GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 
Long Test #2 Reviewer

BASIC PLANT CELL AND TISSUE TYPES - Stellate Parenchyma​: ​highly-branched​,

adjacent cells connected to each other
1. Parenchyma
- most common type (all soft parts)
- thin-walled​, evenly thickened
- alive​ at maturity
- photosynthesis, storage, respiration,
division, protection, secretion, excretion
- resume meristematic activity (protection,
healing, regeneration)
2. Collenchyma
- elongated, ​unevenly thickened​,
non-lignified cell walls
- complete protoplasts capable of
meristematic activity​ and​ photosynthesis
- alive​ at maturity
- functions for ​support and growth
- sides of young stems, stalk and midrib of
leaves

- Storage Parenchyma​: contain lots of

amyloplasts 3. Sclerenchyma
- Aerenchyma​: large​ air spaces - evely thickened​ secondary walls (with
lignin​)
- dead​ at maturity (no protoplast, seems to
be empty)
- Fibers​: long, spindle-shaped, occur in
- Chlorenchyma​: contains ​plastid​s, strands (cortex, phloem, xylem) or in
photosynthesis sheaths/bundle caps (vascular bundles)
- Sclereids​: short cells, strongly lignified

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 
Long Test #2 Reviewer 
- Types of Sclereids: ​Brachysclereids
(isodiametric, elongated),
Macrosclereids​ (elongated, columnar),
Osteosclereids​ (columnar w/ enlarged
ends), ​Astrosclereids​ (with lobes/arm
diverging from central body)
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWTH
OF THE ROOT
Overview of the Plant Basic Morphology
The Root
- anchorage, absorption, storage
- primary (first root at center) and lateral
(spread out)
- Taproot System​: absorption restricted to
tip of lateral roots,​ structural support​ for
tall plants
- Fibrous System​: thick mat of slender
roots, ​absorption​ and ​prevention of soil
erosion
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- Adventitious System​: primary root from
radicle dies early (no taproot), grows in
unusual places
- Unique Features: ​Root Hair​ (increase
SA) and ​Root Cap​ (protect root apical
meristem)
● Modified Roots
1. Storage Roots - store food and water
2. Pneumatophores - obtain oxygen
3. Buttress - distribution of shallow roots,
architectural support
4. Prop - growing from stem, additional
support
5. Contractile - pull plants to desirable
depth
  
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 
Long Test #2 Reviewer 

6. Epiphytic - silvery ​velamen​ (can be

photosynthetic), support, prevent water Epidermi​s: outer protective covering
loss, absorption Ground Tissue​: parenchyma, stores ​starch
- Cortex​: between epidermis and vascular
cambium
- Pith​: innermost part for eudicots
Vascular Tissue​: for vascular transport
- Xylem​: conducts water/minerals
- Phloem​: conducts dissolved sugar
Endodermis​: innermost part of cortex, prevents
water/materials from entering xylem
Pericycle​: layer of cells inside endodermis, gives
7. Symbiotic - Mychorizza (fungus root),
rise to ​lateral roots
Nodule (​Rhizobium​ in leguminous
Casparian Strip​: waterproof material (composed
plants)
of ​suberin​)
● Root Anatomy

SECONDARY GROWTH

Anatomy of Woody Dicot Root

THE LEAF
- main photosynthetic structure
- collects solar energy and carbon dioxide

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 
Long Test #2 Reviewer 

- flattened ​blade/lamina​ and ​petiole Mesophyll​:​ground meristematic tissue​ between

● Leaf Anatomy epidermal layers, specialized parenchyma
(photosynthetic)
→ ​Isobilateral​: both sides are of the same color,
mesophyll is not divided, mostly monocot
→ ​Dorsiventral​: ​palisade mesophyll​ (elongated
parenchyma) and ​spongy mesophyll
(loosely-arranged for air circulation)
Veins​: bring xylem/phloem near photosynthetic
tissue
Bundle Sheath​: encloses vein, regulates
substance movement

Leaf Primordia​: projections alongside shoot

apical meristem (where leaves develop from)
Stomata​: exchange of O​2 and
​ CO​2 (pore)
​
Guard Cells​: opening/closing of pore, with
chloroplast to maximize photosynthesis
Bulliform Cells​: responsible for rolling/unrolling

● Leaf Type
Simple​ - undivided blade, single axillary bud at
end of petiole
Compound​ - leaflets with no axillary bud,single
bud at the end of petiole
Pinnately Compound​ - pairs attached to rachis
Palmately Compound​ - same point at the base of
petiole
Peltate​ - petiole attached to the middle of the blade
Perfoliate​ -
sessile(no petiole),
pierced by the
stem

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 
Long Test #2 Reviewer 

● Leaf Venation ● Leaf Base

● Modified Leaves
1. Cotyledons/Seed Leaves
- first leaves, store food from endosperm,
● Leaf Phyllotaxy dicots (​phanero cotylar​), monocots (​krypto
cotylar​)
2. Colored Bracts
- petal-like, to attract pollinators
3. Insect-Trapping Leaves
- digest insect bodies to get nitrogen and
nutrients (venus flytrap, pitcher plant)
● Leaf Forms 4. Tendrils
- extension of the midrib, cling to other object
5. Spines
- prevent desiccation, protect from predation
6. Storage Leaves
- retain water in large vacuoles
7. Absorptive Leaves
- no xylem,water can pass through diffusion
- foliar fertilization (apply directly on leaves)
● Leaf Margins - Hydrilla verticillata
8. Others
- reproductive (Kalanchoe plantlets)
- window leaves (transparent, light
penetration)
- flower pot leaves (catch water, nutrients)
- pulvinus leaves (swollen, receptive to K​+​)
● Leaf Tips

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 
Long Test #2 Reviewer 

Node​: point where leaves are attached

Internode​: segment between nodes
Apical Bud​: concentration of young shoot growth
Axillary Bud​: in the axis between leaf and stem, may
form lateral branch, thorn, or flower

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWTH

OF THE STEM
The Stem
- bears leaves and buds
- maximizes photosynthesis
- elevates reproductive organs
- Main function: ​support​ and ​conduction
Stem Morphology

Stem Anatomy

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 
Long Test #2 Reviewer 

Lacuna​: ​cavity​ caused by

collapse of cells during
elongation
Phloem​: ​Sieve Tube
Elements​ (cell-to-cell
fluid flow), ​Companion
Cell​ (nucleus,ribosomes)
Xylem​: ​Tracheids​ (H​2​O
through pit), ​Vessel
Element​ (H​2​O through
perforation)
Secondary
Growth

Vascular Bundle = Bundle Cap Fiber (sclerenchyma)

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 
Long Test #2 Reviewer 

Heartwood​: ​no longer conducting H​2​O​, good for

building ships
Sapwood​: transports​ xylem sap
Modified Stems
→ ​Above Ground
1.Thorn - no terminal bud
2.Tendril - cling, sunlight
3.Cladophyll - photosynthetic, storage
4.Stolon - asexual reproduction
5.Sucker - young plants at base of mother plant
6.Tiller - one plant from another
7.Offset - water hyacinth
→ Underground
1.Tuber - enlarged end of rhizomes, stolons
2. Bulb - short stem enclosed by leaves
3. Rhizome - horizontal root (ginger)
4.Corm - swollen stem base + scale leaves

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