ISIS Educational Module 2:

An Introduction to FRP
Composites for Construction

Prepared by ISIS Canada

A Canadian Network of Centres of Excellence
www.isiscanada.com
Principal Contributor: L.A. Bisby, Ph.D., P.Eng.
Department of Civil Engineering, Queen’s University
Contributor: J. Fitzwilliam
March 2006

ISIS Education Committee:

N. Banthia, University of British Columbia

L. Bisby, Queen’s University
R. Cheng, University of Alberta
R. El-Hacha, University of Calgary
G. Fallis, Vector Construction Group
R. Hutchinson, Red River College
A. Mufti, University of Manitoba
K.W. Neale, Université de Sherbrooke
J. Newhook, Dalhousie University
K. Soudki, University of Waterloo
L. Wegner, University of Saskatchewan
ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
Objectives of This Module
The objective of this module is to provide students with an
overall awareness of the properties, behaviour, and
application of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) materials in
civil engineering construction applications. This document
is one of a series of modules on innovative FRP
technologies available from ISIS Canada. Further
information on FRP materials and on the use of FRPs in a
variety of innovative applications can be found on the
internet at www.isiscanada.com. While research into the use
of FRP materials in a number of structural applications is
ongoing, an overall knowledge of currently available FRP
materials is essential for the new generation of civil
engineers. Experience has shown that the problems of the
future cannot generally be solved with the materials and
methodologies of the past, and FRPs are rapidly emerging
as key materials for use in durable and sustainable
infrastructure.
The primary objectives of this manual can be
summarized as follows:
1. to provide civil engineering students with a general
awareness of the properties and behaviour of FRP
materials;
2. to provide information on some of the potential uses of
FRPs in civil engineering applications;
3. to facilitate the use of FRP materials in the construction
industry; and
4. to provide guidance for students seeking additional
information on this topic.
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
Additional ISIS Educational Modules
Available from ISIS Canada (www.isiscanada.com)
Module 1 – Mechanics Examples Incorporating FRP
Materials
Nineteen worked mechanics of materials problems are presented
which incorporate FRP materials. These examples could be used
in lectures to demonstrate various mechanics concepts, or could be
assigned for assignment or exam problems. This module seeks to
expose first and second year undergraduates to FRP materials at
the introductory level. Mechanics topics covered at the
elementary level include: equilibrium, stress, strain and
deformation, elasticity, plasticity, determinacy, thermal stress and
strain, flexure and shear in beams, torsion, composite beams, and
deflections.
Module 3 – Introduction to FRP-Reinforced
Concrete
The use of FRP bars, rods, and tendons as internal tensile
reinforcement for new concrete structures is presented and
discussed in detail. Included are discussions of FRP materials
relevant to these applications, flexural design guidelines,
serviceability criteria, deformability, bar spacing, and various
additional considerations. A number of case studies are also
discussed. A series of worked example problems, a suggested
assignment with solutions, and a suggested laboratory
incorporating FRP-reinforced concrete beams are all included.
Module 4 – Introduction to FRP-Strengthening of
Concrete Structures
The use of externally-bonded FRP reinforcement for strengthening
concrete structures is discussed in detail. FRP materials relevant
to these applications are first presented, followed by detailed
discussions of FRP-strengthening of concrete structures in flexure,
shear, and axial compression. A series of worked examples are
presented, case studies are outlined, and additional, more
specialized, applications are introduced. A suggested assignment
is provided with worked solutions, and a potential laboratory for
strengthening concrete beams in flexure with externally-bonded
FRP sheets is outlined.
Module 5 – Introduction to Structural Health
Monitoring
The overall motivation behind, and the benefits, design,
application, and use of, structural health monitoring (SHM)
systems for infrastructure are presented and discussed at the
introductory level. The motivation and goals of SHM are first
presented and discussed, followed by descriptions of the various
components, categories, and classifications of SHM systems.
Typical SHM methodologies are outlined, innovative fibre optic
sensor technology is briefly covered, and types of tests which can
be carried out using SHM are explained. Finally, a series of SHM
case studies is provided to demonstrate four field applications of
SHM systems in Canada.
Module 6 – Application & Handling of FRP
Reinforcements for Concrete
Important considerations in the handling and application of FRP
materials for both reinforcement and strengthening of reinforced
concrete structures are presented in detail. Introductory
information on FRP materials, their mechanical properties, and
their applications in civil engineering applications is provided.
Handling and application of FRP materials as internal
reinforcement for concrete structures is treated in detail, including
discussions on: grades, sizes, and bar identification, handling and
storage, placement and assembly, quality control (QC) and quality
assurance (QA), and safety precautions. This is followed by
information on handling and application of FRP repair materials
for concrete structures, including: handling and storage,
installation, QC, QA, safety, and maintenance and repair of FRP
systems.
Module 7 – Introduction to Life Cycle Engineering &
Costing for Innovative Infrastructure
Life cycle costing (LCC) is a well-recognized means of guiding
design, rehabilitation and on-going management decisions
involving infrastructure systems. LCC can be employed to enable
and encourage the use of fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs) and
fibre optic sensor (FOS) technologies across a broad range of
infrastructure applications and circumstances, even where the
initial costs of innovations exceed those of conventional
alternatives. The objective of this module is to provide
undergraduate engineering students with a general awareness of
the principles of LCC, particularly as it applies to the use of fibre
reinforced polymers (FRPs) and structural health monitoring
(SHM) in civil engineering applications.
Module 8 – Durability of FRP Composites for
Construction
Fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs), like all engineering materials,
are potentially susceptible to a variety of environmental factors
that may influence their long-term durability. It is thus important,
when contemplating the use of FRP materials in a specific
application, that allowance be made for potentially harmful
environments and conditions. It is shown in this module that
modern FRP materials are extremely durable and that they have
tremendous promise in infrastructure applications. The objective of
this module is to provide engineering students with an overall
awareness and understanding of the various environmental factors
that are currently considered significant with respect to the
durability of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) materials in civil
engineering applications.
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

Section 1
Introduction and Overview
BACKGROUND steel. Some of the commonly cited advantages of FRP
The construction industry has historically been dominated materials over more conventional materials like steel
by four traditional materials: stone, timber, concrete, and include:
steel. Up until a few hundred years ago, stone and timber • high strength-to-weight ratios;
were the primary materials used to build structures. In the • outstanding durability in a variety of environments;
past two hundred years or so, structural steel and reinforced • ease and speed of installation, flexibility, and
concrete have emerged as leading construction materials, application techniques;
and most modern urban landscapes are now defined largely • electromagnetic neutrality, which can be important in
by these two materials. Steel and concrete have served the certain special structures such as magnetic imaging
civil engineering community well, and have enabled the facilities;
construction of the elaborate world-wide systems of • the ability to tailor mechanical properties by
infrastructure that have greatly contributed to the economic appropriate choice and direction of fibres;
health and prosperity of the developed world. However, • outstanding fatigue characteristics (carbon FRP); and
steel and concrete both suffer from various forms of low thermal conductivity.
degradation, and after decades of neglect and overuse, our
aging infrastructure systems are crumbling (Fig. 1-1).
In an effort to slow and/or prevent infrastructure
deterioration, engineers are looking for new materials that
can be used to prolong and extend the service lives of
existing structures while also enabling the design and
construction of durable new structures. Fibre reinforced
polymers (FRPs), a relatively new class of non-corrosive,
high-strength, and lightweight materials, have, over the past
15 years or so, emerged as practical materials for a number
of structural engineering applications.
FRPs have been used in the automotive and aerospace
industries for more than 50 years, in applications where
their high strength and light weight can be used to greatest
advantage. As their name suggests, these materials are
composed of high-strength fibres embedded in a polymer
matrix. The fibres are extremely strong and stiff, and the
matrix binds them and enables them to work together as a
composite material.
The focus in the present discussion is on those FRP
materials that are currently used in structural engineering
applications. It is important to remain cognizant of the fact
that many different material combinations (combinations of
fibre and matrix) are possible, and that only a very small Fig. 1-1. Severely corroded reinforcing steel in
sample of the almost infinite number of possibilities is these bridge columns has resulted in spalling of
presented herein. The reader should also keep in mind that the concrete cover and exposure of the steel
several different manufacturing techniques, component reinforcement. New repair techniques for these
shapes, and end-use applications are also available for FRP types of members are now available which make
materials, but that only those most relevant to structural use of FRP materials.
engineering are discussed in this document. More complete
discussions of FRP materials are available in various However, FRP materials also have a number of
composite materials texts. potential disadvantages. Foremost among these
The rapid increase in the use of FRP materials for disadvantages is the initial material cost of FRPs, which can
structural engineering applications that has occurred over be several times that of steel. However, when the cost of a
the past 15 years can be attributed to continuing reductions structure is considered over its entire life cycle, the
in cost, and to the numerous advantages of FRPs as improved durability offered by FRP materials can make
compared with conventional materials such as concrete and them the most cost-effective material in many cases.

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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

Fig. 1-2. An example of a flexible carbon FRP sheet Fig. 1-3. Examples of currently available glass fibre
that can be used for repair of concrete structures. FRP reinforcing bars for concrete.

