tim-
ing for migration and entrapment does not need to coin-
cide with the initiation of hydrodynamic flow. This
allows for expansion of the Cretaceous Muddy Sand-
stone migration window to include timing prior to the
Phocene, as suggested by Berg et al (1985). Capillary
trapping also provides one explanation for multiple oil-
water contacts. Certainly, capillary pressure mechanisms
are present to one degree or another and should not be
excluded when developing field or migration models.
1204 Capillary Pressure Techniques
CALCULATING HEIGHT OF AN OIL COLUMN
ABOVE FREE-WATER LEVEL
One of the more useful applications of capillary pres-
sure data is to calculate the height of an oil column for
any given oil saturation above the free-water level. This is
accomplished by first using a number of nomographs to
find the density gradients of the formation water and oil.
The difference in these density gradients defines a buoy-
ancy force that constitutes the driving mechanism for oil
to migrate into the reservoir rock. The second element
needed is the injection pressure from a capillary pressure
curve at a given mercury saturation (i.e., oil saturation).
Calculating the oil column is then a process of converting
the injection pressure value from a mercury-air system to
an oil-water system and dividing this number by the pre-
viously calculated buoyancy force. The resulting number
represents the feet of vertical oil column needed to
achieve the oil saturation. Following is a simplified equa-
tion, modified from D. A. Smith (1966), for calculating
feet of oil column above the free-water level:
H =
(W„ - W„) (CF)
where H = height of oil column (ft), P^ = capillary pres-
sure (psi) at a given mercury saturation, W„ = density
gradient of the formation water (psi/ft), W^ = density
gradient of the oil (psi/ft), and CF = conversion factor
needed to convert from a mercury-air system to an oil-
water system.
Densities for oil and formation water are easily calcu-
lated by knowing the water salinity, API gravity, gas-oil
ratio, formation pressure, and formation temperature. A
number of nomographs diagramed by Schowalter (1979)
can be used to calculate the respective densities in psi/ft.
These values are then substituted into the equation along
with the applicable conversion factor to calculate the oil
column.
The conversion factor (CF) is determined from an
interfacial tension of mercury to air of 480 dynes/cm and
a contact angle of 40°. For a water-wet reservoir, the
interfacial tension of oil to water is variable but the con-
tact angle is assumed to be 0°. Calculating an oil column
with this technique infers the wetting fluid will always be
water. Although oil-wet reservoirs exist, these reservoirs
were probably water wet at the time of entrapment and
the oil columns should have stabilized before the oil
became the wetting agent. In addition, oil column calcu-
lations are only best estimates due to the complex nature
of oil reservoirs and uncertainties in the true interfacial
tensions and contact angles of oil-water systems. The fol-
lowing equation, from Purcell (1949), is used to calculate
the conversion factor:
(THJ (COS <?HJ _ (480) (0.766)
CF
(T„,„ (cos e^,J (T„/J(1.0)
where THJ = interfacial tension of mercury to air (dynes/
cm), ^Hg = contact angle of mercury to air, T„/„ = inter-
facial tension of oil to water (dynes/cm), and d^/^ =
contact angle of oil to water.
All of the variables except the interfacial tension of oil
to water are known, and an accurate measurement of
interfacial tension is critical to calculating an oil column
height. A disparity in values seems to exist in the litera-
ture, giving the impression of a large degree of inaccu-
racy or disagreement. Published values by Livingston
(1938), Hocott (1939), and Hjelmeland and Larrondo
(1986) provide a range of 13 to 36 dynes/cm. Schowalter
(1979) suggests that oil-water interfacial tensions should
be measured, but if such data are not available, 21 dynes/
cm (average value for 34 Texas oil reservoirs as measured
by Livingston, 1938) can be used with the values adjusted
downward with increasing pressure and temperature.
Berg (1975) applied values in the 30 to 35 dynes/cm range
for medium-gravity oils. Both Hocott (1939), with oils
from three Texas fields, and Hjelmeland and Larrondo
(1986), using oils from an Alberta, Canada, limestone
reservoir, were in agreement, with average values ranging
from 25 to 33 dynes/cm. They raised the possibility of
experimental errors caused by a skin forming on the oil
surface during lab measurements. This skin effect appar-
ently increases with time and substantially reduces the
measured interfacial tension by as much as 50%, depend-
ing upon pressure, temperature, and the presence of aer-
obic conditions. Furthermore, Hjelmeland and
Larrondo (1986) measured about an 8 dynes/cm increase
in the interfacial tension of stock-tank oils as compared
to live reservoir oils.
To resolve the conflict of which interfacial tension val-
ue(s) to use, capillary pressure data were acquired from
established fields with well-defined oil columns. With
this data, estimates of interfacial tension could be made
by solving CF for the interfacial tension of oil to water
(T„, J . This technique was applied to fields in the Willis-
ton and Powder River basins and in a variety of forma-
tions comprised of the Ordovician Red River,
Mississippian Madison, Permian-Pennsylvanian Minne-
lusa, and Cretaceous Muddy. Depths ranged from 3,500
to 10,000 ft (1,066.8 to 3,048.0 m), with corresponding
increases in temperature and pressure. The resulting cal-
culations yielded a range of interfacial tension values
from 26 to 30 dynes/cm, giving an average of 28 dynes/
cm. This correlates to a CF of approximately 13, with an
expected error of ± 10% for the calculated oil columns.
These data indicate a stable range of variability in line
with the lab results obtained by Hocott (1939) and
Hjelmeland and Larrondo (1986).
Ideally, to obtain the most accurate oil column calcula-
tions, interfacial tension should be measured for each oil-
water system being investigated. Unfortunately this type
of data can be difficult to acquire and great care must be
exercised to arrive at usable numbers reflecting the true
interfacial tension. Hjelmeland and Larrondo (1986)
suggest that live reservoir oils and the oil-drop method be
used to obtain the most accurate data. In place of lab
measurements, acceptable interfacial tension numbers
are available by applying capillary pressure data to
known fields. When measured data are not available, an
interfacial tension of 28 dynes/cm should yield reason-
able oil column calculations.
 Jeffrey B. Jennings 1205

