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Example 24
It is required to transmit 800 characters / sec where each character is represented by its 7-bit ASCII
codeword followed by an eighth bit for error detection per character. A multilevel PAM waveform
with M = 16 levels is used
(a) What is the effective transmitted bit rate?
(b) What is the symbol rate?
Solution:
(a) Total number of bits in one character = 7 + 1 = 8 bits.
So, the number of bits transmitted per second
= Effective transmitted bit rate
= 800 × 8 bps
= 6400 bits per second.
(b) m 16 and m 2n 16 24 .
Hence n 4
Thus number of bits per symbol = 4
6400 bits s
So, symbol rate 1600 symbols / second.
4 bits symbol
Example 25
Determine the minimum sampling rate necessary to sample and perfectly reconstruct the signal
sin (6280t )
x(t ) .
(6280 t )
Solution:
Wt
sin
x(t )
sin(6280 t ) 2 where W 2 f 6280 radians 2 (1000)
(6280 t ) Wt 2
2
Hence f 1000 Hz.
1
So, for f 1000 Hz
X f W
0 elsewhere
Thus, m 1000 Hz
Hence, minimum sampling rate s 2 fm 2 1000
2000 samples / s
Example 26
Solution:
(a) Input waveform is
x(t ) 10cos(1000 t 3) 20cos(2000 t 6)
Hence maximum angular frequency,
m 2 fm 2000
2000
So, fm 318.3 Hz.
2
Sampling frequency,
fs 2 fm 2 318.3 636.6 samples / sec.
Sampling period,
1 1
Ts
fs 636.6
i.e. Ts 0.00157 sec.
Hence, the maximum allowable time interval between sample values
0.00157s 1.57 ms.
Solution:
Sampling frequency,
fs 8000 samples / s
L = Number of levels = 64
But L 2n where n = Number of bits / sample
So, 2n 64 26 .
Thus n 6
So, Transmission rate R 8000 6 48,000 bits / s
1
Bandwidth W R 48, 000 Hz.
Tb
We know,
SQR 3L2
So, SQR 3(64) 2 12, 228 41 dB.
Chapter 4: Baseband Transmission
Schwartz’s Inequality
Proof:
Let x(t ) and y(t ) be denoted by the real-valued functions a (t ) and b(t ) respectively such that
b(t ) y(t )
We may define a (t ) and b(t ) in terms of a pair of orthonormal functions 1 (t ) and 2 (t ) .
So, a(t ) a1 1 (t ) a2 2 (t ) ... (9)
b(t ) b1 1 (t ) b2 2 (t ) ... (10)
1 for i j
i (t ) j (t ) ... (13)
0 for i j
We may represent the two time functions a (t ) and b(t ) by vectors.
Thus
a (a1 , a2 )
... (14)
b (b1 , b2 )
The cosine of the angle between the two vector a and b is given by
( a · b)
cos( a, b) . ... (15)
a b
where ( a · b ) is the inner product of the vector a and b and a and b are their absolute values
or norms.
We know, the cosine of an angle has a magnitude less than or equal to unity. Hence
( a · b) a b ... (16)
a [ a 2 (t ) dt ] 1 2 ... (18)
b [ b2 (t ) dt ] 1 2 ... (19)
Let us consider a linear time-invariant (LTI) filter with impulse response h j (t ) . If x(t ) is the input
signal to the filter and y (t ) is the output signal of the filter, then
y(t ) x( ) h j (t )d
From the definition of a matched filter, we know that the impulse response h j (t ) of a LTI filter
Thus h j (t ) j (T t )
The resulting filter output is
y j (t ) x( ) j (T t )d
y j (T ) x( ) j ( )d .
The detector part of the optimum receiver may also be implemented using a bank of matched filters.
Question 6
State the differences between Matched Filters and Conventional Filters.
Answer:
Unwanted spectral components of a received signal are filtered out by a conventioned filter. It
maintains some measure of fidelity for signals in the passband. Conventional filters provide
approximately uniform gain and linear phase-frequency characteristic over the passband. It also
provides a specified minimum attenuation over the stop band.
Matched filters, however, are designed to maximize the SNR of a known signal in the presence of
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). Matched filters are applied to known signals with random
parameters, while conventional filters are applied to random signals defined only by their bandwidth.