FRPS IN CONSTRUCTION
Since the early 1990’s, interest in the use of FRP materials
for structures has increased steadily, and there are currently
hundreds of field applications of FRPs in structures around
the world. Some of the more common FRP applications in
civil engineering structures are described in detail in
Section 5 of this document, and include:
• Externally-bonded FRP plates, sheets, and wraps for
strengthening of reinforced concrete, steel, aluminum,
and timber structural members (Fig. 1-2);
• FRP bars, rods, and tendons for internal reinforcement
of concrete (Figs. 1-3 and 1-4);
• all-FRP structures; and
• FRP hybrid structures.
This module presents an introduction into the properties Fig. 1-4. Examples of currently available carbon
and uses of FRP materials in civil engineering structures, FRP reinforcing bars for concrete.
with a particular emphasis on their use for reinforcement
and strengthening of structural concrete.

Section 2
Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
GENERAL

FRPs are a subgroup of the class of materials referred to
more generally as composites. Composites are defined as
materials created by the combination of two or more
materials, on a macroscopic scale, to form a new and useful
material with enhanced properties that are superior to those
of the individual constituents alone.
When most people think of composite materials, they
tend to consider one of a number of advanced material
systems developed in the modern era. However, many
composites have been in use in civil engineering for
hundreds of years (e.g. concrete, a composite material
composed primarily of gravel, sand, and cement paste).
Indeed, organic composite materials also exist throughout
nature. Wood and bone are both examples of natural
composite materials of tremendous strength. Bone, for
example, is composed of fibres of the protein collagen,
bound together by a crystalline calcium compound called
apatite.

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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
+ =
FIBRES POLYMER FRP
MATRIX
Fig. 2-1. Basic material components that are
combined to create an FRP composite.
An FRP is a specific type of two-component composite
material consisting of high strength fibres embedded in a
polymer matrix. The study of FRPs is complicated by the
innumerable combinations of materials that can be used to
create an FRP composite. This is both an advantage and a
disadvantage for FRPs as engineering materials. For
instance, FRPs can be tailored to suit virtually any
application; however, this versatility leads to a wide range
in possible properties, making it difficult in many cases to
arrive at generalizations with respect to FRP behaviour.
Because FRPs are composed of two distinct materials,
overall FRP material properties depend primarily on those
of the individual constituents. It is thus instructive to
examine the role and properties of each of the component
materials, the fibres and the matrix, separately, before
discussing the properties of the FRP composite as a whole.
MATRIX
The matrix is the binder of the FRP and plays many
important roles. Some of the more critical functions played
by the matrix are:
• to bind the fibres together;
• to protect the fibres from abrasion and environmental
degradation;
• to separate and disperse fibres within the composite;
• to transfer force between the individual fibres; and
• to be chemically and thermally compatible with the
fibres.
A major selection criterion for matrix materials is that
they have a low density, usually considerably less than the
fibres, such that the overall weight of the composite is
minimized.
While the fibres provide the strength and stiffness of an
FRP, the matrix is essential to transfer forces between the
individual fibres. This force transfer is accomplished
through shear stresses that develop in the matrix between
the individual fibres. Obviously, the quality of the bond
between the fibres and the matrix is thus a key factor in
obtaining good mechanical properties.
A polymer matrix is an organic compound comprised of
long-chain molecules consisting of smaller repeated units
called monomers. Although an enormous variety of polymer
matrix materials exist for the manufacture of FRP materials,
the focus herein is on FRPs used in infrastructure
applications, and thus only a few specific matrix materials
are discussed.
Matrix materials for FRPs can be grouped into two
broad categories: thermoplastics and thermosetting resins.
Thermoplastics include such polymer compounds as
polyethylene, nylon, and polyamides, while thermosetting
materials include epoxies and vinylesters.
Thermoplastics are polymers composed of long-chain
molecules that are held together by relatively weak Van der
Waals forces, but that have extremely strong bonds within
individual molecules. In these materials, the molecules are
free to slide over one another at elevated temperatures, and
so thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened and hardened
by heating and cooling without significantly changing their
molecular structure. Thermosetting polymers are also
composed of long-chain molecules built from monomers,
but for these materials the molecular chains are cross-linked
through primary chemical bonds. Thus, thermosets cannot
be reversibly softened and will deteriorate irreversibly at
elevated temperatures.
Almost exclusively, thermosets are currently used in
structural engineering applications. These polymers
generally have good thermal stability at service
temperatures, good chemical resistance, and display low
creep and relaxation properties in comparison with most
thermoplastics. However, because it is difficult to reversibly
soften thermosets, FRP components made from thermoset
matrices must be bent or formed during the manufacturing
process. This can become a problem in some specific
applications. For instance, FRP reinforcing bars for
concrete that incorporate thermosetting polymer resins
cannot be bent on site, and research is currently underway to
develop satisfactory thermoplastic matrices for these
specialized applications.
Three specific types of thermosetting resins are
commonly used in the manufacture of infrastructure
composites: polyesters, vinylesters, and epoxies.
Polyesters
Polyesters are the most widely used polymers in the
manufacture of FRP components for infrastructure
applications due to their relatively low cost and ease of
processing (these resins cure at ambient temperatures).
Numerous specific types of polyesters are available for use,
with varying degrees of thermal and chemical stability,
moisture absorption, and shrinkage during curing.
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
Vinylesters
Vinylesters are often identified as a class of polyesters
because of their similar processing procedures. However, in
chemical structure they are essentially unsaturated epoxides,
and so their properties are more akin to epoxies. Vinylesters
are resistant to strong acids and alkalis, which is one reason
that they are commonly used in the manufacture of FRP
reinforcing bars for concrete (the environment inside
concrete is highly alkaline). Vinylesters also offer reduced
moisture absorption and shrinkage as compared with
polyesters. Vinylesters cost slightly more than polyesters.
Epoxies
Epoxies are often used in wet lay-up applications of FRP
plates and sheets (discussed in detail later) because of their
ability to cure well at room temperature and owing to their
outstanding adhesion (bonding) characteristics. Epoxies
have high strength, good dimensional stability, relatively
good high-temperature properties, strong resistance to
chemicals (except acids), and superior toughness. Epoxies,
however, cost significantly more than polyesters or
vinylesters.
FIBRES
The fibres provide the strength and stiffness of an FRP.
Because the fibres used in most structural FRP applications
are continuous and are oriented in specified directions, FRPs
are orthotropic, and they are much stronger and stiffer in the
fibre direction(s). Fibres are generally selected to have:
• high stiffness;
• high ultimate strength;
• low variation of strength between individual fibres;
• stability during handling; and
• uniform diameter.
For structural engineering applications, fibres are also
characterized by extremely large length-to-diameter ratios
(they are considered continuous) and by extremely small
diameters (as small as 5-10 microns across, refer to
Figure 2-2). The small diameter of the fibres is significant,
in that the molecular structure of the material is aligned
along the length of the fibres giving them high tensile
strength. Also since the probability of a sample of material
containing a flaw large enough to cause brittle failure
decreases with its volume, microscopic fibres have fewer
defects than the bulk fibre material, and hence higher
strengths. In the event of a single fibre break within the
FRP, force transfer to adjacent fibres, through shear stresses
that develop in the polymer matrix, prevents failure of the
overall FRP composite. It is important to note that the force
transfer required to prevent overall failure of the FRP
depends primarily on the shear strength of the matrix.
Many different types of fibres are available for use, and
50 μm In
all have their respective advantages and disadvantages.
civil engineering applications, the three most commonly
used fibre types are glass, carbon (graphite), and to a lesser
extent, aramid (KevlarTM). The suitability of the various
fibres for specific applications depends on a number of
factors including the required strength, the stiffness,
durability considerations, cost constraints, and the
availability of component materials. Figure 2-3 shows
typical stress-strain curves for various currently available
fibres. Note that these curves are for the pure fibres only,
and they do not include the effects of the polymer matrix.
Fig. 2-2. Scanning electron micrograph showing
microscopic carbon fibres used in FRP fabrication.
Glass Fibres
Glass fibres are commonly produced by a process called
direct melt, wherein fibres with a diameter of 3 to 25
microns are formed by rapid and continuous drawing from a
glass melt. Glass fibres are the most inexpensive, and
consequently the most commonly used, fibres in structural
engineering applications. There are several different grades
available, but the most common are E-glass and the more
expensive, but stronger, R-glass. Glass fibres are
characterized by their high strength, moderate modulus of
elasticity and density, and by their low thermal conductivity.
Glass fibres are often chosen for structural applications that
are not weight critical (glass FRPs are heavier than carbon
or aramid) and that can tolerate the larger deflections
resulting from the comparatively low elastic modulus of the
glass fibres. Glass fibres are often used in the manufacture
of FRP reinforcing bars, pultruded FRP structural sections,
FRP wraps for seismic upgrade, and filament wound FRP
tubes.
Carbon Fibres
Carbon fibres are produced by a process called controlled
pyrolysis, wherein one of three potential precursor fibres is
subjected to a complex series of heat treatments
(stabilization, carbonization, graphitization, and surface
treatment) to produce carbon filaments with diameters in the
rage of 5-8 microns. The resulting fibres can have
properties that vary widely, and so several classes of carbon
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
fibres are available, differentiated based on their elastic
moduli:
• standard, 250-300 GPa
• intermediate, 300-350 GPa
• high, 350-550 GPa
• ultra-high, 550-1000 GPa
Although considerably more expensive than glass
fibres, carbon fibres are beginning to see widespread use in
structural engineering applications such as prestressing
tendons for concrete and structural FRP wraps for repair and
strengthening of reinforced concrete beams, columns, and
slabs. Their steadily increasing use can be attributed to their
steadily decreasing cost, their high elastic moduli and
available strengths, their low density (low weight), and their
outstanding resistance to thermal, chemical, and
environmental effects. Carbon fibres are an ideal choice for
structures which are weight and/or deflection sensitive.
6000
E-Glass
Aramid-49
5000 Standard Carbon
High-Modulus Carbon
Ultra High-Modulus
Stress (MPa)
4000 Reinforcing Steel
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain (%)
Fig. 2-3. Stress-strain properties of typical fibres.
Aramid Fibres
Aramid fibres are manufactured from a synthetic compound
called aromatic polyamide in a process called extrusion and
spinning. Two stiffness grades are readily available: 60
GPa and 120 GPa. Aramid fibres are characterized by high
strength, moderate elastic modulus, and low density. In
addition, FRPs manufactured from aramid fibres have low
compressive and shear strengths as a consequence of the
unique anisotropic properties of the fibres. Aramid fibres
are also susceptible to degradation from exposure to
ultraviolet radiation and/or moisture.
FRPs
Although the strength and stiffness of an FRP are governed
by the fibres, the overall material properties depend also on
the mechanical properties of the matrix, the fibre volume
fraction (the volume of fibres per unit volume of FRP), the
fibre cross-sectional area, the orientation of the fibres within
the matrix, and the method of manufacturing. It is the
interaction between the fibres and the matrix that gives
FRPs their unique physical and mechanical characteristics.
The orientation of the fibres within the matrix is a key
consideration in the design and use of FRP materials. In the
present discussion we will focus on unidirectional FRPs, or
on FRPs in which the fibres are all aligned in a single
direction. Unidirectional FRPs are commonly used for FRP
reinforcing rods and tendons, FRP wraps for concrete
rehabilitation, and pultruded FRP structural sections (all
discussed in detail later in this document).
Figure 2-4 shows various FRP products currently used
for reinforcement or rehabilitation of concrete structures,
and Figure 2-5 shows a number of pultruded FRP structural
sections.
Fig. 2-4. Assorted FRP products currently used for
reinforcement or rehabilitation of concrete
structures.
In North America, glass and carbon are the two most
commonly used fibres, and matrices are generally epoxies or
vinylesters. Aramid fibres and polyester resins are also used
very occasionally. Glass is widely used because of its
comparatively low cost, and because there is historically
much more experience with it. However, glass fibres have
demonstrated certain significant disadvantages, such as a
relatively low elastic modulus and some durability concerns
in alkaline environments. These disadvantages have made
carbon FRPs, with elastic moduli that can compare more
closely with steel, more attractive, even given their
considerably higher cost. The primary concerns associated
with aramid FRPs are that they are sensitive to creep and
have displayed poor durability characteristics resulting from
their propensity for moisture absorption. Aramid fibres also
perform poorly at high temperature. Table 3-3 provides a
comparison of various types of FRPs based on a number of
important criteria.
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES
As stated earlier, there is a wide variety of techniques by
which FRP components can be manufactured. However,
only those manufacturing methods of immediate interest to
the structural engineer are included herein. Pultrusion, wet
lay-up, and filament winding are all discussed in some
detail, while other techniques such as pull-winding, resin
transfer molding, vacuum bag molding, and injection
molding are left to specialized composite materials texts.
Pultrusion
A manufacturing process called pultrusion is commonly
used to produce FRP bars, rods, tendons, plates, and
structural sections. The technique is fully automated and is
thus highly economical. It is similar to the extrusion process
by which many metal sections are fabricated. Illustrated in
Figures 2-6 and 2-7, the pultrusion process is accomplished
by pulling raw fibres through a resin bath and then through a
heated die. As the resin-impregnated fibres pass through the
die the polymer matrix hardens into the shape of the die,
thus producing a structural component. The FRP
component is pulled from the cured end. This process is
continuous and has the advantage that FRP components of
virtually any length can be fabricated. The reader will note
that all of the fibres in a pultruded element are aligned along
the length of the component, thus creating a unidirectional
FRP.
Fig. 2-5. Various available pultruded FRP structural
sections.
Wet Lay-Up (Hand Lay-Up)
Wet lay-up, sometimes referred to as hand lay-up or contact
molding, is an FRP manufacturing technique often used in
structural rehabilitation applications, where FRP sheets or
fabrics are bonded to the exterior of reinforced concrete,
steel, aluminum, or timber members. In this technique, a
rigid mould is covered with resin and a roller is used to
press the fibres (usually in the form of a sheet or fabric of
raw fibres) into the resin. In some cases, additional resin is
added to the outer surface of the fibres to ensure that they
are fully impregnated. Additional layers of FRP can be
added on top of each other to achieve any desired thickness
of FRP. In structural rehabilitation applications, the mould
is simply the existing structural member to be strengthened,
and the FRP remains bonded to the mould after curing
(which is normally accomplished at ambient temperature).
This technique has the advantage that it is easily and rapidly
performed in the field, providing significant financial
advantages over conventional structural rehabilitation
techniques such as external plating with steel. However,
quality control is extremely important in this procedure, and
skilled labour is often required. Wet lay-up for structural
rehabilitation of a concrete column is illustrated in
Figure 2-8.
shaping and
heating die puller
creel
resin tank
Fig. 2-6. Schematic showing the pultrusion
manufacturing process.
Fig. 2-7. Glass fibres being drawn off of creels and
used in the fabrication of pultruded glass FRP
reinforcing bars for concrete.
Filament Winding
Many innovative applications of FRPs in structural
engineering, such as stay-in-place formwork for concrete
piles (discussed later) make use of hollow FRP poles, pipes,
and tubes. These members are commonly produced using a
manufacturing process called filament winding. In this
automated process, illustrated in Figures 2-9 and 2-10, raw
fibres are drawn off spools, through a resin bath, and wound
onto a rotating mandrel. The placement of the fibres on the
mandrel is controlled by a computer, allowing for the fibres
to be placed with extreme precision and with various desired
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

