MC 451 Lecture 7-2020 PDF

FLUID POWER SYSTEMS
MC 451
Prepared by: H. Mupeta
Copperbelt University,
School of Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering Department.
1
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS & HYDRAULIC
TRANSMISSION LINES
2
OBJECTIVES
• Understand and explain the basic properties of hydraulic

fluids.
• Classify hydraulic fluids.
• Size hydraulic transmission lines to meet flow rate
requirements
• Differentiate between burst pressure and working pressure
• Modeling of hydraulic transmission lines
3
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
4
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS
§ Two fluids are of interest: liquid and gas.

§ The liquids are divided into two classes:
n oil-based and water-based
§ The basic function of the fluid is to:
n Transmit power
n Provide lubrication
n Provide cooling
n Seal clearances
§ Pneumatic systems use air as the working fluid
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: VISCOSITY
§ Characteristic of a fluid describing its resistance to the

laminar movement of two neighbouring fluid layers against
each other.
o The fluid is subjected to shear stress, τ, given by Newton’s

law of viscosity.
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
§ The viscosity is stated at a standard temperature (40°C for the ISO

specification). A hydraulic fluid referred to as VG32 has a viscosity
of 32 cSt at 40°C.
§ The oil viscosity influences the function of hydraulic power systems

as it introduces resistance to fluid flow and to the motion of bodies
moving in the fluid. Other effects are include:
§ Hydraulic losses in transmission lines

§ Resistance to fluid flow in narrow conduits
§ Viscous friction forces and damping effect
§ The viscosity is stated at a standard temperature (40°C for the

ISO specification). A hydraulic fluid referred to as VG32 has a
viscosity of 32 cSt at 40°C.
§ The oil viscosity influences the function of hydraulic power

systems as it introduces resistance to fluid flow and to the
motion of bodies moving in the fluid. Herein, the following
effects are studied:
§ Hydraulic losses in transmission lines
§ Resistance to fluid flow in narrow conduits
§ Viscous friction forces and damping effect
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: VISCOSITY INDEX
§ The viscosity index (VI) of oil is a number used in industry to indicate

the effect of temperature variation on the viscosity of the oil.
§ A low VI signifies a relatively large change of viscosity with
temperature variation.
§ High VI means relatively little change in viscosity over a wide
temperature range.
𝐿−𝑈
𝑉𝐼 = ×100
𝐿−𝐻
§ Viscosity index is calculated as follows:

𝐿−𝑈
𝑉𝐼 = ×100
𝐿−𝐻
𝐿 =Viscosity of 0 -VI oil at 100℉

𝑈 =Viscosity of unknown oil at 100℉
𝐻 =Viscosity of 100 -VI oil at 100℉
§ The VI of an unknown oil is determined from tests
§ A reference oil of 0 VI and a reference oil of 100 VI are selected, each of

which has uniquely the same viscosity at 210 ℉ as the unknown oil
§ The viscosity of the three oils are then measured at 100 ℉ to

give values for L, U and H
§ The VI number of an oil represents the per cent the

unknown oils viscosity sensitivity is from 0-VI oil towards a
100 –VI oil.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: OIL DENSITY
§ Density is mass per unit volume: ρ = m/V.

§ The hydraulic oils are of low compressibility and
volumetric thermal expansion.
§ under ordinary operating conditions, the oil density is
practically constant.
§ The density of mineral hydraulic oils ranges from 850
to 900 kg/m3..
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: OIL COMPRESSIBILITY
§ Liquids are of very low compressibility, while gases are

highly compressible.
§ Liquid compressibility is defined as the ability of liquid to
change its volume when its pressure varies.
§ The stiffness of a hydraulic system is directly related to
incompressibility of the oil.
§ Bulk modulus is a measure of incompressibility. The higher
the bulk modulus the less compressible or stiffer the fluid
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: OIL COMPRESSIBILITY
Mathematically
∆𝑃
𝛽=−
∆𝑉⁄𝑉
§ 𝛽 = Bulk modulus
§ ∆𝑃 = change in pressure
§ ∆𝑉 = change in volume
§ 𝑉 = original volume
§ The negative sign accounts for the fact that as pressure increases, the
volume decreases
§ Bulk modulus of an oil changes with pressure and temperature but