CALCULATING RELATIVE PERMEABILITY FROM Curve

Rel. Perm. Curves
CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA

Amyx et al (1960, p. 174-176) define relative permea-

bility as a fraction of the total permeability for a given
phase (oil, water, or gas) in a multiphase system. Total
permeability is the permeability when only one phase
exists within a rock and is the number obtained with con-
ventional core analysis. When more than one phase 0.01
exists, the fluids interact, which effectively reduces the
permeability that each fluid experiences. An understand-
ing of the relative permeability characteristics can 10-7 0.001
improve completion, enhanced recovery, and economic 100 Hg Sat..% » So,%
calculations.
TWo types of relative permeability curves, drainage or Cap. Press. Curve
imbibition, can be obtained from core samples using spe- 0 = 20%
cific lab techniques as outlined by Amyx et al (1960, p. K = 35md
200-201). Drainage curves measure relative permeability
as a function of a decrease in the wetting-phase satura- Relative Perm. Curves
tion while both nonwetting and wetting fluids are flow- Calculated From
ing. Imbibition curves measure relative permeability as a Capillary Press. Data
function of an increase in the wetting-phase saturation.
Relative permeability is usually estimated or measured in
the lab using one of these techniques, but usable "drain-
age" relative permeability numbers can also be obtained
from capillary pressure data. The technique involves a
series of simple but time-consuming calculations which
'00 Hg Sat.,%
can be streamlined with a computer. Figure 12 displays a
capillary pressure curve, 1/P/ plot, and the correspond- Figure 12—Plot of a capillary pressure curve and correspond-
ing relative permeability drainage curves for wetting and ing graphs for 1/P/ and relative permeability curves.
nonwetting phases of a two-phase oil-water reservoir.
The wetting-phase relative permeability curve is the late the nonwetting-phase (oil) relative permeabiUty
easier curve to calculate. The following equation from curve:
Amyx et al (1960, p. 196) was adapted from a relation-
ship first developed by Purcell (1949): K.„ — 1 - S„ 1 - ( S / f ^^'^^

where K^ = relative permeability of nonwetting fluid

dS/(P,)^ (fractional), S„* = effective water saturation (frac-
_ ''s = 0
K™ — tional), and X = pore-geometry factor.
dS/(P,)' S,,' reflects a water saturation adjusted for the irreduc-
Js = 0 ible saturation and is calculated with the equation:

where K^^ = relative permeability of wetting fluid (frac- c • _

tional), P^ = capillary pressure (psi), and S,, = water sat-
uration (1 - mercury saturation, fractional).
In simpler terms, the integrals in the equation develop
a relationship where the relative permeability of the wet-
ting fluid (at a given water saturation) is determined by
dividing the partial area by the total area under the 1/P/
plot. Because an exact solution for each of the integrals is
impractical, the areas can be closely estimated by divid-
ing the 1/P/ plot into rectangles and triangles and sum-
ming the smaller areas. A quicker method involves
programming a computer to handle the tedious calcula-
tions to produce the relative permeability data. Thirty or
more data points (Ikble 1) can be generated in this man-
ner to provide usable relative permeability curves.
The nonwetting-phase relative permeability drainage
curve is calculated using a different set of equations and
introduces the pore-geometry factor, X. The following
equation developed by Standing (1974) is used to calcu-
o„ — 1 - S„,
where S„ = selected water saturation and S^j = irreduc-
ible saturation obtained from the mercury injection cap-
illary pressure curve at 2,000 psi (refer to Figure 2).
Lambda (X) reflects the pore-size distribution in much
the same manner as does pore-throat sorting. For most
reservoir rocks, a value of 2.0 may be used to complete
the above relative permeability equation but a method
developed by Brooks and Corey (1964) can be used to
estimate X. The technique involves determining the slope
of the best-fit line through a log-log plot of the J function
vs. S^*. Lambda (X) is then calculated as -1/slope of the
line (Figure 13).
The J function, needed to calculate X, is a dimension-
less number originally developed by Leverett (1941) as a
method of correlating capillary pressure data, and is cal-
culated with the following equation:
1206 Capillary Pressure Techniques

Table 1. Tabulated Relative Permeability Data Calculated from 10.0

Capillary Pressure Data*
Slope = _ - | | | = -0.825
Rel. Perm. Rel. Perm.
N. •
s„% Water Oil > - •' l"l
'^ " S l o p e • ' • ' - '
0.0 1.00000 0.00000
2.5 0.93315 0.00005
5.0 0,86630 0.00040
7.5 0.79944 0.00131 1.0
\«
10.0 0.73581 0.00303
12.5 0.67816 0.00577 'c
3
15.0 0.62570 0.00973 00
17.5 0.57745 0.01508 (0
20.0 0.53243 0.02196 w • \
22.5 0.49014 0.03050
25.0 0.45034 0,04079
27.5 0.41281 0,05293
30.0 0,37737 0,06697 3.25units * \ ^
32.5 0.34385 0,08296
35.0 0.31209 0,10093 0.1
37.5 0.28234 0.12090
40.0 0,25480 0.14286
Calculating Pore-Geometry
42.5 0,22923 0.16681 Factor From A Log-Log
45.0 0,20542 0.19270
47.5 0.18320 0.22052 Plot Of 0 vs SvK*.
50.0 0.16255 0.25021
52.5 0.14346 0.28171
55.0 0.12576 0.31497
57.5 0.10929 0.34991
60.0 0.09393 0.38647 0.01
62.5 0.07958 0.42457 0.01 1.0
65.0 0.06614 0.46413
67.5 0.05352 0.50508
70.0 0.04206 0.54734 Figure 13—Plot of J function vs. S„*. Slope of a best-fit line
72.5 0.03208 0.59085 through the data used to calculate pore-geometry factor, X.
75.0 0,02337 0.63554
77.5 0.01596 0.68136
80.0 0.00993 0.72827 curves can provide valuable information. Of primary
82.5 0.00541 0.77622 importance is the ability to estimate water and oil pro-
85.0 0.00238 0.82522 duction at a given water saturation. Depending upon the
87.5 0.00076 0.87527
90.0 0.00018 0.92641 relative permeability and viscosity characteristics, a min-
92.5 0.00001 0.97872 imum oil saturation is required before economic quanti-
93.5 0.00000 1.00000 ties of oil can be produced. This information can be
applied when determining the economic limits of a reser-
•Porosity = 20% and permeability = 35 md. voir or when evaluating a zone of interest. The following
equation from Amyx et al (1960, p. 207) calculates the
fractional water production, F„:

J function = ^ vST^ = ^ V ^ , F„ =
(T„,) (cos e„,) "^368
where P,, = capillary pressure (psi),THg = interfacial ten-
sion of mercury (dynes/cm), Cos ^Hg = contact angle of
mercury, K = measured permeability (millidarcys), and 4>
= measured porosity (%).
Obviously, calculating relative permeability data by
hand can be laborious but the equations can be pro-
grammed into a computer to turn out printed data within
a few minutes (Ikble 1). The relative permeability calcu-
lations detailed in this paper were for the oil and water
phases but the gas phase can be determined in a similar
manner. Equations for the gas phase and oil and water
phases are discussed by Fatt and Dykstra (1951), Burdine
(1953), Corey et al (1956), Amyx et al (1960, p. 195-199),
C. R. Smith (1966), Land (1968), and Standing (1974).
The value of relative permeability curves to geologic
applications may, at first, seem to be limited, but these
1
1 + (K„/K J (U„/U„)
where F^ = the fractional water production at a given
water saturation, K^, = relative permeability of the oil,
K„ = relative permeability of the water, U„ = viscosity
of the formation water, and Uo = viscosity of the oil at
reservoir conditions.
CAPILLARY-PRESSURE-TILTED
OII^WATER CONTACTS
Tilted oil-water contacts are often found in petroleum
reservoirs and are usually attributed to hydrodynamic
flow of formation fluids. Another form of tilting can be
created by capillary pressure effects. Arps (1964) dis-
cussed the possibility of tihed oil-water contacts as the
result of lateral changes in porosity and permeability
 Jeffrey B. Jennings 1207

affecting the capillary pressure characteristics within a

reservoir. These changes affect the respective size of the Capillary Pressure Curves
transition zone, resulting in tilting at the productive oil- Tilting At 5 0 % Oil
water contact, economic oil-water contact, and free-oil
level. Arps made no attempt to differentiate between
L U k Saturation Level
Due To Lateral
tilting due to hydrodynamic flow or capillary pressure, SoV.
Chonges In
6Q!^
and a distinction should be made. Capillary Pressure.
The oil-water contact is commonly picked somewhere
within the transition zone. Because the size of the transi- Free-Water Level
tion zone is a direct function of the capillary pressure
characteristics within the rock, lateral changes in the res- Capillory Pressure Curves
ervoir will alter these characteristics and capillary pres- Tilting At 5 0 % And
sure tilting can occur. By using capillary pressure data
from a number of wells, we can discern tilting by visually L L L OUlSi-
Free Water Levels
Due To Hydrodynomic
comparing the character of the curves. If the curves dis- 502s Flew Of Formation
play significant differences, then capillary pressure
Water.
tilting may be present. Further evaluation can be made by UeveL
locating the free-water level and the 50% oil saturation -VJolSL
free
level (assumed to approximate the economic oil-water
contact) in a cross section of wells as diagramed in Figure
14. Tilting at the free-water level is only influenced by Capillary Pressure Curves
hydrodynamics, while the 50% oil saturation level is Tilting At 5 0 % And
affected by both hydrodynamics and capillary pressure
variations. By examining the respective tilting of these
L k k Free Water Levels
Due To Capillary
two horizons and their relative orientation to each other, Pressure And
we can establish three types of oil-water contact tilting: Hydrodynamics.
(1) If the free-water level is horizontal, capillary pres-
sure variations will cause tilting at the 50% oil saturation
level (Figure 14a).
(2) If the free-water level and the 50% oil saturation
level are tilted and parallel to each other, pure hydrody- Figure 14—Three examples of howtiltingcan occur at 50% oil
namic tilting should be suspected (Figure 14b). saturation level (assumed to approximate economic oil-water
contact) as a function of capillary pressure, hydrodynamics, or
(3) If the free-water level and the 50% oil saturation both. Tilting at free-water level is affected only by hydrody-
level are tilted but not parallel, a combination of capil- namic flow of formation fluids, while 50% oil saturation level
lary pressure and hydrodynamic tilting should be sus- is affected by both hydrodynamics and capillary pressure.
pected (Figure 14c). Changes in capillary pressure properties are indicated by the
Identifying the type of tilting can be critical to success- capillary pressure curve silhouettes.
fully and economically developing an oil field. If lateral
changes in capillarity are not recognized, then incorrect
well locations might result from the improper application data by measuring the area under a curve defined by plot-
of hydrodynamic theory. Capillary pressure data can ting 1/P/ vs. mercury saturation (refer to Figure 12).
provide tests to help identify the mechanism(s) affecting Acceptable results are obtained when an appropriate
oil pool geometry. These tests can and should be inte- lithology factor is applied, but the technique has a few
grated with other development tools to provide a more drawbacks. Laborious calculations are required and, as
accurate and complete picture of a field. Purcell pointed out, the lithology factor can vary consid-
erably over a wide range of permeability. I developed a
simpler method using a log-log- plot of the second-
quartile pressure vs. permeability. Reasonable estimates
ESTIMATING PERMEABILITY FROM for permeability can be quickly obtained from samples
CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA possessing moderate to well-sorted pore geometries.
A log-log plot of the second-quartile pressure vs. per-
Sometimes permeability cannot be measured on a sam- meability (Figure 15) was made from sandstone data hav-
ple for which a capillary pressure curve was obtained. ing pore-throat sorting values less than or equal to 2.0
For example, when a noncylindrical plug, such as and irreducible saturations less than 25%. A total of 78
obtained from a thinly slabbed core, is used for mercury data points were plotted from capillary pressure curves
injection testing. In such cases, having some estimate of obtained from Cretaceous Muddy and Permian-
the permeability is desirable. Because a capillary pressure Pennsylvanian Minnelusa sandstones. The best-fit curve,
curve is essentially a measurement of the distribution of as obtained with linear regression, provided a reasonable
pore-throat size and pore space, a fair estimate of perme- fit for the data and presented a graphical method to easily
ability can be made, given a few constraints upon the estimate permeability from capillary pressure data. A
data. Purcell (1949) developed a method for estimating best-fit curve of the data is expressed with the following
permeability from mercury injection-capillary pressure equation:
1208 Capillary Pressure Techniques