orientations. By varying the fibre orientation, filament Fibre Roving

wound members can be created with a variety of mechanical
properties tailored for specific applications.
Mobile Resin Bath

Rotating Mandrel Motor

Fig. 2-9. A schematic showing the filament winding

manufacturing process.

Fig. 2-8. Glass FRP sheets being applied to

strengthen a reinforced concrete column using the
wet lay-up (hand lay-up) procedure. Fig. 2-10. Glass fibres being wound onto a
triangular mandrel during the fabrication of
triangular filament would glass FRP tubes.

Section 3
Mechanical Properties of FRPs
The performance of any engineering material in a specific 2500
application is dependent on its mechanical properties, Steel
durability, and cost. This section focuses on the mechanical ISOROD CFRP
ISOROD GFRP
2000
properties of FRPs, including the stress-strain response, and NEFMAC GFRP
NEFMAC CFRP
other properties such as creep, fatigue, fracture, and bond. NEFMAC AFRP
Stress [MPa]

TM
Leadline CFRP
1500
GENERAL
1000
The mechanical properties of an FRP depend on a number
of factors including: 500
• the relative proportions of fibre and matrix;
• the mechanical properties of the constituent materials
0
(fibre, matrix, and any additives); 0 1 2 3
• the orientation of the fibres within the matrix; and
Strain [%]
• the method of manufacture.
Figure 3-1 shows typical stress-strain curves for several Fig. 3-1. Typical tensile stress-strain curves for
unidirectional FRP materials. Also included in Figure 3-1 is various currently available FRP concrete
a stress-strain curve for reinforcing steel. Some commonly reinforcing products.
available FRPs used in concrete reinforcing applications,
and their respective properties, are listed in Tables 3-1 and Table 3-3 provides a comparison between various types of
3-2. FRPs and conventional reinforcing materials for concrete.

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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

From this data it is evident that both glass and aramid FRPs comparable to, or even higher than, steel in some cases.
have moduli that are considerably less than steel in the pre- Also evident from the data is the fact that FRPs have
yield zone, but that carbon FRPs have moduli that are ultimate strengths that can be many times greater than steel.