within the operating range
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: THERMAL EXPANSION
§ Hydraulic liquids are subjected to volumetric thermal

expansion.
§ Volume of liquids changes with temperature as follows:
ΔV T = α VΔT
where V = Initial volume of oil, m3
α = Thermal expansion coefficient,
ΔT = Temperature variation, °C
ΔV T = Oil volume variation due to thermal expansion, 𝑚!
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: VAPOR PRESSURE
§ All liquids evaporate by projecting molecules into space above their

surface.
§ In a confined space, the partial pressure exerted by the molecules
increases until the rate at which molecules re-enter the liquid is equal
to the rate at which they leave.
§ In this equilibrium condition, the vapor pressure is the saturated
vapor pressure (SVP).
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: COMPATIBILITY
§ Fluid must be fully compatible with other materials used in the

hydraulic system, such as those used for bearings, seals, paints, and
so on.
§ It should not react chemically with any of these materials, nor

change their physical properties.
§ Moreover, the fluid leaks out from the hydraulic system and
encounters other system parts,
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: CHEMICAL STABILITY
§ Chemical stability is an important property of the hydraulic

liquid.
§ It is defined as the ability of the liquid to resist oxidation and

deterioration for long periods.
§ liquids can be improved by the addition of oxidation inhibitors,

which must be compatible with the other required properties of
the liquid.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: OXIDATION STABILITY
§ The oxidation stability is the ability of the fluid to resist

chemical degradation by reaction with atmospheric
oxygen
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: FOAMING
§ All fluids contain dissolved air.

§ The amount of dissolved air depends upon the temperature
and pressure.
§ As the temperature of the fluid increases or the pressure
decreases, the dissolved air is liberated.
§ Most hydraulic fluids contain foam-depressant
§ Additives that cause the rapid breakdown of the foam.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: CLEANLINESS
§ Cleanliness in hydraulic systems has received

considerable attention.
§ If fluid is un clean the contaminants can cause

component malfunction, prevent proper valve seating,
cause wear in components, and may increase the
response time of servo valves.
§ Air, water, solvent, and other foreign fluids are in the
class of fluid contaminants.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: THERMAL PROPERTIES
o Cloud and pour point.

o flash point
o fire point
o Specific heat capacity
o Thermal conductivity
THERMAL PROPERTIES: CLOUD AND POUR POINT
§ The temperature at which crystals form in oil and are

visible is called the Cloud Point. The greater the
quantity of wax present, the higher the cloud point.
§ If you continue to chill the oil, eventually the oil will

not flow out of the test tube when turned upside down.
The temperature at which this occurs is call the Pour
Point.
THERMAL PROPERTIES: FLASH POINT
§ Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives

off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite momentarily or
flash when a flame is applied.
§ A high flash point is desirable for hydraulic liquids

because it indicates good resistance to combustion and
a low degree of evaporation at normal temperatures
THERMAL PROPERTIES: FIRE POINT
§ Fire point is the temperature at which a substance gives

off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite and continue to
burn when exposed to a spark or flame.
§ Like flash point, a high fire point is required of

desirable hydraulic liquids.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: ACIDITY
o An ideal hydraulic liquid should be free from acids that

cause corrosion of the metals in the system.
o Most liquids cannot be expected to remain completely

noncorrosive under severe operating conditions.
o The degree of acidity of a liquid, when new, may be
satisfactory, but after use, the liquid may tend to become
corrosive as it begins to deteriorate.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: TOXICITY
o Toxicity is defined as the quality, state, or degree of being

toxic or poisonous.
o These toxic or poisonous chemicals may enter the body
through inhalation, by absorption through the skin, or
through the eyes or the mouth.
o most hydraulic liquids are free of harmful chemicals.
ENVIRONMENTALLY ACCEPTABLE HYDRAULIC OILS
o Hydraulic fluids are naturally included in serious threats

