Bone

(Gross and
Histology)
AIMI NADIA RAZLAN
CENTRE OF PRECLINICAL SCIENCE STUDIES
FA C U LT Y O F D E N T I S T RY
01 02 03
Describe the Describe the Describe types of
bones with regards histology of bone ossification
to its classification and cartilage
/

Specific Learning Outcomes

 Skeletal System
AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Head (cranium/skull) Bones of limbs

◦ Upper limb
Neck
◦ Lower limb
◦ hyoid bone and cervical vertebrae
Bones of girdles
Trunk
◦ Pectoral (shoulder)
◦ Ribs
◦ Pelvic girdles
◦ Sternum,
◦ Vertebrae
◦ Sacrum
Bones
highly specialized living tissue, hard form of
Functions
connective tissue that makes up most of the
skeleton • Support for the body and its vital
fibrous connective tissue covering bones is cavities
periosteum • Protection for vital structure (e.g.
heart)
highly vascularized • The mechanical basis for movement
consist of cells, fibres and extracellular matrix (leverage)
• Storage for salts (e.g. calcium)
two types: • A continuous supply of new blood
◦ compact bone cells (produced by the marrow in
◦ spongy bone the medullary cavity of many
bones)
Types of Bones
Compact and spongy bones
◦ distinguished by the relative amount of solid
matter and by the number and size of spaces
they contain

All bones have a superficial thin layer of

compact bone around a central mass of spongy
bone
Spongy bone has medullary (marrow) cavity
and spicules (trabeculae)
◦ Yellow (fatty) or red (blood cell and platelet
forming) bone marrow – or a combination of
both – is found
Types of Bones
Architecture and proportion of compact and
spongy bone vary according to function
◦ Compact bone – provides strength for weight
bearing
◦ E.g. long bones
◦ designed for rigidity and attachment of muscles and
ligaments
◦ The amount of compact bone is greatest near the middle
of the shaft
◦ Has elevations (ridges, crest and tubercles) that serve as
buttresses (support) where large muscles attache
◦ Living bones have some elasticity (flexibility) and great
rigidity (hardness)
 Types of Bones
Compact bone
• solid in appearance
• more complex arrangement
• cells and matrix surround vertically oriented blood vessels in long bones
• provide strength for weight bearing

Spongy (trabecular) bone

• spongy in appearance
• delicate struts of bone
• covered by compact bone
• found in heads of long bones
• has medullary (marrow) cavity where bone marrow found
 Classification of bones
classified according to their shape

Sesamoid bone
develops in certain
tendons, found
where tendons cross Irregular bones have various Flat bones usually serve
Short bones are cuboidal. Only the ends of long shapes other than long, short, or
Long bones are tubular protective functions
found in tarsus and carpus bones in the limbs flat
 Structure of bone
Diaphysis

• bone shaft or body – the long, cylindrical, main portion of the

bone

Epiphyses

• proximal and distal ends of bone

Metaphyses

• regions between the diaphysis and epiphyses

• in growing bone, it contains epiphyseal plate, a layer of hyaline
cartilage that allows diaphysis of bone to grow in length

Articular cartilage

• thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the epiphyses

• where the bone forms an articulation with another bone
• reduces friction and absorb shock at freely movable joints
 Structure of bone
Periosteum

• surrounds the external bone surface (where it is not covered by

articular cartilage)
• composed of an outer fibrous layer of dense irregular connective tissue
and inner osteogenic layer that consists of cells
• protects bone, assists in fracture repair, help nourish bone tissue and
serve as an attachment points for ligaments and tendons

Medullary cavity

• or marrow cavity
• a hollow, cylindrical space within diaphysis that contains fatty yellow
bone marrow in adults

Endosteum

• thin membrane lining the internal bone surface facing the medullary
cavity
• contains a single layer of cells and a small amount of connective tissue
 Histology of compact bone
Basic unit of compact bone : osteon (haversian Osteon
system)
Each osteon has four parts:
◦ Lamellae Central
(haversian) canal
◦ concentric rings of ECM
◦ arranged surround the central canal
◦ Lacunae
◦ small spaces between lamellae Lacuna
◦ contain mature bone cells (osteocytes)
◦ Canaliculi Lamellae
◦ network of canals containing the processes of
osteocytes
◦ filled with ECM
◦ Central (haversian) canal
◦ contain blood vessels and nerves Sectional view of several osteons (haversian systems) of femur (thigh bone)
connecting osteon to
one another, contains
lacunae with osteocytes
and canaliculi

nerves and vessels

connect with the
medullary cavity,
periosteum and central
canals
 lining directly deep
to the periosteum

lining the medullary

cavity
 Histology of spongy bone

also referred to as trabecular or cancellous bone tissue, located in the interior of bone
contain trabeculae – lamellae arranged in irregular pattern of thin column, filled with red marrow
each trabecula consists of concentric lamellae, osteocytes that lie in lacuna, and canaliculi
make up most of interior bone tissue of short, flat, sesamoid, irregularly shaped bones
Cartilage
resilient, semirigid form of connective tissue
forms parts of skeleton where more flexibility is required
avascular (blood vessels do not enter cartilage)
◦ Its cells obtain oxygen and nutrients by diffusion Articular
cartilage
fibrous connective tissue surrounding the cartilage is
perichondrium
articulating surface of bones in synovial joint are capped with
the articular cartilage
◦ provides smooth, low-friction, gliding surfaces for free
movement

chondrocytes → cells of mature cartilage

◦ occur singly/in groups within space called lacunae in the
ECM
• Periosteum and perichondrium
• nourish the external aspects of the skeletal tissue
• Capable of laying down more cartilage or bone (particularly during fracture healing)
• Provide the interface for attachment of tendons and ligaments

functions of cartilage:

form
provide
protect helps structural
support the provide a attachment
underlying provide models for
body framework sites for
tissues flexibility growing
muscles
bones

as an important aside: the first four listed functions are all actually functions of bones as well
 Types of cartilage