Table 3-1. Selected Properties of Typical Currently Available FRP Reinforcing Products
Diameter Area Tensile Strength Elastic Modulus
Reinforcement Type Designation
[mm] [mm2] [MPa] [GPa]
Deformed Steel #10 11.3 100 400* 200
V-ROD CFRP Rod 3/8 9.5 71 1431 120
V-ROD GFRP Rod 3/8 9.5 71 765 43
NEFMAC GFRP Grid G10 N/A 79 600 30
NEFMAC CFRP Grid C16 N/A 100 1200 100
NEFMAC AFRP Grid A16 N/A 92 1300 54
LEADLINETM CFRP Rod Round 12 113 2255 147
* specified yield strength

Table 3-2. Selected Properties of Typical Currently Available FRP Strengthening Systems*
Weight Thickness Tensile Tensile Elastic Strain at Failure
FRP System Fiber Type
[g/m2] [mm] Strength [MPa] Modulus [GPa] [%]
Fyfe Co. LLC [www.fyfeco.com]
Tyfo SEH-51 Glass 930 1.3 575 26.1 2.2
Tyfo SCH-35 Carbon -- 0.89 991 78.6 1.3
Mitsubishi [www.mitsubishichemical.com]
Replark 20 Carbon 200 0.11 3400 230 1.5
Replark 30 Carbon 300 0.17 3400 230 1.5
Replark MM Carbon -- 0.17 2900 390 0.7
Replark HM Carbon 200 0.14 1900 640 0.3
Sika [www.sika.com]
Hex 100G Glass 913 1.0 600 26.1 2.2
Hex 103C Carbon 618 1.0 960 73.1 1.3
CarboDur S Carbon 2240 1.2-1.4 2800 165 1.7
CarboDur M Carbon 2240 1.2 2400 210 1.2
CarboDur H Carbon 2240 1.2 1300 300 0.5
Degussa Building Systems [www.wabocorp.com]
MBrace EG 900 Glass 900 0.35 1517 72.4 2.1
MBrace CF 530 Carbon 300 0.17 3500 373 0.94
MBrace AK 60 Aramid 600 0.28 2000 120 1.6
* Additional information can be obtained from the specific FRP manufacturers

Table 3-3. Comparison of Typical Approximate Properties for Reinforcing Materials for Concrete¥
Steel Steel GFRP CFRP AFRP
Property
Rebar Tendon Rebar Tendon Tendon
Tensile Strength (MPa) 483-690 1379-1862 517-1207 1200-2410 1200-2068
Yield Strength (MPa) 276-414 1034-1396 N/A N/A N/A
Tensile Elastic Modulus (GPa) 200 186-200 30-55 147-165 50-74
Ultimate Elongation (%) >10 >4 2-4.5 1-1.5 2-2.6
Compressive Strength (MPa) 276-414 N/A 310-482 N/A N/A
CTE* (10-6/˚C) 11.7 11.7 9.9 0 -1--0.5
Specific Gravity 7.9 7.9 1.5-2.0 1.5-1.6 1.25
¥
FRP materials are continually being developed with better properties. The properties given are circa 2000.
* coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)

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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

Table 3-4. A qualitative comparison of the three main types of FRPs

Criterion Fibre Type
Carbon Aramid Glass
Tensile Strength Very Good Very Good Very Good
Modulus of Elasticity Very Good Good Adequate
Long Term Behaviour Very Good Good Adequate
Fatigue Behaviour Excellent Good Adequate
Bulk Density Good Excellent Adequate
Alkaline Resistance Very Good Good Adequate
Price Adequate Adequate Very Good

Modulus of Elasticity expression, which gives the tensile strength of the FRP in
For unidirectional FRP materials, the greatest strength and terms of the strengths of the fibres and the matrix:

σ frp ,ult = σ ' f V f + σ m,ult (1 − V f )

stiffness are achieved when the composite is loaded in
tension in the direction of the fibres. In this case, the elastic
modulus of the FRP, Efrp, can be approximately expressed in
terms of the elastic moduli of the component materials, Em
for the matrix and Ef for the fibres, and their respective
volume fractions, Vm and Vf. This is done through an
equation known as the rule of mixtures:
(Eq. 3-2)
However, if the fibre volume fraction is large, then the
fibres carry the vast majority of the load and failure of the
matrix is not critical. In this case, load is transferred to the
fibres, which continue to carry the load, until their failure

E frp = E mVm + E f V f = (E f − E m )V f + E m
(Eq. 3-1)
The above expression is valid only in the direction of the
fibres for unidirectional composites, and the modulus of
elasticity perpendicular to the fibres is generally very much
lower. Refer to Tables 3-1 and 3-2 for listings of elastic
properties for a variety of unidirectional FRP materials in
tension.
The compressive elastic modulus is generally less than
that achieved in tension. Values of the compressive elastic
modulus are typically about 50-80% of those determined
from tensile testing, depending on the type of FRP under
consideration.
Strength
The strength of unidirectional FRP materials when loaded in
strain is reached. This condition is described by:
σ frp ,ult = σ f ,ultV f (Eq. 3-3)
If the failure strain of the matrix is greater than the failure
strain of the fibres, as shown in Figure 3-3, and the fibre
volume fraction is small, then failure of the FRP is
prevented when the fibres fail and the ultimate strength of
the FRP is described by:
σ frp ,ult = σ m ,ult (1 − V f ) (Eq. 3-4)
However, if the fibre volume fraction is large, then the
transfer of load from the fibres to the matrix at initial fibre
fracture is large and the FRP fails. This condition is
approximately described by:

σ frp ,ult = σ f ,ultV f + σ ' m (1 − V f )

the fibre direction is dependent on whether the applied load
is tensile or compressive, with most FRPs being vastly more
effective in tension (hence their common use as tensile
reinforcement for concrete).
The response of an FRP material in tension is
dependent largely on the failure strains of the two
component materials, and two possible cases of behaviour
demand consideration. Figures 3-2 and 3-3 show the
potential scenarios for failure strains of the fibres and
matrix, and provide insight into the failure behaviour of
FRP materials.
If the failure strain of the matrix, εm,ult, is less than the
failure strain of the fibres, εf,ult, as shown in Figure 3-2, and
the fibre volume fraction, Vf, is small (say less than about
0.10), then failure of the FRP is governed by the matrix.
This condition is described by the following approximate
(Eq. 3-5)
For most applications of FRPs in civil engineering
applications, the fibre volume fraction, Vf, is greater than
about 0.1 and is considered large.
The tensile strength perpendicular to the fibres is much
less than that in the fibre direction and depends on a range
of factors. Since FRPs are rarely loaded in this manner in
civil engineering applications, no further discussion of
transverse loading is included here.
When loaded in compression, the FRP’s ultimate
strength is less than that achieved in tension, and depends
on a number of factors including the fibre type, the matrix
properties, and the matrix-fibre interface strength. The
ultimate compressive strength of FRPs can be reached due
to fibre micro-buckling, transverse tensile failure in the

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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

matrix, or shear failure. Axial compressive strengths for
uniaxial FRP materials loaded in the fibre direction are
typically about 55%, 20%, and 78% of the axial tensile
strength for glass, aramid, and carbon FRPs respectively.
Aramid fibres perform particularly poorly in compression,
and, as a consequence, FRP strength is commonly neglected
when acting in compression when used as reinforcement for
concrete. In some cases however, as in the case of
pultruded FRP structural sections in compression or
bending, the compressive strength of FRPs is relied upon to
carry load.
Stress, σ
σf,ult
Fibre
σ’f
σm,ult
Matrix Strain, ε
Research into the fatigue behaviour of FRP composites
is ongoing, but the following general comments can be
made. Carbon FRPs display outstanding fatigue behaviour.
This has been attributed to the fact that carbon fibres have a
very high stiffness, which limits the strains experienced by
the polymer matrix component, and prevents matrix
cracking and breakdown of the matrix-fibre interface bond,
thus preventing failure. Tensile fatigue tests conducted on
unidirectional carbon/epoxy FRP strands have indicated that
CFRP can sustain much greater mean stresses and stress
amplitudes than steel. Glass fibres are considerably less
stiff, and so glass FRP matrices experience larger strains
during load cycling which lead to more matrix cracking and
can eventually lead to failure. While aramid fibres have
stiffness that is intermediate between glass and carbon, so
we might expect that they display intermediate fatigue
behaviour, aramid fibres themselves are innately sensitive to
fatigue damage through a process called de-fibrillation,
which can lead eventually to fatigue failure. Figure 3-4
shows typical fatigue life curves for carbon and glass FRPs,
where the superior fatigue behaviour of carbon FRPs is
evident, as is the effect of fibre modulus on fatigue life.

εm,ult εf,ult
Maximum Cyclic Stress / Tensile Stress
120

Fig. 3-2. Failure strains of FRP component 100

materials when the failure strain of the matrix is
less than that of the fibre. 80

60
Stress, σ
σf,ult 40
Fibre High Modulus Carbon FRP
Intermediate Modulus Carbon FRP
20 Low Modulus Carbon FRP
E-Glass FRP
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
σm,ult
Number of Cycles to Failure
σ’m Matrix
Strain, ε Fig. 3-4. Fatigue-life curves for FRPs with different
fibre types.
εf,ult εm,ult

Fig. 3-3. Failure strains of FRP component
materials when the failure strain of the matrix is
more than that of the fibre.
Fatigue
Fatigue refers to the degradation or failure of a structural
material or element after repeated cycles of loading and
unloading. Most unidirectional FRP materials used in civil
engineering applications display good fatigue behaviour in
comparison with steel, although some FRP materials
(carbon FRPs in particular) display superior fatigue
characteristics.
Creep
Creep is a phenomenon exhibited to varying degrees of
severity by virtually all engineering materials. Creep refers
to a condition of increasing strain under a sustained
(constant) level of stress. Although carbon, glass, and
aramid fibres display comparatively little creep themselves
under most ambient conditions, FRP matrix materials are
visco-elastic (they display properties of both elastic solids
and viscous fluids) and so FRP materials will creep under
sustained load. The amount of creep exhibited by a
particular FRP will depend primarily on the fibre volume
fraction and the orientation of the fibres with respect to the
applied loads. In addition, both temperature and moisture