posed by industrial pollution of our environment.
o Below are basic specifications of commercially available
and environmentally acceptable hydraulic oil.
o It is a synthetic base oil designed to biodegrade to its
natural state when subjected to sunlight, water, and/or
microbial activity.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: NEUTRALISATION NUMBER
o It is the number used as a measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity

of a hydraulic fluid and is specified by a pH factor
o A fluid having a small number is recommended because high acidity

causes corrosion of metal parts as well as deterioration of seals and
packing glands
o For an acidic fluid, the neutralisation number equals the number of

milligrams (mg) of potassium hydroxide necessary to neutralise the
acid in 1g sample of the fluid.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC OILS: NEUTRALISATION NUMBER
total ml of titrating solution ×5.61

Neutralisation number =
Weight of sample used
§ Hydraulic fluids that have been treated with additives to inhibit the
formation of acids are usually able to keep this number at a low value
between 0 and 0.1
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC
FLUIDS
TYPICALLY USED HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
The following are typically used hydraulic fluids:
§ Non-inhibited refined mineral oil

§ Refined mineral oil with improved anti-rust and anti-oxidation
properties
§ Refined mineral oil with improved anti-rust, anti-oxidation, and
anti-wear properties
§ Refined mineral oil with improved anti-rust, anti-oxidation, and
viscosity-temperature properties
§ Refined mineral oil with improved anti-rust, anti-oxidation,

anti-wear, and viscosity-temperature properties.
§ Synthetic fluids with no specific fire-resistant properties.
§ High water-based fluid (up to 20% combustible materials +
min 80% water).
§ Chemical solution in water (more than 80% water content).
§ Water-in-oil, water droplets in a continuous oil phase (60%
oil + 40% water).
§ Water/polymer—water glycol (35% water minimum, 80%

maximum)
§ Pure chemical fluids; water-free
§ Phosphate esters
§ Chlorinated hydrocarbons
§ Mixture of phosphate esters and chlorinated
hydrocarbons
TYPICALLY USED HYDRAULIC FLUIDS: MINERAL OILS
Mineral-based oils are the most widely used hydraulic fluids.

§ relatively inexpensive,
§ widely available, and can be offered in suitable viscosity grades
§ good lubricity, noncorrosive,
§ and are compatible with most sealing materials with the
exception of butyl rubber.
TYPICALLY USED HYDRAULIC FLUIDS: MINERAL OILS
§ Chemically stable for reasonable operating temperatures.

§ At higher temperatures, however, they suffer chemical
breakdown..
§ Additives are added to combat the effects of wear,
oxidation, and foam formation, and to improve viscosity
index and lubricity.
§ Two disadvantages of oil are the flammability and the
increase in viscosity at high pressures
TYPICALLY USED HYDRAULIC FLUIDS: INTERMIXING OF FLUIDS
§ Due to the difference in composition, petroleum-based and

phosphate ester-based fluids will not mix; neither are the seals
for any one fluid usable with or tolerant of any of the other
fluids.
§ Should an aircraft hydraulic system be serviced with the wrong
type fluid, immediately drain and flush the system and maintain
the seals according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
FIRE-RESISTANT FLUIDS: OIL-IN-WATER EMULSION
§ Consists of tiny droplets of oil dispersed in a continuous

water phase.
§ Dilution is normally between 2% and 5% oil in water
§ highly incompressible
§ Good cooling properties
§ Main disadvantages are poor lubricity and low viscosity.
FIRE-RESISTANT FLUIDS: OIL-IN-WATER EMULSION
§ Are the most popular fire-resistant fluids.

§ have a continuous oil phase in which tiny droplets of water are
dispersed
§ lubrication properties are very much reduced
§ is partially overcome by running pumps at reduced speeds.
§ The usual dilution is 60% oil + 40% water.
HYDRAULIC TRANSMISSION LINES
40
TYPES OF LINES
• The three types of lines used in fluid power systems are:

• Pipe (rigid),
• Tubing (semi-rigid),
• and hose (flexible
• Factors that are considered when the type of line is selected
for a particular fluid system include:
• Type of fluid
• Required system pressure
• Location of the system
41
TYPES OF LINES
• Heavy pipe might be used in/for a large stationary fluid power system
• Light weight tubing must be used for aircraft and missile systems since
weight and space are critical factors.
• Flexible hose is required on installations where units must be free to

move relative to each other.
42
TYPES OF LINES
• Transmission lines affect system performance in the

following ways:
• Hydraulic friction losses; hydraulic resistance of lines
• Hydraulic local or secondary, pressure losses
• Oil compressibility and elasticity of pipe material;
hydraulic capacitance of lines
• Oil inertia; the hydraulic inertia of lines
43
TRANSMISSION LINE SIZING FOR FLOW RATE REQUIREMENT
• A fluid conductor must have a large cross –sectional area to handle

the flow rate requirements without producing excessive fluid velocity
• In this context fluid velocity is the average velocity
𝑄
𝑣 = 𝑣"#$ =
𝐴
• The area for the diameter is the inside diameter and the pipe area is
the area corresponding to inside diameter
44
• The maximum recommended velocity for pump suction line is

1.2 𝑚/𝑠 to prevent excessively low suction pressure and
resulting cavitation
• The maximum recommended velocity for pressure lines is

6.1 𝑚/𝑠 in order to prevent turbulent flow and corresponding
excessive head loses and elevated temperatures.
• All recommend velocities are averages. Why?
45
• The appropriate diameter for a hydraulic transmission line can be

determined according to the maximum flow rate (𝑄%"& ) and selected
fluid speed (𝑣)
4𝑄%"&
𝑑=
𝜋𝑣
46
Example
• A pipe handles a flow rate of 0.002𝑚! /𝑠. Find the minimum inside
diameter that will provide an average fluid velocity not to exceed
6.1 𝑚/𝑠?
Solution
𝑄 0.002
𝐴= = = 0.000328𝑚'
𝑣 6.1
47
Solution
The minimum inside diameter can be found from the equation
𝜋𝐷'
𝐴=
4
4𝐴 (4)(0.000328)
𝐷= = = 0.0204 𝑚
𝜋 𝜋
48
PRESSURE RATING FOR HYDRAULIC TRANSMISSION LINE
• A conductor must be very strong to prevent bursting due to excessive

tensile stress (called hoop stress) in the walls of the conductor under
operating fluid pressure.
49
𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
𝑃 = fluid pressure
𝐴 = projected area of the lower half –pipe curved – wall
surface onto a longitudinal plane.
𝐹 = 𝑃(𝐿𝐷& )
50
• Tensile stress in the pipe material equals the tensile force

divided by the wall cross-sectional area withstanding the
tensile force
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝐹 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐿𝐷& 𝑃𝐷&
𝜎= = = =
2𝑡𝐿 2𝑡𝐿 2𝑡𝐿 2𝑡
51
𝑃𝐷&
𝜎=
2𝑡
• Tensile stress increases as fluid pressure (P) increases as well
as the inside diameter increases
• As the wall thickness reduces, tensile stress increases
• The length of the pipe does not have any effect on the
tensile stress
52
BURST PRESSURE (BP)
• The burst pressure (BP) is the fluid pressure that will cause
the pipe to burst
• Bursting happens when tensile stress (𝜎) equals the tensile

strength (S) of the pipe material
2𝑡𝑆
𝐵𝑃 =
𝐷&
53
BURST PRESSURE (BP)
• The scribe line on the pipe shows where the pipe would start to crack
and thus rupture if the tensile stress reached the tensile strength of the
pipe material.
54
WORKING PRESSURE (WP)
• This is the maximum safe operating fluid pressure and is defined as the
burst pressure divided by an appropriate factor of safety (FS)
2𝑡𝑆 𝐵𝑃
𝑊𝑃 = =
𝐹𝑆𝐷( 𝐹𝑆
55
• Recommended factor of safety based on corresponding

operating pressures are :
𝐹𝑆 = 8 for pressures from 0 to 7𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐹𝑆 = 6 for pressures from 7 to 17.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑆 = 4 for pressures from 17.5 to 175 𝑀𝑃𝑎
56
• For systems where severe shocks are expected, a factor of safety of