1000 tics of a dual-porosity reservoir, making permeability

estimates less accurate.
(2) The irreducible saturation should be less than
25%. A high irreducible saturation was found to be asso-
ciated with erroneous estimates of permeability. The high
irreducible saturation is an indicator of a poorly sorted
pore geometry and influences the accuracy of the perme-
ability estimates.
(3) Accuracy drops off considerably for permeabili-
ties less than one 1 md. This may be due to a different
permeability-pore geometry relationship for the smaller,
more constricted pore throats. Because of this, samples
with second-quartile pressures above 130 psi can only be
categorized as having permeabilities less than 1 md.

SUMMARY

Mercury injection-capillary pressure data can be inte-

grated into many phases of exploration and development
geology. Obtaining such data is not prohibitively expen-
sive and actually provides an excellent dollar value by
being applicable to both engineering and geology. Capil
lary pressures directly measure petrophysical properties
10 100 and can be used to calculate oil columns, minimum trap
2nd Quartile Pressure, psi closures required for economic oil production, relative
permeability relationships, and reservoir geometries.
Figure 15—Log-log plot of permeability vs. second-quartile Regional studies can be used to identify fairways of
pressure. Relationship can be used to estimate permeability potential reservoir rock and to help fine-tune exploratory
from capillary data. efforts. On a smaller scale, field studies can be used to
assist with field development by defining free-water lev-
els, productive oil column limits, and the capillary-
K = g[Ln(P2)(-2.5) + 11.91 pressure-induced tilting of productive oil-water
contacts. The nature of capillary pressures allows inter-
pretive techniques to be applied to both clastic and car-
where K = permeability (millidarcys), and P2 = second- bonate lithologies. Furthermore, these techniques are
quartile pressure (psi). not confined to any one basin or world oil province, mak-
P2 is calculated by dividing the mercury saturation at ing it possible for reservoir quality comparisons to be
2,000 psi by 2. This provides the saturation where 50<% of made on a worldwide basis. When the principles of capil-
the effective porosity (total porosity adjusted for irreduc- lary pressures are fully embraced and comprehended,
ible pore space) is filled with mercury. As an example, if new insights on reservoir properties will enhance oil find-
the irreducible pore space at 2,000 psi is 12%, then 88% ing and exploitation techniques.
of the total pore space is filled with mercury and the sec-
ond quartile saturation would be 44%. The second-
quartile pressure, Pj, is then read off the capillary
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