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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
can have significant effects on the creep behaviour of
polymers. However, for most unidirectional FRP materials
used in civil engineering applications creep is not normally
a significant concern, provided that the sustained stress in
the FRP is limited. Thus, ISIS Canada conservatively
recommends that the sustained stress levels in unidirectional
FRP structural components be limited to the following
percentages of the FRP’s design ultimate strength:
• Glass FRP, 20%
• Aramid FRP, 30%
• Carbon FRP, 50%
Section 4
Environmental Durability of FRPs
The mechanical properties of engineering materials are
obviously of paramount importance to structural designers
contemplating their use. However, equally important in the
examination of potential materials and systems for use in
infrastructure applications are environmental and durability
considerations. Exposure to a variety of adverse conditions
can significantly alter the mechanical performance of FRP
materials, and failure to consider the effects of factors such
as temperature, moisture, ultra-violet radiation, assorted
chemicals, and fire can lead to unsatisfactory performance.
This section briefly examines a number of important factors
which have the potential to influence the durability of FRP
materials used in construction. It is important to remain
cognizant of the fact that all engineering materials are
sensitive to different environments in different ways. The
factors listed in this section should in no way be construed
as issues being unique to FRPs. In fact, FRPs offer
significant durability advantages over conventional
materials such as steel in many cases.
The durability of FRP reinforcing bars in concrete is a
complex topic and research in this area is ongoing. Readers
seeking additional information on the durability of FRP
materials are encouraged to consult ISIS Educational
Module #8, also available from ISIS Canada at
www.isiscanada.com.
Temperature
Temperature is an extremely important factor in the design
and use of FRP materials for infrastructure. At elevated
temperatures, polymer materials will decompose, or in some
cases, burn. The operating temperature to which an FRP
component is subjected in service is therefore limited to
about 20˚C less than the glass transition temperature (GTT),
for an epoxy resin, or the heat distortion temperature (HDT),
for a vinylester or polyester. At these temperatures, major
changes are observed in the mechanical properties of the
polymer matrix materials which lead to a rapid deterioration
Creep Rupture (Stress-Corrosion)
Some types of fibres (glass in particular) are susceptible to a
failure mode known as creep rupture (sometimes called
stress-corrosion). In this mode of failure, the fibres fracture
under sustained load levels that are much less than the
failure stress of the composite observed under static testing.
Because of the susceptibility of glass fibres, and hence glass
FRPs, to creep rupture, stress levels in glass FRPs are often
severely limited under sustained loads, to less than 20 or
25% of the static tensile strength (see the stress limits
quoted previously).
of the mechanical properties of FRP components. Elevated
temperatures can also have important effects on the long-
term durability of FRP materials, as discussed below. Low
temperatures are not generally a concern for polymer matrix
FRPs in most structural applications, except in those rare
instances where extremely low (cryogenic) temperatures
result in embrittlement of polymer matrix materials.
Temperature effects on FRPs are varied and complex,
and research into the effects of temperature on FRP
materials is ongoing. As such, an exhaustive discussion of
this topic is avoided here. However, the following is a list
of issues of which the reader should have a general
awareness when considering the use of FRPs in a potential
structural application:
• high temperatures will increase the rate of creep for
FRP materials;
• higher temperatures will increase the rate of FRP
degradation due to chemical attack or moisture ingress;
• differential thermal expansion (between the fibres and
the matrix, or between the FRP and the substrate in
cases where FRP is bonded to concrete, steel, or timber)
may lead to the development of thermal stresses which
could damage the matrix-fibre interface or the interface
between the FRP and the substrate. This is because the
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of FRPs vary
depending on type and may be significantly different
than the substrate materials (refer to Table 3-2); and
• thermal cycling, and the resulting repeated thermal
stresses that are induced, can cause damage to FRP
materials through matrix cracking and fibre fracture,
which can exacerbate problems due to moisture ingress
and/or chemical attack.
Moisture
Almost all polymers, if placed in a wet environment, will
absorb moisture from their surroundings until their
saturation point is reached. The amount of moisture
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
absorbed and the effects of this absorption on the
mechanical performance of the composite will vary
depending on the FRPs’ composition and properties. It is
currently believed that moisture ingress in FRP composites
generally occurs in the matrix region close to the fibres (by
capillary action) and subsequently degrades the properties of
the matrix while also damaging the surface of the fibres.
Thus, for unidirectional composites, the tensile strength of
the FRP, which is less dependent on matrix properties, is
relatively unaffected by moisture uptake, while the matrix
dominated properties, such as shear and compressive
strength, can be severely degraded. Aramid fibres are
particularly sensitive to the effects of moisture since the
fibres themselves are known to absorb moisture and swell,
subsequently causing matrix cracking and resulting in the
development of internal stresses. Thus, aramid fibres have
recently fallen out of favour in applications where moisture
is a potential concern.
It is worth noting that degradation of the mechanical
properties of FRPs due to moisture will reach some
maximum level when the polymer matrix reaches its
saturation point. Once this point is reached, no further
reduction in mechanical properties is expected. This
behaviour is fundamentally different than the deterioration
of steel due to moisture, where corrosion will continue until
the metal has corroded completely.
UV Radiation
Ultra-violet (UV) radiation can degrade FRP materials.
Aramid fibres are known to be particularly sensitive to UV
radiation, while both carbon and glass fibres are resistant to
UV light. In addition, most polymer matrices will degrade
slightly due to UV radiation.
Degradation due to UV light can be prevented through
the use of various matrix additives, the application of a
pigmented gel coat on the exterior of an FRP, or by painting
the FRP with an opaque paint. For instance, in most field
applications of concrete strengthening by externally-bonded
FRP plates or sheets, the FRP is finished with a UV resistant
Section 5
Applications of FRPs in Civil Engineering
Because of the tremendous variety in types, shapes, and
properties of FRP materials, there is an enormous variety of
applications in which FRPs can be effectively used in
structural engineering and infrastructure applications. This
section briefly outlines some of the more common
applications of FRPs in the civil infrastructure. The reader
should remember that the use of FRP materials in structures
is a rapidly evolving discipline, and many new applications
paint which matches the substrate concrete and effectively
“hides” the repair material.
Alkali Effects
FRP materials are increasingly being used as internal
reinforcement for concrete structures in an attempt to
address the corrosion problems that are commonly
encountered when concrete is reinforced with conventional
steel rebars. The environment inside healthy concrete is
highly alkaline (the pH level is generally between 12 and
13.5), and this can be a concern for glass fibre materials,
which suffer from reduced toughness and strength through
alkalinity-induced embrittlement. As a result, GFRP rebars
are often manufactured using alkali-resistant polymer
matrices. While there remains some uncertainty as to the
effects of alkalis on glass FRP rebars, it is generally agreed
that GFRP can be used for reinforcement of concrete
provided that sustained (service) stresses are limited (as
mentioned previously) to account for potential degradation.
Fire
All polymer resins will burn when subjected to sufficiently
high temperatures, and thus fire can be a serious concern for
FRP materials and for structures which incorporate them.
Polymers commonly used as matrices in infrastructure FRPs
are all combustible and generally release large quantities of
dense, black, and sometimes toxic and/or corrosive smoke.
Thus, the potential consequences of fire must be considered
during the design process for any structure incorporating
FRP materials. Various options exist for fire protection of
FRP materials through the use of intumescent coatings, fire
insulation, matrix additives, and ceramic paint, although all
involve trade-offs in terms of cost, ease of application, and
effects on the mechanical properties of the FRP. Research
is ongoing in this area.
appear each year. For detailed and current information, the
reader is referred to www.isiscanada.com.
ALL-FRP STRUCTURES
The most obvious potential use of FRPs in structures is to
fabricate entire structures, or specific structural components,
out of FRP. This is most easily and inexpensively
13
ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
accomplished using pultruded FRP structural sections which
can be manufactured relatively easily and inexpensively
from glass FRP. All-FRP structures are becoming more
common for small-scale structures such as pedestrian
bridges, utility poles, parking garage stairwells, and
platforms in marine and offshore structures. Figure 5-1
shows a short-span all-FRP road bridge in the United States.
In addition to all-FRP structures, FRPs have also been
used to construct specific structural components such as
bridge deck panels (Figure 5-2) and girders, cable-stayed
bridge support cables, blast panels, space trusses, modular
residential building systems, marine sheet piling, and
ground anchors.
Fig. 5-1. A short-span all-FRP road bridge.
Fig. 5-2. A section of a glass FRP bridge deck
panel being tested under a simulated vehicle
wheel-load in a structural engineering research
laboratory.
FRP-REINFORCED CONCRETE
Because FRP materials will not corrode electrochemically,
FRP bars, rods, and tendons are increasingly being used in
lieu of conventional reinforcing steel for internal
reinforcement of concrete. Both glass and carbon FRP
rebars and reinforcing grids have been used successfully as
internal reinforcement in concrete beams and slabs, as have
various hybrid FRP grids composed of both glass and
carbon fibres. Research and field applications of FRP
rebars in concrete bridge decks have indicated that these
materials perform well in the harsh Canadian climate. The
major design issues which require consideration in the
design of FRP-reinforced concrete members include: the
fact that FRPs are linear-elastic to failure, unlike steel which
exhibits a well-defined yield plateau, and the fact that FRP
reinforcements generally have elastic moduli that are less
than steel, so serviceability requirements often govern the
design. Figure 5-3 shows glass FRP reinforcement installed
in a concrete bridge deck in Quebec (shown just prior to
placement of the concrete).
Fig. 5-3. Glass FRP reinforcing bars placed in a
concrete bridge deck immediately prior to
placement of the deck concrete.
FRP tendons have also been successfully used as both
internal and external prestressed reinforcement for concrete
beams, slabs, and bridge decks. However, glass FRP should
not be used as prestressed reinforcement because of its
susceptibility to creep-rupture, nor should aramid FRP
because of its sensitivity to moisture-induced swelling.
A complete discussion of the design and analysis of
concrete members incorporating FRP reinforcing materials
can be found in ISIS EC Module 3, which is readily
available from ISIS Canada.
REPAIR AND REHABILITATION
As stated earlier, after decades of neglect and overuse, the
North American infrastructure is crumbling. Many agencies
have recently suggested that expenditures in the trillions of
dollars are now required to bring our infrastructure up to an
acceptable level. There are many factors contributing to the
unsatisfactory state of our infrastructure, including:
• deterioration due to corrosion;
• environmental degradation;
• greater traffic volume and increased vehicle weights;
• updated design loads and seismic requirements; and
• vehicle collision, fire, and vandalism.
During the past fifteen years or so, a number of
preservation, rehabilitation, and strengthening techniques
which use FRP materials have emerged for use with a
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