10 is recommended
Note
• The material, ID, and wall thickness are the three primary
considerations in the selection of lines for a particular fluid power
system.
57
• The proper size for a given application can be determined as follows:

1. Calculate the minimum acceptable inside diameter 𝐷( based on
flow rate requirements
2. Select a standard size conductor with an inside diameter equal to
or greater than the value calculated based on flow –rate
requirements.
3. Determine the wall thickness (𝑡) of the selected standard size
conductor using the equation
𝐷) − 𝐷(
𝑡=
2
58
4. Based on the conductor material and system operating pressure

(𝑃), determine the tensile strength (S) and factor of safety (𝐹𝑆)
5. Calculate the burst pressure (BP) and working pressure (WP)
using the equations developed
2𝑡𝑆
𝐵𝑃 =
𝐷(
𝐵𝑃
𝑊𝑃 =
𝐹𝑆
59
6. If the calculated working pressure is less that of the

operating pressure, the selected conductor is acceptable.
If not a different standard size conductor with a greater
wall thickness must be selected and evaluated.
• An acceptable conductor is one that meets the flow rate

requirement and has a working pressure equal to or greater
than the system operating fluid pressure
60
STEEL PIPES
• Pipes and pipe fittings are classified by nominal size and schedule
number
• Commonly used schedules in hydraulic systems are 40 , 80 and

160
• For each nominal size the outside diameter does not change .
Therefore, to increase wall thickness the next schedule number is
used.
• The nominal size indicates thread size for the mating connections
61
STEEL PIPES
62
STEEL PIPES
• The relative size of cross section for schedules 40, 80 and 180
63
STEEL TUBING
• Steel tubing has an advantage over pipes in that they can be bent into
almost any shape , thereby reducing the number of fittings.
• However, tubing and its fittings are very expensive
• A tubing size designation always refers to the outside diameter and the
smallest outer diameter is 4 𝑚𝑚 and the largest is 42 𝑚𝑚
64
STEEL TUBING
• Most commonly used materials for tubing are 𝑆𝐴𝐸 1010 with tensile
strength of 379 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝐴𝐼𝑆𝐼 4130 with 519 𝑀𝑃𝑎
65
Example
• Select the proper metric size steel tube for a flow rate of
0.00190 𝑚! /𝑠 and an operating pressure of 70 𝑏𝑎𝑟. The maximum
recommended velocity is 6.1 𝑚/𝑠 and the tube material is SAE 1010
dead soft cold –drawn steel having a tensile strength of 379 𝑀𝑃𝑎
66
Solution
• The minimum inside diameter based on the fluid velocity limitation is

6.1 𝑚/𝑠
4𝑄 4 (0.0019)
𝐼𝐷 = = = 19.9 𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝑣 𝜋(6.1)
67
Solution
• The smallest acceptable (OD) diameter tube size is 22mm, 1.0 mm

wall thickness, 20 mm ID
2𝑡𝑆 2(0.001)(379)
𝐵𝑃 = = = 37.9𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐷( 0.02
• Working Pressure (WP)
𝐵𝑃 37.9
𝑊𝑃 = = = 4.74𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 47.4 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝐹𝑆 8
68
Solution
• This pressure is not acceptable since is it less than the operating

pressure of 70 bar
• One needs to find the next larger size of the OD having the necessary
ID
28mm, 2 mm wall thickness, 24 mm ID
2𝑡𝑆 2(0.002)(379)
𝐵𝑃 = = = 63.2𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐷( 0.024
69
Solution
• Working Pressure (WP)
𝐵𝑃 63.2
𝑊𝑃 = = = 7.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 79 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝐹𝑆 8
The result is acceptable
70
HYDRAULIC TUBING
• To select an appropriate hydraulic tubing, the following factors must

be considered
• Material of tubing
• Fittings
• Tubing size
• Tubing length
• Conveyed fluid
• Compatibility
• Temperature
• Installation design
• Tubing pressure rating
71
HYDRAULIC TUBING
• The figures below show proper and improper tube fittings
72
COMMONLY USED CONNECTORS AND COUPLING ELEMENTS
73
HYDRAULIC HOSES
• They are used to interconnect elements that vibrate or move

relative to each other. They can also operate at high pressures.
• The diameter can be determined from the equation below if the

maximum flow rate and fluid speed are known before hand
4𝑄%"&
𝑑=
𝜋𝑣
74
HYDRAULIC HOSES
75
HYDRAULIC HOSES
• The following should be taken into consideration when mounting

hydraulic hoses
1. Provide for length change
In straight hose installations, allow

enough length in the horse line to
provide for changes in length that will
occur when pressure is applied
76
HYDRAULIC HOSES
2. Avoid twisting and orient hose

pipe properly
Do not twist hose during installation.