The matched filter is like a template that is matched to the known shape of the signal being processed.
A matched filter largely modifies the temporal structure of the signal. It gathers the signal energy
matched to its template and at the end of each symbol time presents the result as a peak amplitude.
However, a conventional filter attempts to preserve the temporal or spectral structure of the signal of
interest.
A conventional filter in a communication receiver isolates and extracts a high-fidelity estimate of the
signal for presentation to the matched filter.
Chapter 7: Digital Modulation Techniques
- shifted QPSK
4
- shifted QPSK is a variant of quadriphase-shift keying modulation. Two commonly used signal
4
constellations for QPSK are shown below.
2 2
o 1 o 1
In - shifted QPSK, the carrier phase used for the transmission of successive dibits is alternatively
4
picked from one of the two QPSK constellations. Thus in - shifted QPSK, there are eight possible
4
phase states as shown in the figure below.
The signal constellation for an MSK signal is two-dimensional. It has four possible message points.
The signal-space diagram for MSK system is shown in the figure below.
2
Message point, m2 Eb
0 , (Tb ) 2 Message point, m1
0 0, (Tb ) 2
1
– Eb Eb
0 , (Tb ) 2
Message point, m4
Message point, m3 – Eb 0, (Tb ) 2
m3 ( Eb , Eb ) and m4 ( Eb , Eb )
In MSK, unlike QPSK, one of two message points is used to represent the transmitted symbol at any
one time, depending on the value of (0) .
Question 16
Calculate the probability of error of MSK.
Answer:
For an AWGN channel, the received signal is given by
x(t ) s(t ) (t )
where s (t ) is the transmitted MSK signal and (t ) is the sample function of white Gaussian noise
process of zero mean and power spectral density N o 2 .
For the optimum detection of (0) , we first find the projection of the received signal x(t ) onto the
reference signal (t ) over the interval Tb t Tb . This is given by
Tb
x1 x(t ) 1 (t ) dt
Tb
s1 1 for Tb t Tb .
If x1 0 , then the receiver chooses the estimate ˆ 0 . However, if x1 0 , it chooses the estimate
ˆ(0) .
Similarly, the projection of the received signal x(t ) onto the second reference signal 2 (t ) over the
interval 0 t 2Tb is given by
2Tb
x2 x(t ) 2 (t ) dt
0
s2 2 for 0 t 2Tb .
If we have the estimates ˆ(0) 0 and ˆ(Tb ) , or alternatively, if ˆ(0) and ˆ(Tb ) ,
2 2
the receiver makes a decision in favour of symbol 0.
If we have the estimate ˆ(0) and ˆ(Tb ) or alternatively, if ˆ(0) 0 and ˆ(Tb ) , the
2 2
receiver makes a decision in favour of symbol 1.
Now the MSK and QPSK signals have similar signal space diagrams. Thus for AWGN channel they
will have the same formula for their average probability of symbol error. Thus the average probability
of symbol error for the MSK is given by
Ps erfc( Eb No ) 1 4 erfc2 ( Eb No )
If Eb N o 1 , we may ignore the second term on the RHS.
So, Ps erfc( Eb No )
Hence the bit error rate (or probability of bit error) is given by for MSK
Pe 1 2 erfc( Eb No ) .
Question 17
Draw the sequences and waveforms involved in the generation of an MSK signal for the binary
sequence 1101000.
(kTb) →
Polarity of s1 → 0 π π 0
+ – – +
s1 1 (t)
(kTb) →
π/2 π/2 π/2 –π/2
Polarity of s2 →
– – – +
s2 2 (t)
s(t)
Question 18
State the advantages and disadvantages of Gaussian MSK (GMSK) and its principal application.
Answer:
If we pass an NRZ binary data steam through a baseband pulse-shaping filter whose impulse response
is defined by a Gaussian function then the resulting method of MSK signal is referred to as Gaussian-
filtered MSK or just GMSK. In GMSK system, the design parameter is the time-bandwidth product
WTb. It is found that when WTb is less than unity, increasingly more of the transmit power is
concentrated inside the passband of the GMSK signal. This is an advantage of GMSK.