variety of concrete, steel, aluminum, masonry and timber

structures. Several are discussed below.

Concrete Structures
FRP materials are becoming increasingly popular for repair
and strengthening of reinforced concrete structures, and
FRPs are now materials of choice for flexural, shear, and
axial strengthening of reinforced concrete members. In this
application, FRP plates or sheets are bonded to the exterior
of reinforced concrete members using the wet lay-up
procedure with an epoxy resin/adhesive. The FRP sheets or
plates are generally bonded to the tension faces of flexural
elements to increase their bending capacity, or to their side
faces to increase the shear capacity (Figure 5-4). In
addition, FRP sheets can be applied circumferentially
around reinforced concrete columns to provide confining
reinforcement which has been shown to increase both their
strength and ductility (Figure 5-5). A much more complete
discussion into the use of FRPs for strengthening concrete
structures is provided in ISIS EC Module 4, which is also
readily available from ISIS Canada.
Fig. 5-5. A circular concrete column being
strengthened with carbon FRP sheets.

Fig. 5-4. This concrete bridge girder has been

strengthened in shear with externally-bonded
carbon FRP sheets. The FRP was subsequently
painted with a “camouflaging” UV-resistant paint.
Metallic Structures
Many metallic structures such as bridge girders, cranes,
hydroelectric structures, and overhead signs are also
currently in need of structural upgrading, and FRP materials
are beginning to see use in these applications due largely to
the ultra high-modulus fibres that are now available. By
externally bonding FRP sheets or wraps to the exterior of
metallic structures, their flexural, shear, axial, and joint
strengths can be significantly enhanced. Some specific
applications have included glass FRP wraps for the repair of
damaged welds in aluminum overhead signs (Figure 5-6),
and the use of ultra-high modulus carbon FRP sheets for
increasing the flexural capacity of steel bridge girders.
Fig. 5-6. Repair of welded joints in an overhead
tubular aluminum sign standard using glass FRP
sheets.
Masonry Structures
Many aging masonry structures, built long before current
design loads and guidelines were formulated, are now
considered structurally inadequate in a number of respects
(commonly with respect to seismic loading). Externally-
bonded FRP reinforcements can be used to increase both the
strength and ductility of masonry walls and columns for
both in-plane and out-of-plane shear and flexural behaviour.
An example of a typical FRP strengthening application on a
masonry wall is shown in Figure 5-7, where transparent
glass FRP sheets have been used to improve the in-plane
behaviour of a traditional clay brick masonry wall.

15
ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
Timber Structures
FRPs have successfully been used to strengthen existing
timber structures such as historic buildings and covered
timber bridges (Figure 5-8). This is commonly done to
increase the flexural capacity of a beam or girder, and can
be accomplished by external bonding or near surface
mounting (NSM). In external bonding, FRP plates or sheets
are bonded to the exterior of the timber member using a
structural adhesive (normally an epoxy or phenolic resin), as
shown in Figure 5-9. This application is similar to concrete
or steel strengthening applications of FRPs. In the NSM
technique, small grooves or troughs are cut into the tension
face of the member and an FRP bar or plate is inserted into
the groove along with a structural adhesive grout. NSM is
particularly attractive in applications where it is desired that
the aesthetics of the original structure be maintained.
Fig. 5-7. This traditional clay brick masonry wall
has been strengthened (in a laboratory setting)
with externally-bonded glass FRP sheets for
improved in-plane behaviour.
Fig. 5-8. This historic timber bridge which has
been strengthened with carbon FRP materials.
Seismic and Blast Retrofit
In addition to repair and strengthening applications
incorporating FRPs as outlined in the previous section,
externally bonded FRP wraps, plates, and sheets have been
successfully used to improve the performance of reinforced
concrete and masonry structures subject to the dynamic
loads resulting from seismic and/or blast loading. These
advanced applications involve similar techniques as those
discussed previously for repair and strengthening. The most
common seismic and blast strengthening applications
involve FRP plating or wrapping of concrete or masonry
walls and columns to increase both load carrying capacity
and ductility.
Fig. 5-9. A historic timber bridge which has been
strengthened with carbon FRP materials applied to
the underside of selected beams.
HYBRID FRP/CONCRETE MEMBERS
Recently, a number of hybrid FRP/concrete structural
systems have been developed for use as structural members.
Many variations on this general theme have been proposed,
although most of these systems involve concrete and FRPs
in combination and are fabricated in such a way as to place
the concrete in the compressive region of the cross-section
while the FRP is concentrated in the tension region. These
innovative structural systems can thus be a highly efficient
use of materials; they can be very light, and are presumably
maintenance-free since no corrosion is expected to occur.
Hybrid members can be used as supporting elements in
buildings and as girders for bridges, as well as for concrete-
filled FRP piles for bridge and marine structures (Figure
5-10).
Another interesting application of FRPs which results
in a hybrid member is FRP stay-in-place formwork. In
these applications the concrete formwork is fabricated from
FRP and remains in place after the concrete has cured. If
the FRP can be made to act in a composite manner with the
hardened concrete, then the FRP can be used as the tensile
reinforcement for concrete slabs and beams. Concrete-filled
FRP tubes are an example of the stay-in-place formwork
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

concept, where the concrete is placed inside a precured FRP
tube (usually fabricated using the filament winding process).
Once the concrete has hardened, the FRP tube formwork
provides both tensile and confining reinforcement to the
concrete. An application of concrete-filled FRP tubes is
shown in Figure 5-10.
materials and smart structures. Smart structures are those in
which sensors are installed to continuously monitor the
performance of the structure throughout its lifetime.
Recently, FRP materials have been developed which include
fibre-optic sensors (FOS) as part of their internal structure.
These FOS can be used to measure variations in strain and
temperature within the structure itself, and can provide
information to engineers on its short and long-term
performance. These materials can be considered an
emerging technology, although several smart structures have
already been built in Canada and are currently under
observation. Smart structures and materials will
undoubtedly become more important and widespread in the
future. Figure 5-11 gives an example of a smart structure in
Canada: the Taylor Bridge near Winnipeg. More
information on smart structures is available from the ISIS
Canada website (www.isiscanada.com).

Fig. 5-10. An example of hybrid FRP/concrete

members, concrete-filled FRP tubes act dually as
foundation piles and bridge piers in this
application.

THE FUTURE Fig. 5-11. The Taylor Bridge near Winnipeg,

Manitoba, seen here under construction, is one of
The future holds unlimited promise for the use of FRPs in Canada’s first smart structures.
structural engineering applications. One of the most
exciting recent advances is the development of smart

Section 10
References and Additional Information
Additional information on the use of FRP materials can be obtained in various documents available from ISIS Canada:

• ISIS Design Manual No. 3: Reinforcing Concrete Structures with Fiber Reinforced Polymers.
• ISIS Design Manual No. 4: Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Structures with Externally-Bonded Fiber Reinforced
Polymers.
• ISIS Design Manual No. 5: Prestressing Concrete Structures with FRPs.
• ISIS Canada Specifications for Product Certification of Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) as Internal Reinforcement in
Concrete Structures
• ISIS Educational Module 1: Mechanics Examples Incorporating FRP Materials.
• ISIS Educational Module 3: An Introduction to FRP-Reinforced Concrete.
• ISIS Educational Module 4: An Introduction to FRP-Strengthening of Concrete Structures.
• ISIS Educational Module 6: Application and Handling of FRP Reinforcements for Concrete.

17
ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

• ISIS Educational Module 8: Durability of FRP Composites for Construction.