This can be determined by the printed
lay line on the hose. Pressure applied to
a twisted hose can cause hose failure
77
HYDRAULIC HOSES
3. Protect from hazardous

environment
Keep hose away from hot parts.

High ambient temperature will
shorten hose life.
It should be routed away from the

heat source and insulated
78
HYDRAULIC HOSES
4. Avoid mechanical stress
Use elbows and adapters in the

installation to relieve stress on the
assembly
79
HYDRAULIC HOSES
5. Use proper bend radius
Keep the bend radius of the hose as large

as possible to avoid collapsing of the hoe
and restriction of flow
Minimum bend radius is measured on the

inside bend of the hose as illustrated in
the figure
80
HYDRAULIC HOSES
6. Secure for protection
Install hose runs to avoid rubbing or

abrasion. Use clamps to support long
runs of hose or to keep hose away from
moving parts.
It is important that the clamps the clamps

not allow the hose to move in order to
avoid abrasion and premature failure
81
HYDRAULIC HOSES
7. Avoid improper hose movement
Make sure the relative motion of the machine components produces

bending rather than twisting of the hose. Hose should be routed so the
flex is in the same plane as the equipment
82
COMMONLY USED END FITTINGS
83
POWER AND PRESSURE LOSSES IN HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
• In hydraulic power systems, the following local features in hydraulic

conduits exist
• Channel expansion, gradual or abrupt
• Channel contraction, gradual or abrupt
• Channel bend, smooth or sharp (elbow)
• Branching junctions
• Control valves
• At these features, minor losses in the hydraulic system result from
the rapid variation of magnitude or direction of the oil velocity.
84
• The local pressure losses are calculated by the following formula
𝜌𝜐 '
∆𝑃 = 𝜉
2
Where
𝜐 = fluid velocity, 𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑃 = Pressure losses, 𝑃𝑎
𝜉 = local loss coefficient
𝜌 = Fluid density, 𝑘𝑔/𝑚!
85
• The table below shows the local feature and its associated local loss
coefficient
86
• Friction losses: Pressure losses in pipe lines depend mainly on the

geometry, surface roughness, fluid properties and Reynolds number
87
MODELLING OF HYDRAULIC
TRANSMISSION LINES
88
MODELLING OF HYDRAULIC TRANSMISSION LINES
• A hydraulic transmission line is actually a distributed parameter

system
• In transient condition, the motion of the liquid takes place under the
action of the fluid inertia, friction, compressibility as well as the
driving pressure forces
• Under such conditions, oil velocity, pressure and temperature vary
from point to point along the pipe length and pipe radius
• Therefore, mathematical model of the line becomes too complicated
when taking into consideration all the variations of the oil and flow
parameters
89
• A simplified mathematical model which describes the dynamic

behaviour of the transmission line with acceptable accuracy is here
developed
• This model called lumped parameter model is deduced with the
following assumptions
• The flow is laminar and unidirectional
• Liquid pressure and velocity are taken to be the mean values and
assumed constant along the line cross sections
• Hydraulic oil moves in the hydraulic lines as one lump (single
lump model) or general lumps ( multi-lump model)
90
• Effects of line resistance, inertia and capacitance are separate and

each of them is localised in one of three separate portions in the
line
Single lump model
91
• The fist portion of the model takes the effect of resistance of the
whole line
• The effect of inertia of the whole line is localised in the second
portion, while that of capacitance takes place in the third portion
92
• The fist portion
𝑃* − 𝑃+ = 𝑅𝑄+
𝑄* = 𝑄+
93
• The fist portion

