Linear measurement

Various methods used for linear measurements may be grouped as:

(i) Approximate
(ii) Using chain or tape
(iii) By optical means and
(iv) Using electromagnetic distance measurement instruments.
Approximates Methods of Linear Measurements These methods are used in
reconnaissance survey or to detect major mistakes committed while measuring with
better methods. On smooth roads they can give results within 1 per cent error. These
approximate measurements may be by:
(i) pacing
(ii) using passometer
(iii) using pedometer
(iv) using odometer or by
(v) using speedometer.

(i) Pacing: In this method surveyor walks along the line to be measured and counts the
number of steps. Then the distance measured is equal to number of steps × average
length of a step.
Average length of a step can be found by walking along a known length. A normal man
takes a step of length 0.75 m to 0.8 m.
(ii) Using Passometer: A passometer is a watch-like instrument which is carried
vertically in the pocket of shirt or tied to a leg. It records number of steps taken. Thus
the problem of counting number of steps is eliminated in this approximate method of
linear measurement.
(iii) Using Pedometer: This instrument is similar to passometer but it can record the
distance instead of number of steps. In this, zero setting and setting of step length is
made before walking.
(iv) Odometer: This instrument is attached to the wheel of a cycle or other vehicle. It
records the number of revolutions made by the wheel. Knowing the circumference of
the wheel, the distance travelled may be found.
(v) Speedometer: Odometer calibrated to give distance directly is called speedometer.
This is to be used for particular vehicle only. All automobiles are provided with
speedometers. By running the vehicle along the line to be measured distance can be
found.
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Direct measurement method

Direct measurement is obtaining the measurement directly which means measuring
the length directly using simple equipment and there is no need to solve hard
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equations..! In the Direct methods, the distance is actually measured during field
work using a chain or a tape.

The following instruments are used while chaining:

1. Chains
2. Tapes
3. Arrows
4. Ranging rods and offset rods
5. Pegs
6. Plumb-bob

Chain
The chain is composed of 100 or 150 pieces of galvanized mild steel wire called
links, joined together with oval rings and handles at both ends. The end of each link
are bent into a loop and connected together by means of three oval rings. The ends
of the chain are provided with brass handles for easy handling. The length of chain
is measured from one handle to other handle.

Arrows or chain pins

They are also called as marking or chaining pins and are used to mark the end of chain
during the process of chaining. They are made up of good quality hardened and
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tempered steel wire of 4mm in diameter. The arrows are made 400 mm in length. The
one pointed part of an arrow is inserted into ground and the other is attached with ring.

Ranging rods or offset rods or ranging poles

Ranging rods or offset rods are round poles made up of wood or metal. These rods are
used to range intermediate points of a survey and to set out straight lines on the field
when the surveying length is long. The only difference between ranging rods and poles
is the length. Ranging rods and offset rods are commonly occurs in 3m length but the
ranging poles are available up to 8m length. The rods possess a metal point at its
bottom and the rod or pole is painted with red & white or black & white successive
combination. When the survey lines are too lengthy a flag with red/white/yellow colour
will be attached to the top of the pole for easy identification.

Pegs
The pegs are made up with wood and they used to mark the survey positions or
terminals.
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The size of the pegs (40 to 60 cm) depends on the type of survey work they are used
for and the type of soil they have to be driven in. Although the pegs are driven into
the ground 1/5 th of its part should be visible on the ground surface.

Plumb-bob
A string suspended with a weight at the bottom will be both vertical and perpendicular
to any level plane through which it passes. The plumb consists of a specially designed
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weight and coarse string or special threads. At one end of the string the weight is
affixed. Precisely machined and balanced bobs have pointed tips, and can be made of
brass, steel, or other materials, including plastic.
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Tapes
Tapes are used for more accurate measurements. The tapes are classified based on the
materials of which they are made of such as:

1. Cloth or linen tape

2. Fiber tape
3. Metallic tape
4. Steel tape
5. Invar tape
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Common instrumental errors in linear measurement

 Length other than standard
 Tape manufacturers do not guarantee 100 ft steel tapes to be exactly 100.00 ft.
An error due to the incorrect length occurs every time the tape is used.

 Tempera
ture
other
than

standard
Steel tapes are standardized at 68° F (20° C).

A temperature higher or lower will change the length of the tape. Temperature of the
tape can be quite different from the air temperature measured

Temperature correction Ct=kL∆ t

 Tension
If tension is greater than standard the tape will stretch. If less than standard tension is
applied the tape will be shorter than standard.
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 Sag
A tape not supported along its entire length will sag. By applying correct tension the sag
can be reduced.

OTHER ERRORS
Misalignment : If the tape is not in a straight line between the two points whose
distance apart is being measured e2/2L.

Plumbing: If stepped measurement is used, locating the end of the tape by plumb-
bob will inevitably result in error.

Incorrect reading of the tape

Booking error