Hyaline cartilage Fibrocartilage Elastic cartilage

• most abundant kind • has collagen fibres • has elastic fibres

• stiff, flexible support
• has a perichondrium
(membrane)
• associated with synovial joints
• most bones first modeled in
hyaline cartilage
• e.g. in synovial joints, rib tips,
sternum, trachea
• limits movement • supportive but bends easily
• prevents bone-to-bone • e.g. ear, respiratory tubing,
contact epiglottis
• e.g. intervertebral discs, pubic
symphysis
 Hyaline cartilage
most common
chondrocytes (C) – seen as singly (periphery) or
P isogenous group
has widely disperse of collagen fibres (type II)
it has perichondrium (P)
appear bluish-white and translucent
function: serves as temporary skeleton
location
M ◦ respiratory passage
C ◦ articular cartilage
◦ costal cartilage
◦ epiphyseal plates
Hyaline cartilage
 Elastic cartilage
identical to hyaline cartilage
appears dark in special staining
chondrocytes – seen as singly (periphery) and
isogenous group
in matrix – abundant fine elastic fibres, collagen
M fibre (type II)
it has perichondrium
function: allow flexibility to withstand repeated
bending
location:
◦ external ear
◦ epiglottis
◦ larynx
Elastic cartilage
 Fibrocartilage
chondrocytes – singly or isogenous group
produce matrix containing type II collagen
C M In some fibrocartilage this matrix around the
chondrocytes is very sparse
lack of perichondrium
function: allows great tensile strength, in addition
to flexibility
location:
◦ intervertebral disc
C
◦ pubic symphysis
Fibrocartilage
 Bone Ossification
a process of bone formation
all bones derived from mesenchyme
(embryonic connective tissue) by two
different processes:
◦ Intramembranous ossification
(directly from mesenchyme)
◦ Endochondral ossification (from
cartilage derived from mesenchyme)

the histology of a bone is the same by

either process
Type of cells in bone tissue

unspecialized stem
bone-building cells
cells, derived from
mesenchyme do not undergo cell
division
the only bone cells to
undergo cell division Function:
located: inner portion ◦ synthesize and
of periosteum, in secrete collagen fibres
endosteum, in the and other organic
compounds to build
canals within bone that
ECM, initiate
contain blood vessels
Type of cells in bone tissue

mature bone cells Iarge multinucleated

occupy spaces called bone cell
lacunae Function:
Function: ◦ involved in resorption
◦ maintain the cells and (breakdown of bone
its daily metabolism ECM) – part of normal
development,
do not undergo cell maintenance and
division bone repairing
 Types of ossification

Intramembranous ossification Endochondral ossification

a process by which growing cartilage is

direct differentiation of mesenchymal cells to
systematically replaced by bone to form the
osteoblasts
growing skeleton

occurs in the flat bones of the skull, mandible

occurs in the long bones
and clavicle
 Stages of intramembranous ossification

An ossification center
Bone matrix is
appears in the fibrous Spongy bone and
secreted within the
connective tissue periosteum form
fibrous membrane
membrane

Bone collar of
Red marrow appears
compact bone forms
 Steps in intramembranous ossification of flat bones
1. The mesenchyme in the embryonic skeleton differentiates into capillaries and
osteoblasts. Osteoblasts appear in a cluster called an ossification center.
2. Osteoblasts secrete osteoid, which is an uncalcified matrix, which calcifies later. The
osteoblasts trapped in the calcified matrix become osteocytes.
3. The osteoid secreted around blood vessels become trabecular matrix called woven
bone. Periosteum is the condensed mesenchyme around the woven bone. It forms a
protective layer around the compact bone.
4. Trabecular matrix thickens and is replaced later with mature lamellar bone, forming
the compact bone plates.
5. Spongy bone consists of distinct trabecular matrices, and its vascular tissue becomes
red marrow.
Intramembranous ossification
 Stages of endochondral ossification

Invasion of internal
Cavitation of the hyaline cavities by the periosteal
Formation of bone collar
cartilage bud, and spongy bone
formation

Formation of the
Ossification of the
medullary cavity;
epiphyses, with hyaline
appearance of secondary
cartilage remaining only
ossification centers in the
in the epiphyseal plates
epiphyses
 Steps in endochondral ossification of long bones
1. Around 6-8 weeks after conception, mesenchymal cells differentiate into
chondrocytes, which form the cartilaginous bone precursor. Perichondrium, which is
the envelope of the cartilage appears soon after the formation of the cartilage.
2. The matrix of the cartilage calcifies. This results in the death of chondrocytes and
blood vessels invade through the forming spaces called lacuna.
3. The osteogenic cells also migrate into the spaces and become osteoblasts.
4. Penetration of the growing cartilage by blood capillaries initiates the transformation
of perichondrium into the bone-producing periosteum.
5. In the compact bones, osteoblasts form a periosteal collar/bone collar around the
shaft of the long bone called the diaphysis.
 Steps in endochondral ossification of long bones
6. Within the second or third month of the fetal life, ossification ramps up, creating the
primary ossification center deep in the periosteal collar where ossification begins.
7. In the meanwhile, chondrocytes grow the cartilage at the two ends of the bone,
increasing the length.
8. When the skeleton fully forms, the cartilage can be found between the diaphysis and
epiphysis as the epiphyseal plate and at the joint surface as articular cartilage.
9. After birth, a secondary ossification center forms at the epiphyseal plate, which
helps the longitudinal growth of bone.