Laplace transform
𝑃* 𝑠 = 𝑃+ 𝑠 + 𝑅𝑄+ (𝑠)
𝑄* (𝑠) = 𝑄+ (𝑠)
𝑃* 𝑠 1 𝑅 𝑃+ 𝑠 𝑃+ (𝑠)
= =𝑹
𝑄* (𝑠) 0 1 𝑄+ (𝑠) 𝑄+ (𝑠)
Where
+',-.
𝑅 = whole line resistance , R = /0! Ns/𝑚1
𝑹 = Resistance matrix
94
• The Second portion under the action of inertia I

𝑑𝑄+
𝑃+ − 𝑃' = 𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑄+ = 𝑄'
Laplace transform
𝑃+ 𝑠 1 𝐼𝑠 𝑃' 𝑠 𝑃' (𝑠)

= =𝑰
𝑄+ (𝑠) 0 1 𝑄' (𝑠) 𝑄' (𝑠)
Where
23.
𝐼 = whole line inertia, I = /0" kg/𝑚2
𝑰 = Inertia matrix
95
• The Third portion with effects of compressibility

𝑑𝑃.
𝑄' − 𝑄. = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑃' = 𝑃.
Laplace transform
𝑃' 𝑠 1 0 𝑃. 𝑠 𝑃. (𝑠)
= =𝑪
𝑄' (𝑠) 𝐶𝑠 1 𝑄. (𝑠) 𝑄. (𝑠)
Where
/0"
𝐶 = whole line Capacitance, C = .
/4𝐵 𝑚! /𝑃𝑎
𝑪 = Capacitance matrix
96
• The transfer matrix relating the line parameters 𝑃) , 𝑄) , 𝑃. and 𝑄.

can be deduced by eliminating assumed internal variables 𝑃+, 𝑃' , 𝑄+
and 𝑄'
𝑃* 𝑠 𝑃+ (𝑠) 𝑃' (𝑠) 𝑃. (𝑠)

=𝑹 = 𝑹𝑰 = 𝑹𝑰𝑪
𝑄* (𝑠) 𝑄+ (𝑠) 𝑄' (𝑠) 𝑄. (𝑠)
𝑃* 𝑠 1 𝑅 1 𝐼𝑠 1 0 𝑃. (𝑠)
=
𝑄* (𝑠) 0 1 0 1 𝐶𝑠 1 𝑄. (𝑠)
𝑃* 𝑠 𝐼𝐶𝑠 ' + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑃. (𝑠)

=
𝑄* (𝑠) 𝐶𝑠 1 𝑄. (𝑠)
97
𝑃* 𝑠 𝐼𝐶𝑠 '
+ 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑃. (𝑠)
=
𝑄* (𝑠) 𝐶𝑠 1 𝑄. (𝑠)
• This equation defines the relation between the pressures and flow
rates at both of the extremities in transient conditions, assuming a
single oil lump
98
PROPORTIONAL HYDRAULICS
99
§ There are three methods used in hydraulic systems control

§ Manual control
§ Electro –hydraulics
§ Proportional hydraulics
§ Manual control
§ Non of the valves is electrically controlled and is not possible to automate the
system.
§ Pressure and flow are set during commissioning
§ Flow rate and flow direction can be changed during operation by manually
actuating the control valve.
§ Manual control
§ An example of a manually
controlled feed drive
Electro –hydraulics
§ Directional control valves are controlled electrically
§ Pressure and flow cannot be influenced during operation of the electrical system
§ If change is needed, the system has to be stopped and flow and pressure relief
valve can be changed.
§ Automation of pressure and flow is possible but on limited extent
using switching valves such as:
§ Control of flow and pressure valves with cams
§ Connection of an additional flow control by means of a directional control
valve.
Electro –hydraulics
§ Proportional directional control valves are used as a means of actuating the value
using electrical control signals.
§ Control signal influences the flow rate and flow direction
§ Rate of movement of the drive can be infinitely be adjusted by means of changing the flow rate.
§ They assume the role of flow control and directional control valves
§ Proportional valves used in hydraulics are controlled by means of an

electrical control system such that it is possible to do the following during
operation
§ Lower the pressure during reduced load phase
§ Gently start –up and decelerate the slide through proportional control valve.
§ All the valves are controlled automatically without human intervention