The following publications have been used in the preparation of this module and can be consulted for a more complete
discussion of the various topics presented herein:

• CSA 2002. CAN/CSA-S806-02: Design and Construction of Building Components with Fibre Reinforced-Polymers.
Canadian Standards Association, Ottawa, ON.
• CSA 2005. CAN/CSA-S6-05: The Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code (CHBDC). Canadian Standards Association,
Ottawa, ON.
• ACI 2003. ACI 440.1R-03: Guide for the design and construction of concrete reinforced with FRP bars. American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
• ACI 2002. ACI 440.2R-02: Guide for the design and construction of externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening
concrete structures. American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
• ACI 1996. ACI 440R-96: State-of-the-art report on fiber reinforced plastic reinforcement for concrete structures.
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
• Teng, J.G., Chen, J.F., Smith, S.T., and Lam, L. 2002. FRP strengthened concrete structures. Wiley.
• Hollaway, L.C., and Head, P.R. 2001. Advanced polymer composites and polymers in the civil infrastructure. Elsevier.
• Hollaway, L.C. 1990. Polymers and polymer composites in construction. Thomas Telford Ltd., London, UK.
• Chawla, K.K. 1998. Composite materials: Science and engineering. Springer.
• ICE 2001. FRP composites: Life extension and strengthening of metallic structures. Institution of Civil Engineers,
Design and practice guides. Thomas Telford Ltd., London, UK.

Further information on field applications of FRPs in various types of structures is available from a number of sources,
including:

• ACI Special Publication SP-215-9. Field Applications of FRP Reinforcement: Case Studies. Published by the American
Concrete Institute, 2003.
• ASCE Journal of Composites for Construction. Published by the American Society of Civil Engineering, 1997-2004.

Notation
Ef Elastic modulus of the fibres (MPa)
Efrp Elastic modulus of the FRP (MPa)
Em Elastic modulus of the matrix (MPa)
Vf fibre volume fraction
Vm matrix volume fraction
εf,ult failure strain of the fibres
εm,ult failure strain of the matrix
σfrp,ult ultimate tensile strength of a unidirectional FRP in the direction of the fibres (MPa)
σ’f stress in the fibres at failure (MPa)
σ’m stress in the matrix at failure (MPa)
σf,ult ultimate tensile strength of the fibres (MPa)
σm,ult ultimate tensile strength of the matrix (MPa)

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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
Appendix A:
Suggested Laboratory
The following laboratory procedure is given as an example
of a materials laboratory that could be given in conjunction
with an undergraduate course on engineering materials or
mechanics of materials, and that includes tests on both steel
and FRP materials. Given the wide variety of laboratory and
testing facilities available at various Canadian universities,
this laboratory is given primarily as an example for
professors of what can be done using FRP materials to
increase laboratory impact and student understanding of
important materials concepts.
Inclusion of FRP materials into traditional strength of
materials laboratories is advantageous for a number of
reasons, including:
• it introduces students to a new and innovative material
which is gaining acceptance within the civil
engineering industry;
• it increases student understanding of the fundamental
materials concepts and assumptions used in structural
design and analysis;
Caution:
FRP Materials
FRPs are linear elastic materials. As such, these materials
do not display the yielding behaviour observed when testing
steel and they provide little warning prior to failure. It is
extremely important that instructors, students, laboratory
demonstrators, and technical staff be made aware of the
• it forces students to consider and understand important
mechanics concepts such as elasticity, plasticity, and
ductility;
• it vividly illustrates the concept of ductile versus brittle
materials, and demonstrates the need for thoughtful
consideration of materials’ behaviour during
engineering design; and
• it exposes students to the state-of-the-art in civil
engineering materials and thus increases student
enthusiasm for the course content, subsequently, in
many cases, increasing student participation and effort.
The laboratory presented herein suggests several
possible options for tensile test configurations for FRP
materials. It is important to recognize that the laboratory
procedures can be adapted to include the use of any specific
type of FRP reinforcement, and the specific configurations
suggested herein have been used only as an example.
specific failure modes to be expected when testing FRP
materials, and that appropriate safety precautions be
taken in addition to those precautions that are normally
enforced.
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
A Comparative Study of Fibre Reinforced
Polymers (FRPs) and Steel under Axial
Tension
OVERVIEW
This laboratory is intended to increase students’
understanding of the behaviour of both steel and fibre
reinforced polymers (FRPs) in tension. During the
laboratory, tensile tests will be carried out on both steel and
FRP test specimens in order to ascertain their characteristic
stress-strain behaviour and material properties. This
laboratory illustrates the following important concepts:
1. the overall tensile behaviour of both steel and FRP;
2. concepts of stress, strain, and elastic modulus;
3. concepts of elastic and inelastic material behaviour;
4. use of the elastic modulus to calculate stresses and
strains for linear-elastic materials;
5. yield strength, plasticity, and the behaviour of steel
before and after yielding;
6. ultimate strength of different engineering materials;
and
7. characteristic brittle failures observed for FRP
materials versus the more ductile failures commonly
observed with steel.
The class will be divided into groups of four students
each, each group being responsible for the analysis their
own data obtained during two tensile tests, one on FRP and
the other on steel, and for the submission of a single
laboratory report. All data obtained during the testing
performed by each group will be made available to all other
groups for use in writing their laboratory reports.
Laboratory Report
The laboratory report should consist of the following:
1. A title page giving the group name and number.
2. An abstract, briefly stating the purpose and procedure
of the lab and the major conclusions drawn.
3. An introduction providing information on the
materials used, testing setup, instrumentation,
procedures, etc.
4. A calculations and analysis section detailing all
calculations performed for the laboratory. Where a
calculation has been performed more than once only a
sample calculation should be provided.
5. An experimental results and discussion section,
summarizing the test results obtained for all specimens
tested. This section should include photographs
(where available) and plots showing specimen
behaviour along with a thorough comparison of
theoretical and observed results, and a comparison of
the behaviour of the data obtained by the other lab
groups.
6. A conclusion in which the major points of interest
from the above sections are highlighted. The focus in
the conclusion should be on the consequences of the
observed behaviour on the practical design of
engineering structures.
7. A list of references. All tests referenced during the
course of the laboratory project should be listed using
an accepted referencing format.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this laboratory can be summarized as
follows:
1. To observe and develop stress-strain relationships for
both steel and FRPs in tension.
2. To determine the elastic modulus of both steel and FRP
materials.
3. To define the proportional limit and the yield strength
of steel.
4. To define the ultimate stress and strain for both steel
and FRP in tension.
5. To observe the effects of inelastic behaviour.
6. To compare the overall stress-strain behaviour and
failure modes of ductile materials versus those of brittle
materials.
Apparatus
The following are required for this laboratory:
• Universal Testing Machine
• Axial Extensometer
• X-Y plotter
• Digital Calipers/Digital micrometer
• Gauge Block
• Standard ASTM Steel Specimen
• Standard ASTM FRP Specimen (or alternative FRP
specimen depending on testing apparatus being used)
PROCEDURES
The Universal Testing Machine will be used to perform the
tensile tests on the specimens (refer to Figure A.1 below). A
controlled tensile load will be applied to the specimens by
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

means of a movable crosshead. During the test, tensile load
and elongation in the test specimens will be recorded using
a load cell and an axial extensometer, which will measure
the elongation of the specimens over a specific gauge
length. Either a constant rate of change for load or a
constant rate of change for displacement may be selected.
Constant rate of change for displacement will be used
herein. Electronic signals from the load cell and
extensometer will be input into an X-Y plotter and a
computer data-logging system in order to allow
construction of a load-deformation curve and to prepare
data for analysis by the students.
Movable
Crosshead
Load
Frame
Test
Specimen
Stationary
Crosshead
Hydraulic
Cylinder
Figure A.1: Schematic of the Dynamic Testing
Machine
Materials
Steel
A common structural steel grade, such as ASTM A572,
CSA G40-21 350 W, or other available construction-grade
steel will be tested. These materials are generally carbon
steels with minimal alloy elements, and are commonly used
in different structural applications. Typical material
properties for construction-grade carbon steel are given in
Table A.1. The steel specimen for this laboratory can
consist of a machined bar (in accordance with ASTM
Standard E8-91) or a section of conventional reinforcing
steel (in accordance with ASTM Standard A370-97),
depending on the availability of testing equipment and
specimen grips (refer to Figure A.2).
Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Unidirectional carbon, glass, and aramid fibre reinforced
polymers are gaining acceptance as structural materials in a
variety infrastructure applications. These materials
demonstrate outstanding strength and stiffness
characteristics when loaded longitudinally in the direction
of the fibres. Glass FRPs are relatively inexpensive and are
therefore the most commonly used. Recently, glass FRPs
have emerged as cost-effective, non-corrosive reinforcing
materials for concrete. Carbon fibres, which are more
costly but have a higher modulus of elasticity and slightly
better durability and fatigue characteristics, are emerging as
prestressing materials for concrete. Both carbon and glass
FRPs are currently being used in externally-bonded FRP
strengthening applications for rehabilitation and
strengthening of reinforced concrete structures.
This laboratory can be performed either with FRP rebar
specimens or with FRP coupon specimens, depending on
the availability of the required grips in the testing laboratory
(refer to Figure A.2). FRP bar and coupon specimens are
shown schematically in Figure A.2. Coupon specimens
should be prepared in accordance with ASTM D3039-98.
FRP bar specimens are extremely weak in the transverse
direction, and hence they cannot be tested using standard
steel rebar testing grips. FRP bar specimens should be
prepared by anchoring the ends of the bar specimen into
steel tubes using a high strength concrete grout. The steel
tubes can then be effectively gripped using standard
reinforcing steel testing grips. ASTM standards for this test
method do not currently exist. Additional guidance on the
preparation of FRP bar tensile specimens can be obtained
from ISIS Canada or Committee 440 of the American
Concrete Institute. Typical material properties for glass and
carbon FRP materials are given in Table A.1.