The disadvantage of GMSK is that it generates intersymbol interference which increases with
decreasing WTb. This disadvantage is known as performance degradation of GMSK. Thus the choice
of WTb offers a trade-off between spectral compactness and performance loss.
The principal application of GMSK is in GSM wireless communication. For GSM mobile
communication WTb is standardized at 0.3.
Question 19
Calculate the probability of error for a non-coherent receiver.
Answer:
Let the upper path of the non-coherent receiver be called the in-phase path and the lower path be
called quadrative path. Now let the signal s1 (t ) be transmitted for the interval 0 t T . Refer to the
figure below for a generalized binary receiver for non-coherent orthogonal modulation.
Sample at t = T
Filter matched Envelope
to 1(t) Detector
l1 If l1 > l2
Choose s1(t)
Comparator
x (t) If l1 > l2
l2 Choose s2(t)
An error occurs if the receiver noise (t ) is such that the output 2 of the lower path is greater than
the output 1 of the upper path. Then the receiver makes a decision in favour of s2 (t ) rather than
s1 (t ) .
Let xI 2 and xQ 2 denote the in-phase and quadrature components of the matched filter output in the
lower path of the above figure. The equivalent quadrature receiver equivalent to either one of the two
matched filters is shown below.
t xQ i Square-law x2Q i
dt
0
detector
i (t) +
li2
x (t)
+
t xI i Square-law
dt Detector
0
x2I i
i (t)
N o 2 . Hence
1
f X I 2 ( xI 2 ) exp( xI22 No ) ... (22)
No
1
f X Q 2 ( xQ 2 ) exp( xQ2 2 No ) ... (23)
No
Now we know that the envelope of a Gaussian process is payleigh distributed. The random variable L2
has the probability density function given by
2 2 22
exp for 2 0
f L 2 ( 2 ) No No ... (24)
0 elsewhere
The variation of f L 2 ( 2 ) with 2 is shown in the figure below.
fL2 (l2)
Conditional probability
of error
l1 l2
The conditional probability that 2 1 , given the sample value 1 is shown by the shaded area in
the above figure. Hence
P ( 2 1 1 ) f L2 ( 2 ) d 2 ... (25)
1
The random variable X I 1 represented by sample value xI 1 is Gaussian distributed with mean E
and variance N o 2 , where E is the signal energy per symbol. The random variable X Q 1 is Gaussian
distributed with zero mean and variance N o 2 . Hence the probability density functions of these two
independent random variables are given by
f X I ( xI 1) 1 No exp( ( xI 1 E )2 No ) ... (27)
1
Given xI 1 and xQ 1 , an error occurs when the lower path’s output amplitude 2 due to noise alone
For proper operation of spread spectrum communication, it is necessary that the locally generated PN
sequences in the receiver are synchronized to the PN sequence used in the transmitter.
Synchronization is implemented in two parts, namely, acquisition and tracking. Acquisition is known
as coarse synchronization and tracking is termed as fine synchronization. Acquisition means the two
PN codes are aligned to within a fraction of the chip in as short time as possible. Tracking takes place
once the incoming PN code has been acquired. Acquisition consists of two steps. Firstly, the received
signal is multiplied by a locally generated PN code to produce a measure of correlation between it and
the PN code used in the transmitter. Then an appropriate decision rule and search strategy is employed
to process the measure of correlation so obtained. This determines whether the two codes are in
synchronism. It also decides what to do if they are not in synchronism. Tracking is accomplished by
using phase-lock loop techniques. These are similar to those used for the local generation of coherent
carrier references.
Chapter 10: Coding Theory
Example 13
Consider an (n, 1) repetition code where n = 5. For this code,
(a) Construct the generator matrix G
(b) Find all code words using G
(c) Find the parity check matrix H for this code
(d) Show that GHT = 0
Solution:
(a) The two code words in the code are [1 1 1 1 1] and [0 0 0 0 0]
PT [1111 ]
Generator matrix, G [ 11111 ]
(b) For d1 0, c1 [ 0 ] [ 1 1 1 1 1] [00000]
For d1 1, c1 [1] [11111 ] [11111]
(c) The parity check matrix H is given by
110 0 0
1010 0
H [P : I4 ]
10 010
10 0 01
110 0 0
1010 0
(d) GH T 11111 0000 0.
10 010
10 0 01