§ Signal flow in proportional hydraulics is represented below

§ An electric voltage typically -10V to 10V can be infinitely be adjusted

and the speed and force ( i.e. speed and torque) can be adjusted on the
drive accordingly. From drawing (Previous slide)
§ The -10V to 10V act on the amplifier
§ Amplifier converts voltage (input signal) into current (output signal)
§ Current acts on the proportional solenoid
§ The proportional solenoid actuates the valve
§ Valve controls the energy flow to the hydraulic drive
§ Drive converts the energy into kinetic energy
THANK YOU FOR YOUR
ATTENTION
Contact Details:
Henry.Mupeta@cbu.ac.zm
www.cbu.ac.zm
Cel: +260-950 423 980
108

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FLUID POWER SYSTEMS

• Understand and explain the basic properties of hydraulic

§ Two fluids are of interest: liquid and gas.

§ Characteristic of a fluid describing its resistance to the

o The fluid is subjected to shear stress, τ, given by Newton’s

§ The viscosity is stated at a standard temperature (40°C for the ISO

§ The oil viscosity influences the function of hydraulic power systems

§ Hydraulic losses in transmission lines

§ The viscosity is stated at a standard temperature (40°C for the

§ The oil viscosity influences the function of hydraulic power

§ The viscosity index (VI) of oil is a number used in industry to indicate

§ Viscosity index is calculated as follows:

𝐿 =Viscosity of 0 -VI oil at 100℉

§ A reference oil of 0 VI and a reference oil of 100 VI are selected, each of

§ The viscosity of the three oils are then measured at 100 ℉ to

§ The VI number of an oil represents the per cent the

§ Density is mass per unit volume: ρ = m/V.

§ Liquids are of very low compressibility, while gases are

§ Bulk modulus of an oil changes with pressure and temperature but

§ Hydraulic liquids are subjected to volumetric thermal

§ All liquids evaporate by projecting molecules into space above their

§ Fluid must be fully compatible with other materials used in the

§ It should not react chemically with any of these materials, nor

§ Chemical stability is an important property of the hydraulic

§ It is defined as the ability of the liquid to resist oxidation and

§ liquids can be improved by the addition of oxidation inhibitors,

§ The oxidation stability is the ability of the fluid to resist

§ All fluids contain dissolved air.

§ Cleanliness in hydraulic systems has received

§ If fluid is un clean the contaminants can cause

o Cloud and pour point.

§ The temperature at which crystals form in oil and are

§ If you continue to chill the oil, eventually the oil will

§ Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives

§ A high flash point is desirable for hydraulic liquids

§ Fire point is the temperature at which a substance gives

§ Like flash point, a high fire point is required of

o An ideal hydraulic liquid should be free from acids that

o Most liquids cannot be expected to remain completely

o Toxicity is defined as the quality, state, or degree of being

o Hydraulic fluids are naturally included in serious threats

o It is the number used as a measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity

o A fluid having a small number is recommended because high acidity

o For an acidic fluid, the neutralisation number equals the number of

total ml of titrating solution ×5.61

The following are typically used hydraulic fluids:

§ Non-inhibited refined mineral oil

§ Refined mineral oil with improved anti-rust, anti-oxidation,

§ Water/polymer—water glycol (35% water minimum, 80%

Mineral-based oils are the most widely used hydraulic fluids.

§ Chemically stable for reasonable operating temperatures.

§ Due to the difference in composition, petroleum-based and

§ Consists of tiny droplets of oil dispersed in a continuous

§ Are the most popular fire-resistant fluids.

• The three types of lines used in fluid power systems are:

• Flexible hose is required on installations where units must be free to

• Transmission lines affect system performance in the

• A fluid conductor must have a large cross –sectional area to handle

• In this context fluid velocity is the average velocity

• The maximum recommended velocity for pump suction line is

• The maximum recommended velocity for pressure lines is

• All recommend velocities are averages. Why?

• The appropriate diameter for a hydraulic transmission line can be