Table A.1 – Typical mechanical properties of steel and FRP materials

Material Yield Stress Ultimate Stress Elastic Modulus Strain at Failure
(MPa) (%)
Carbon Steel 250-450 450-700 MPa 200 GPa 7-15
Glass FRP Bar N/A 517-1207 MPa 30-55 GPa 2-4.5
Carbon FRP Bar N/A 1200-2410 MPa 100-165 GPa 1-1.5
Glass FRP Coupon N/A 530-750 N/mm width 25-35 kN/mm width 2.1-2.2
Carbon FRP Coupon N/A 595-3920 N/mm width 70-360 kN/mm width 0.3-1.7

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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
OR
Machined Steel
Steel Bar Rebar
Figure A.2: Typical Test Specimens
Testing Procedure
1. Using the digital calipers, measure the specimens to
determine the cross-sectional area at 3 locations within
the gauge section. Record the average area of each
specimen in units of mm2 to an accuracy of +/-
0.01mm2. If FRP coupons are being tested (as opposed
to FRP bars) measure the width only, since properties
for these materials are generally quoted in N/mm of
sheet width.
2. Using the gauge block, lightly punch two marks on the
steel specimen. These will be used to measure the
elongation of the gauge length manually after the axial
extensometer is removed. Measure the exact gauge
length of the steel using the digital calipers, and record
this measurement on your data sheet.
3. Using the material properties given for the specific steel
and FRP specimens being tested (consult the laboratory
demonstrator):
a. Calculate the expected yielding load and the
corresponding deformation for the steel specimen.
Values for 50% and 80% of the yielding load are
also required.
b. Calculate the expected ultimate load and the
corresponding deformation for the FRP specimen.
A value for 50% of the ultimate load is also
required.
End
Tabs
FRP
Bar
OR
Steel
Pipe
Cement
grout
FRP Coupon with FRP Bar with Steel
Anchorage Tabs Pipe Anchor Ends
Steel Specimen
4. With the help of the instructor, mount the steel
specimen in the load frame and affix the extensometer
to the specimen. Loading of the machine, and setting
of scales and the rate of loading/deformation should be
done by the laboratory instructor or by an experienced
technician. Record the loading/deformation rate for
the specimen.
5. With the help of the instructor or technician, ZERO the
load applied to the specimen by adjusting the position
of the Dynamic Testing Machine’s hydraulic ram.
Also, adjust the X-Y plotter so that it indicates zero
force and deformation in the test specimen.
6. Load the specimen in tension up to 80% of the
expected yield load and reverse the direction of
loading.
7. Reduce the load to zero, and then reload the specimen
in tension until yielding is observed. Continue loading
beyond yield to ascertain that the yield point has been
exceeded (or if no true yielding occurs, that the
proportional limit has been exceeded).
8. It is now required to put the specimen through an
unload-reload cycle. Reduce the tensile load to about
50% of the yielding load. Reload the specimen again
to the previously observed yielding load. Allow a little
more deformation to occur beyond this point to
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction
establish the shape of the curve. Stop loading, turn off
the X-Y recorder input and carefully remove the
extensometer from the specimen.
9. The steel specimen will now be loaded to tensile failure.
Take length measurements between the gauge marks
using the digital calipers at deformation increments of
approximately 1 mm or about every 15-30 seconds.
Record these length measurements and the
corresponding load values. Watch the digital display
closely to determine the maximum load reached. At that
point, a caliper measurement of the length between
gauge marks is to be recorded.
10. After fracture, stop the test by having the instructor turn
off the controller and remove the fractured pieces of the
specimen from the machine. Re-align the pieces and
measure the final length between the gauge marks. Also
measure the final diameter at the location of fracture.
Save the pieces for sketching the mode of failure.
11. Remove the plot from the X-Y plotter and turn off the
plotter.
FRP Specimen
12. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the FRP specimen. Turn on the
X-Y plotter.
13. Load the specimen in tension up to 50% of the expected
ultimate load and reverse the direction of loading.
14. Reduce the load to zero, and then reload the specimen in
tension up to 50% of the expected ultimate load. Stop
loading, turn off the X-Y recorder input and carefully
remove the extensometer from the specimen.
15. The FRP specimen will now be loaded to rupture.
Watch the digital display closely to determine the
maximum load reached. Failure of the FRP specimen
may be sudden and violent, with little warning.
Maintain a safe distance from the testing machine.
16. After fracture, stop the test by having the instructor turn
off the controller and then carefully remove the
remainder of the specimen from the machine. Save the
fragments for sketching the mode of failure.
17. Remove the plot from the X-Y plotter and turn off the
plotter.
CALCULATIONS
A graph with the appropriate titles and units should be
prepared, showing the stress-strain profiles for both the steel
and FRP specimens on the same axes. The LOAD vs.
DEFORMATION plot obtained from the X-Y plotter and the
recorded data from the caliper measurements should be used
to prepare this graph. For steel, be sure to clearly label the
proportional limit, yield point, ultimate strength, and point of
rupture. For FRP, be sure to clearly label the point of
rupture. Use the data in this plot to produce a plot of stress
versus strain for both materials.
Using the formulae provided, determine the following
values/parameters for the steel specimen:
• elastic modulus, Es
• stress at proportional limit, σp
• stress at yield point (if apparent) or at 0.2% offset
strain, σy
• ultimate tensile strength, σs,ult
• stress at fracture, σs,f
• percentage deformation at fracture, εs,f
• percentage reduction of cross-sectional area at fracture
• type and character of fracture
Using the formulae provided, determine the following
values/parameters for the FRP specimen:
• elastic modulus, Efrp
• ultimate tensile strength, σfrp,ult
• estimated percentage deformation at ultimate/fracture,
εfrp,ult
• type and character of failure
A separate tabular summary of the values for the various
quantities listed above should be made for both materials.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
The discussion portion of your lab report should address
the following key topics:
1. Compare and contrast the elastic modulus of the two
materials tested.
2. Compare the yield strengths and ultimate tensile
strengths of the two materials tested. Did both
materials yield?
3. Compare the elastic modulus, yield strengths, and
ultimate tensile strengths for both materials with
typical values published in material handbooks or texts
(provide your reference source). Attempt to explain
any observed differences.
4. Discuss the general shape of the stress-strain curve for
steel in the region beyond the yield point, especially
during the unload–reload cycles.
5. Explain why the stress-strain plot for steel follows the
path it does after it has reached ultimate stress.
6. Using the plots for both materials; explain the
differences between linear, nonlinear, elastic and
inelastic behaviour.
7. Explain the difference between brittle and ductile
failure. In which of the tested materials were these
failures observed?
8. Discuss the fracture surfaces observed. How do they
relate to the ductility of the materials? (Sketches are
helpful.)
Show all calculations and include original data sheets,
sketches, and notes in an appendix.
USEFUL FORMULAE
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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

P NOTATION
Stress: σ =
A
A cross-sectional area of specimen (mm2)
d
δ diameter of test specimen (mm)
Strain: ε= E elastic modulus (MPa)
Lo Efrp elastic modulus of FRP (MPa)
Es elastic modulus of steel (MPa)
Hooke's law: σ = Eε (elastic region only) Lo gauge length of extensometer (mm)
P axial load in (N)
t thickness of test specimen (mm)
P w width of test specimen (mm)
δ axial deformation of over gauge length (mm)
ε strain in specimen (mm/mm)
εfrp,ult percentage deformation at fracture for FRP
εs,f percentage deformation at fracture for steel
σ axial stress in specimen (MPa)
σfrp,ult ultimate tensile strength of FRP (MPa)
σp proportional limit (MPa)
σs,f stress at fracture of steel (MPa)
σs,ult ultimate tensile strength of steel (MPa)
σy yield stress (MPa)
L0
REFERENCES

1. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),

A 1998. D3039 – Standard Test Method for Tensile
Properties of Fibre-Resin Composites
2. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
1998. E8M-03 – Standard Test Methods for Tension
Testing of Metallic Materials
3. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
1997b. A370-97a – Standard Test Methods and
Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products.
P

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ISIS Canada Educational Module No. 2: FRP Composites for Construction

Appendix B:
Suggested Student Assignment

Answer the following questions to the best of your ability. Additional references will likely need to be consulted. It is
suggested that students visit the library and consult texts on materials science, construction materials, and composite
materials.

Problem #1:

The developed world relies heavily on a complex and widespread system of infrastructure for economic and social health
and prosperity. However, much of our public and private infrastructure is now inadequate to meet the needs of current and
future generations. Briefly describe three factors which have led to the inadequacy of our infrastructure systems.

Problem #2:

List and describe the advantages of FRP materials for construction and repair applications in comparison with conventional
materials such as timber or steel.

Problem #3:

Compare and contrast the mechanical properties of FRP materials for construction and repair applications with those of
conventional materials such as timber or steel.

Problem #4:

Compare and contrast the environmental durability of FRP materials for construction and repair applications against that of
conventional materials such as timber or steel.

Problem #5:

List and briefly describe three applications of FRP materials in construction or structural repair applications. What
properties of FRP materials make them viable alternatives to conventional materials in these situations?

25